CUSAT - Functions of One Variable

Relations and Functions

Relations: Let A & B be two non-empty sets, a relation from A to B is a subset of the cartesian product
A × B, i.e., any subset of A × B is a relation from A to B.
A relation on A is a subset of A × A. Let R be a relation A → B.
1. If R = φ ,then it is called the empty relation.
2. If R = A × B, it is the universal relation.
3. If A = B and if R = {(a, a) : ∀a ∈ A}, is called the identity relation.
Classification of relations: Let A be a non-empty set, and R be a relation on A, then
1. R is said to be reflexive if (a, a) ∈ R, ∀a ∈ A.
2. R is said to be symmetric if (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R, ∀a, b ∈ A.
3. R said to be transitive if (a, b) and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R.
4. R is said to be an equivalence relation on A, if R is said to be reflexive, symmetric & transitive.
5. R is said to be antisymmetric, if both (a, b) and (b, a) ∈ R, iff a = b.
6. R is said to be a partially ordered relation, if R is reflexive, antisymmetric & transitive.
Equivalence class: Let R be an equivalence relation on a non-empty set A, then there exist a partition of
A into disjoint classes, called equivalence classes.
For a ∈ A, the equivalence class of a is given by [a] = {b ∈ A; aRb}.
Properties:
1. a ∈ [a]
2. If b ∈ [a], then [a] = [b]
3. If b ∈
/ [a], then [a] ∩ [b] = φ
Result: Let A & B be two non-empty finite sets,with |A| = n, |B| = m, then
1. No.of relations from A to B is 2mn
2
2. No.of relations on A is 2n
2
3. No.of reflexive relations on A is 2n −n
n(n+1)
4. No.of symmetric relations on A is 2 2
(n2 −n)
5. No.of relations on A which are both reflexive & symmetric 2 2

Functions: Let A & B be two non-empty sets, and let f is a relation from A to B, f is said to be a function
from A to B if every element of A has a unique image in B under f .
If B is contained in R, then f is said to be a real valued function and if A, B ⊆ R, then f is said to be a real
function.
Classification of functions:
1. One-one or injective functions: Let f : A → B be a function. For x,y ∈ A, if x 6= y → f (x) 6= f (y),
then f is said to be a one-one function. If f is not one-one, then f is called a many-one function.
2. Onto or surjective functions: Let f : A → B be a function. If every element of B is the image of
some element of A, then f is said to be an onto function. In other words, then f is said to be onto if
f (A) = B. If f is not an onto function, then f is called an into function.
3. Bijective function: Let f : A → B be a function, f is said to be bijective if f is both injective &
surjective.
Result: Let f : A → B be a function where A and B be two non-empty finite sets with n(A) = n and
n(B) = m then
1. No.of functions from A to B = mn (
m
Pn , m ≥ n
2. No.of one-one function from A to B =
0, m < n
m
 P (−1)m−i (m C in ), m ≤ n
i
3. No.of onto function from A to B = i=1
0, m>n


If m = 2,then no.of onto function f : A → B is 2n − 2.

(
n! , m = n
4. No.of bijective function from A to B is
0, m 6= n
5. If m = n, then f : A → B is one-one ⇒ f is onto.
Result: Let f : R → R be a continuous function.
1. If f satisfies the relation, f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y), ∀x, y ∈ R, then the function is in the form,
f (x) = ax, a ∈ R.
2. If f satisfies the relation, f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y), then f is in the form ax .
3. If f satisfies the relation, f (xy) = f (x) + f (y), then f is in the form f (x) = loga x.
4. If f satisfies the relation f (x).f x1 = f (x) + f x1 then f (x) = 1 ± xa .

5. If f satisfies the relation f (xy) = f (x)f (y) then f (x) = xa

Compositions of functions: Let A, B, C be three non-empty sets, f : A → B and g : B → C be two
functions, then we can define a function A to C, g ◦ f = A → C by (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) ∀x ∈ A.
If A = C, then both the compositions g ◦ f & f ◦ g are defined.
If A = B = C, then the compositions g ◦ f, f ◦ g, f ◦ f, g ◦ g etc are also defined.
Result:
1. f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f , in general.
2. If f & g are one-one, then g ◦ f and f ◦ g are also one-one, provided they exists.
3. If f & g are onto, then g ◦ f and f ◦ g are also onto, provided they exists.
4. If g ◦ f is one-one, then f is one-one.
5. If g ◦ f is onto, then g is onto.
Inverse of Functions: Let A & B be two non-empty sets, and let f : A → B be a function, f is said to
have a left inverse if there exist a function g : B → A such that g ◦ f = IA . f is said to have a right inverse
if there exist a function g : B → A such that f ◦ g = IB . f is said to be invertible if there exist a function
g : B → A such that g ◦ f : IA and f ◦ g = IB . If f is invertible, then we write g = f −1 .
Result:
1. A function f : A → B is invertible, if f is both one-one and onto.
2. If f : A → B is one-one then it has a left inverse.
3. If f : A → B is onto then it has a right inverse.
4. Let A and B be two non-empty sets, if there exist a bijection between A and B then A and B are said
to be numerically equivalent.
5. Two finite sets A and B are numerically equivalent iff n(A) = n(B).
Even and Odd Functions: Let f be a real function, f is said to be an even function if f (−x) = f (x), ∀x ∈
D(f ) and f is said to be an odd function if f (−x) = −f (x), ∀x ∈ D(f ).
1. f (x) = 0 is the only function which is both even and odd.
2. Non-zero constant functions are even functions.
3. Sum of two even functions is even.
4. Difference of two even functions is even.
5. Sum or difference of two odd functions is odd.
6. Sum of an even function with an odd function need not be even or odd.
7. Difference of an even function with an odd function need not be even or odd.
8. Product of two even functions is even.
9. Product of two odd functions is even.
10. Product of an even function with an odd function is odd.
11. Composition of two even functions is even.
12. Composition of two odd functions is odd.
13. g ◦ f is even if f is even.
14. Composition of two even or odd function is even if atleast one of them is even.
15. Let f : R → R be an arbitrary function, then f (x) + f (−x) is an even function and f (x) − f (−x) is an
odd function    
f (x)+f (−x) f (x)−f (−x)
Also, f (x) = 2
+ 2
i.e., any function can be expressed as the sum of an even and an odd function.
Periodic Function: Let f be a real function, f is said to be periodic, if f (x + T ) = f (x), for some T ∈ R,
then T is called the period of f .
Example:
1. The trigonometric function sin x, cos x, coesc x, sec x are periodic with period 2kπ, k ∈ Z and funda-
mental period is 2π.
2. The trigonometric function tan x and cot x are periodic with period kπ, k ∈ Z, their fundamental period
is π.
3. Fundamental period of the function sinn x, cosn x, secn x, coescn x is π if n is even and 2π if n is odd.
4. Fundamental period of tann x, cotn x is π, ∀n.
Fundamental period of sin(ax), a 6= 0 is 2π


a
. In general let f be a periodic function with fundamental
period T , then the fundamental period of the function f (ax) is Ta .
5. The function {x} = x − [x] is periodic with period k, k ∈ Z and fundamental period is 1.
6. Constant functions are periodic with period a, a ∈ R, and does not have fundamental periods.
Results: Let f & g be two periodic functions with periods T1 & T2 respectively, then f + g, f − g, f g are
also periodic if there exist positive integers a & b such that aT1 = bT2 . If f + g, f − g & f g are periodic,
then period of these function ≤ LCM(T1 , T2 ).
Note: Sum of two periodic functions need not be periodic.
Example: sin x, sin 2x are periodic with fundamental periods 2π and 1 respectively. But their sum is not
period, as there does not exist positive integers such that a · 2π = b · 1.
Monotone Functions: f is said to be monotone if it is either monotonically increasing or monotonically
decreasing.
1. If x < y ⇒ f (x) ≤ f (y), ∀x, y ∈ D(f ), then f is said to be monotonically increasing.
2. If x < y ⇒ f (x) ≥ f (y), ∀x, y ∈ D(f ), then f is said to be monotonically decreasing.
3. If x < y ⇒ f (x) < f (y), ∀x, y ∈ D(f ), then f is said to be strictly monotonically increasing.
4. If x < y ⇒ f (x) > f (y), ∀x, y ∈ D(f ), then f is said to be strictly monotonically decreasing.
Results:
1. Constant functions are both monotonically increasing and monotonically decreasing. They are usually
considered as non-decreasing functions.
2. f (x) = x, ex , loga x, x ∈ (0, ∞) are monotonically increasing functions.
3. f (x) = x1 is monotonically decreasing in the intervals (−∞, 0), (0, ∞).
4. Lines with positive slope are monotonically increasing and the lines with negative slope are monotoni-
cally decreasing.
5. Let f : A → B, g : B → C be two real functions, then the function f + g, f − g, f g are defined only
if A ∩ C 6= φ. If A ∩ C 6= φ, then the domains of f + g, f − g, f g are A ∩ C itself.
 
The D fg is given by A ∩ C \ {x ∈ C | g(x) = 0}.
Bounded functions: Let f be a real function, f is said to be bounded, if there exist a positive number,
such that |f (x)| ≤ M, ∀x ∈ D(f ).
h i
1 1 1 1
Note(Partial fractions): If a < b, (x−a)(x−b) = (b−a) (x−a)
− (x−b)

Special Functions
Polynomial Functions: A polynomial function with real coefficient is in the from f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · +
an xn , ai ∈ R, an 6= 0.
End behavior of polynomials: Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn , ai ∈ R, an 6= 0 be a polynomial.
Depending on the values of both an and n, the end behavior of a polynomial is described as follows.
1. Case 1: If an > 0 and n is even, then lim f (x) = ∞
x→±∞
2. Case 2: If an < 0 and n is even, then lim f (x) = −∞
x→±∞
3. Case 3: If an > 0 and n is odd, then lim f (x) = ∞ and lim f (x) = −∞
x→∞ x→−∞
4. Case 4: If an < 0 and n is odd, then lim f (x) = −∞ and lim f (x) = ∞
x→∞ x→−∞

Properties:
1. D(f ) = R
2. R(f ) = depends on f
3. Degree of f = n
4. If n is odd, then R(f ) = R
5. Degree of a non-zero constant polynomial is zero and degree of the zero polynomial is usually considered
as (−∞).
6. If n is odd, then the equation f (x) = 0 has atleast one real solution. Also, the equation f (x) = y ∈ R,
has atleast one solution. In short, if n is odd, then f is an onto function.
 7. If n is even, then the equation f (x) = 0 has atmost n real roots.
8. If the equation f (x) = 0 has a pure complex solution, 0 α0 , then α is also a solution of the equation.
i.e., non-real roots occurs in conjugate pairs.
9. The irrational roots occur in conjugate pairs.
Descat’s rule of signs: Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn , ai ∈ R, be a polynomial function in one real
variable x. Then the maximum no.of positive real roots of the equation f (x) = 0 is equal to the no.of sign
changes in f (x).
The maximum no.of negative real roots of the equation f (x) = 0 is equal to the no.of sign changes in f (−x).
p(x)
Rational Functions: A function f is in the form f (x) = q(x)
, where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials with
real coefficient, is called a rational function.
D(f ) = R − {x ∈ R | q(x) = 0} and R(f ) depends on f .
Example: f (x) = x1 , D(f ) = R(f ) = R − {0}
Modulus function/Absolute value function:
(
x, x ≥ 0
A function of the form f (x) = |x| = D(f ) = R and R(f ) = [0, ∞)
−x, x < 0
(
(x − a), x ≥ a
|x − a| =
−(x − a), x < a
Signum function:

 1, x > 0

|x| x
f (x) = x or |x| = 0, x = 0 D(f ) = R and R(f ) = {−1, 0, 1}

−1, x < 0


Signum function is a simple function as its range is a finite set.

Greatest Integer function/Floor function: f (x) = bxc, which is the greatest integer ≤ x.
D(f ) = R, R(f ) = Z.
Least integer function/Ceil function: f (x) = dxe, which is least integer ≥ x.
D(f ) = R, R(f ) = Z.
Fraction function: f (x) = {x} = x − [x]
D(f ) = R, R(f ) = [0, 1), it is a possible function with fundamental period 1.
Exponential function: A function of the form f (x) = ax , a > 1 is called an exponential function
D(f ) = R, R(f ) = (0, ∞)
1 1
Example: f (x) = ex , where e is the Euler’s number given by e = 1 + 1!
+ 2!
+ ...∞
Logarithmic function: A function of the form f (x) = loga x, a > 1, is called a logarithmic function.
D(f ) = (0, ∞), R(f ) = R
If a = e, f (x) = loge x = ln x, which is called the natural logarithmic function.
If a = 10, f (x) = log10 x = log x, called the common logarithmic function.
Properties:
1
1. logb a = loga b

2. loga bc = loga b + loga c

logc b
3. loga b = logc a
 4. loga b · logb c = loga c
5. loga cb = loga b − loga c

6. loga bc = c loga b
7. aloga b = b, a > 1
8. loga ab = b
Trigonometric functions:

Domain Range Principle region in which inverse exists

sin x R [−1, 1] [ −π , π]
2 2

cos x R [−1, 1] [0, π]

tan x R \ {(2k + 1) π2 , k ∈ Z} R [ −π , π]
2 2

cosecx R \ {kπ, k ∈ Z} R \ (−1, 1) [ −π , π ] \ {0}

2 2

sec x R \ {(2k + 1) π2 , k ∈ Z R \ (−1, 1) [0, π] \ { π2 }

cot x R \ {kπ, k ∈ Z} R (0, π)

Transformation of functions: Let f (x) be a real function.

1. f (x − a) moves the function a units to the right
2. f (x + a) moves the function a units to the left
3. f (x) + a moves the function a units up
4. f (x) − a moves the function a units down
5. f (ax) - horizontal stretch (if a > 1) and horizontal shrink if (0 < a < 1)
6. af (x) - vertical stretch (if a > 1) and vertical shrink if (0 < a < 1)
7. f (−x) - reflection over the y axis
8. −f (x) - reflection over the x axis

Limit of a function

Limits: Let f be a real function and let a ∈ R be any point the left hand limit of f at the point a is given
by f (a− ) = lim− f (x) = lim f (a − h).
x→a h→0

The right hand limit of f at the point a is given by f (a+ ) = lim+ f (x) = lim+ f (a + h).
x→a x→a
If f (a ) = f (a ) then we say that lim f (x) exists, we write lim f (x) = f (a ) = f (a− ).
− + +
x→a x→a

 − δ Definition: Let f be a real function & let a ∈ R, f is said to have the limit l at the point a, if for
any  > 0 ∃ δ > 0 such that 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − l| < .
Sequential definition: Let f be a real function & let a ∈ R, f is said to have the limit l at the point a,
for any sequence (xn → a), the sequence (f (xn )) → l.
Algebra of limits: Let f and g be two real functions with limits lim f (x) = l and lim g(x) = m, for some
x→a x→a
a ∈ R then,
1. lim (f + g)(x) = l + m
x→a
2. lim (f − g)(x) = l − m
x→a
 3. lim (f g)(x) = lm
x→a

4. lim fg (x) = l
m
, m 6= 0
x→a

5. lim f (x)g(x) = lm
x→a
6. lim kf (x) = kl
x→a
7. lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x)) = f (m), provided f is continuous.
x→a x→a

f (a) 0 ∞
L’Hospital’s Rule: Let f and g be two differential functions, if for some a ∈ R, g(a)
is either 0
or ∞
, then
0
lim f (x) = lim f (x)
0 .
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
0 00
f (a) ∞ f (x) f (x)
If g 0 (a)
is either 00 , ∞
, then lim = lim 00 and soon.
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
0 ∞
If we get any real number or ∞ in finite steps then that number is the limit. If we get 0
or ∞
in infinitely
many steps, then the limit does not exists.
Logarithmic Method: Let f and g be two real functions and let a ∈ R, if (f (a))g(a) is in the form
00 , 1∞ , ∞∞ , ∞0 , 0∞ etc then take k = lim (f (x))g(x) .
x→a
In k = lim g(x). In f (x) this limit can be found using any known method or results, let it be l.
x→a

∴ ln k = l ⇒ k = el
1 x


Example: Evaluate lim 1 + x
x→∞  
1 −1
1 x

1

ln( 1+ x1 ) 1
1+ x
( )
x2
k = lim 1 + x
⇒ ln k = lim x · ln 1 + x
= lim 1 = lim −1 =1 ∴ k=e
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ x2

Results:
1
1. lim does not exists.
x→0 x
1
2. lim =∞
x→0 |x|


 0 , if x ∈ (−1, 1)

1 ,x = 1



n
3. lim x = does not exists , x = −1
n→∞ 
∞ ,x > 1





does not exists , x < −1
sin x
4. lim x
=1
x→0
sin x
5. lim x
=0
x→∞
tan x
6. lim x
=1
x→0
cos x
7. lim+ x
=∞
x→0
cos x
8. lim x
=0
x→∞
xn −an
9. lim = nan−1
x→a x−a
ax −1
10. lim = log a, a > 1
x→0 x
ex −1
11. lim = x
=1
x→0
 log(1+x)
12. lim x
=1
x→0
cosx−1
13. lim x
=0
x→0
1
14. lim (1 + x) x = e
x→0

15. lim (1 + x1 )x = e
x→∞
1
16. lim (1 + ax) x = ea
x→0

17. lim (1 + xa )x = ea
x→∞
a
18. lim (1 + x) x = ea
x→0

19. lim (1 + x1 )ax = ea

x→∞

20. lim sin x1 and lim cos x1 does not exists.

x→0 x→0
1
21. lim x sin x
=0
x→0

22. lim x cos x1 = 0

x→0
0
23. Let f be a differential function and let lim f (x) = l, l < ∞ then lim f (x) = 0, if it exists.
x→∞ x→∞
0 0
24. If lim f (x) + f (x) exists then lim f (x) + f (x) = lim f (x).
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞
x3 x5 x2n−1
25. sin x = x − 3!
+ 5!
− ··· − (−1)n+1 (2n−1)!
x2 x4 x 2n−2
26. cos x = 1 − 2!
+ 4!
− · · · − (−1)n+1 (2n−2)!
x2 x3 xn
27. ex = 1 + x + 2!
+ 3!
+ ··· + n!
+ ...
x x2 xn
28. ax = 1 + 1!
log a + 2!
(log a)2 + ··· + n!
(log a)n + ...
x2 x3 n
29. log(1 + x) = x − 2
+ 3
− · · · + (−1)n+1 xn + . . . , |x| < 1
30. log 2 = 1 − 21 + 13 − 41 + . . .
x3 x5 x7
31. tan−1 x = x − 3
+ 5
− 7
+ ...
x3 2x5 17x7
32. tan x = x + 3
+ 15
+ 315
+ ...
Leibnitz’s Rule for Differentiating an integral:
β(x)
Z
1. Let G(x, t), α(x), β(x) be differential w.r.t. x, consider the function F (x) = G(x, t) dt, then
α(x)
β(x)
Z
∂G(x,t)
F 0 (x) = ∂x
dt + G(x, β(x))β 0 (x) − G(x, α(x))α0 (x)
α(x)
β(x)
Z
2. If F (x) = G(t) dt F 0 (x) = G(β(x))β 0 (x) − G(α(x))α0 (x)
α(x)
Zx
3. F (x) = G(t) dt F 0 (x) = G(x)
0
 Continuity

Continuity: Let f : A → B be a function, A, B ⊆ R, let a ∈ A, f is said to be left continuous at x = a if

f (a− ) = f (a+ ) and f is said to be right continuous at x = a if f (a+ ) = f (a− ). f is said to be continuous at
x = a, if f (a− ) = f (a+ ) = f (a). i.e., f is said to be continuous at x = a, lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

 − δ Definition: Let f : A → B be a real function, and let a ∈ A, f is said to be continuous at x = a, if

for any  > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (a)| < .
Sequential Definition: Let f : A → B be a real function and let a ∈ A, f is said to be continuous at
x = a, if for any (xn ) → a the image sequence (f (xn )) → f (a).
Example:
1. Every polynomial are continuous on R.
2. Rational functions are continuous on their domains.
3. Trigonometric functions are continuous on their domains.
4. Modulus function is continuous.
5. Exponential function is continuous on R.
6. Log is continuous on (0, ∞)
Counter examples:
1. Greatest or least integer function is discontinuous at every integer points.
2. Fraction function is discontinuous at integer points.
3. Signum function is discontinuous at x = 0
4. sin x1 and cos x1 are not continuous at x = 0.
Discontinuity: Let f : A → B be a real function, let a ∈ A, f is said to be discontinuous at x = a, if it is
not continuous at x = a.
1. Removable discontinuity: Let f : A → B be a real function, let a ∈ A, f is said to have a removable
discontinuity at x = a, if lim f (x) exists but lim f (x) 6= f (a). To remove this discontinuity we have to
x→a x→a
redefine f (a) = lim f (x).
x→a
2. Non-Removable discontinuity:
(i) First kind/simple discontinuity: Let f : A → B be a real function, let a ∈ A, f is said to
have a first kind discontinuity at x = a, if both f (a− ) and f (a+ ) exists, but they are not equal.
(ii) Second kind discontinuity: Let f : A → B be a real function, let a ∈ A, f is said to have a
second kind discontinuity at x = a, if either f (a− ) or f (a+ ) does not exists.
Result:
1. Monotone functions cannot have a discontinuity of the second kind.
2. The set of discontinuity of monotone function is almost countable.
3. Let f be monotonically increasing on (a, b), then f (x− ) and f (x+ ) exists at every point x ∈ (a, b) and
f (x− ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (x+ ) if a < x < y < b then f (x+ ) ≤ f (y − ).
4. Let f be monotonically decreasing on (a, b), then f (x− ) and f (x+ ) exists at any point x ∈ (a, b) and
f (x− ) ≥ f (x) ≥ f (x+ ).
Algebra of continuous function: Let f and g be two constant functions, then f + g, f − g, f g, fg , f ◦ g,
g ◦ f, f ◦ f, g ◦ g etc are also continuous provided they exists.
Theorems on Continuity:
(I) Extreme Value Theorem:
(i) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, then f is bounded on [a, b].
(ii) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, then f attains its bounds atleast once in [a, b].
(iii) Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous, then f has the least and the largest values, say l = inf f (x),
L = sup f (x). Also, the range of f is the interval [l, L]

Intermediate Value Theorem:

(i) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, if f (a) 6= f (b) then f assumes every value between
f (a) and f (b).
Note: If l = inf(f ), L = sup(f ), then f assumes every value between [l, L].
(ii) Location Roots Theorem: Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, and let f (a) and f (b)
be of opposite signs, then there exists atleast one point c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.
Note: If there exists two distinct points x0 and y0 with x0 < y0 in [a, b] such that f (x0 ) and f (y0 )
are of opposite signs. Then there exists atleast one point z0 ∈ (x0 , y0 ) such that f (z0 ) = 0.
(iii) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function and c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) 6= 0, then there exists
δ > 0 such that f (x) has the same sign as that of f (c), ∀x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ)

Result: Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous,

(i) If f is monotonically increasing, then R(f ) = [f (a), f (b)]
(ii) If f is monotonically decreasing, then R(f ) = [f (b), f (a)]

Observations:
(a) If a function does not satisfy IVT(IVP) on an interval [a, b], then the function is discontinuous on
[a, b].
(b) If a function satisfies IVP, on an interval [a, b], then it need not be continuous on [a, b].
Eg: sin x1 , x ∈ [0, 1] not continuous at 0, it attains all values in [0, 1].

Darboux function: A function which satisfies IVP, in a certain interval is called a Darboux function.
Result:
(i) Let f : [a, b] → R be a differential function, then its derivative f 0 is a Darboux function.
(ii) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, if f (a) = f (b), then there exists atleast one pair a0
and b0 in (a, b) such that f (a0 ) = f (b0 )
(II) Fixed Point Theorem: Let f : [a, b] → [a, b] be a continuous function, then there exists atleast one
point c in [a, b] such that f (c) = c. i.e., f has atleast one fixed point.
Result:
(i) f : [a, b] → [a, b] be a continuous function, then it has a unique fixed point.
(ii) If f (x) = x, every point is a fixed point.
(iii) Let f : R → R be a differential function such that f 0 (x) 6= 1, ∀x ∈ R then f has atmost one fixed
point.
(iv) Let f : R → R be a continuous function, if f is bounded, then it has atleast one fixed point.
 (v) Let f : R → R be a differential function such that |f 0 (x)| ≤ r < 1, ∀x ∈ R then there exists a
unique fixed point x0 of the function f such that x0 = lim xn , where xn is a sequence in which x1
n→∞
is arbitrary and xn+1 = f (xn ), ∀n = 1, 2, . . . , n, . . . .
(vi) Let f be a real function which is continuous and periodic then it attains its supremum and infimum.
Moreover it is bounded.
(vii) Let f : R → R be a non-constant, periodic continuous function, then it has a smallest positive
period, called the fundamental period.
T1
(viii) Let f : R → R be a continuous periodic functions with T1 and T2 such that T2
∈
/ Q, then f is a
constant function.
(ix) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, defined
m(x) = inf t {f (t); t ∈ [a, x]} M (x) = supt {f (t); t ∈ [a, x]}
m(x) and M (x) are also continuous in [a, b]
(x) Let f : A → B, where A, B ⊆ R be a function, and let x0 ∈ A be an isolated point of A, then f is
continuous at x0 .
(xi) Let f : N → R be any function, then f is continuous on N. Any such function is a sequence and
any sequence is a continuous function.

Maximum and Minimum functions: Let f and g be two real functions, then we can define two
functions given by
min(f, g)(x) = 12 [(f (x) + g(x)) − |f (x) − g(x)|] max(f, g)(x) = 12 [(f (x) + g(x)) + |f (x) − g(x)|]
Eg: Draw the graphs of min{x, x2 }, max{x, x2 }

Differentiability

Differentiability: Let f be a real function, let x0 ∈ R, let f be continuous at x0 , f is said to be differentiable

f (x0 −h)−f (x0 ) f (x0 +h)−f (x0 )
at x0 if f 0 (x− 0 + 0 −
0 ) = f (x0 ) where f (x0 ) = lim −h
f 0 (x+
0 ) = lim h
h→0 h→0
f (x)−f (x0 )
If f is differentiable at x0 , we write f 0 (x0 ) = f 0 (x− 0 + 0
0 ) = f (x0 ) or f (x0 ) = lim x−x0
.
x→x0
If f is differentiable at every point of its domain, then we say that f is a differentiable function, and the
derivative is given by f 0 (x) = lim f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
h→0

Example:
1. Polynomial functions are differentiable over R
2. Rationals are differentiable in the domain.
3. Trigonometric functions are differentiable in the domain.
4. Exponential functions are differentiable over R
5. Logarithmic functions are differentiable in (0, ∞)
Counter examples:
1. |x| is not differentiable at x = 0
2. |x − a| is not differentiable at x = a
3. If f is a differential function, then |f (x)| is not differential at simple zeros of f
4. min(f, g) and max(f, g) where both f and g are differentiable, are not differentiable at simple zeros of
(f − g)
Result:
d |x|
1. dx
|x| = x
, x 6= 0
(
d 0, R\Z
2. [x] =
dx does not exists, otherwise or x ∈ Z
d 1 loge x
3. dx
(loga x) = x loge a
loga x = loge a

Applications of Derivatives
Increasing and Decreasing functions: Let f be a differential function
1. If f 0 (x) > 0, ∀x ∈ D(f ), then f is strictly increasing in D(f ).
Eg: f (x) = ex f 0 (x) = ex > 0
2. If f 0 (x) ≥ 0, ∀x ∈ D(f ), then f is increasing in D(f ).
Eg: f (x) = x3 , x ∈ R f 0 (x) = 3x2
3. If f 0 (x) < 0, ∀x ∈ D(f ), then f is strictly decreasing in D(f ).
4. If f 0 (x) ≤ 0, ∀x ∈ D(f ), then f is decreasing in D(f ).
Maxima and Minima: Let f be a continuous function on R , a point x = x0 , to be a point of local extrema,
it is necessary that either f 0 (x0 ) = 0 or f 0 (x0 ) does not exists, such x0 is called the critical point or stationary
point.
First Derivative Test: If x0 is a critical point of f , then x0 is a local minima of f if f 0 changes the sign
from negative to positive in a neighbourhood of x0 .
If x0 is a critical point of f , then x0 is a local maxi of f if f 0 changes the sign from positive to negative in
the neighbourhood of x0 .
Second Derivative Test: If f is twice differential and x0 be a critical point of f . x0 is a point of local
minima if f 0 (x0 ) = 0 and 0 (x0 ) > 0. x0 is a point of local maxima if f 0 (x0 ) = 0 and f 0 (x0 ) < 0. If f 0 (x0 ) = 0
and f 00 (x0 ) = 0, then the point x = x0 is neither a point of local maxima nor a point of local minima. In this
case x0 is called the point of inflection.
K th Derivative Test: Let f be a k times differential function, where k ∈ Z, k ≥ 1. Let c be a point in
the D(f ), with f 0 (c) = 0, f 00 (c) = 0, . . . , f k−1 (c) = 0, f k (c) 6= 0, then the point x = c, has the following
possibilities.

k f k (c)
even positive strict local minima
even negative strict local maxima
odd positive increasing point of inflection
odd negative decreasing point of inflection

Absolute Maxima and Minima: Let f : [a, b] → R be a twice differential function, then the absolute
maxima or minima are the maxima or minima values of f on [a, b].
The candidates for the points of absolute extreme are the points x = a, x = b, and critical points of f in
[a, b]. Evaluate the values of the function at these points and find extreme among them.
 √ √ 
Result: Let f (x) = a cos x + b sin x, a, b, x ∈ R, then f (x) ∈ − a2 + b2 , a2 + b2 .
 (  
xa sin |x|1 c , x 6= 0
Result: Let a, c ∈ R with c > 0 and f : [−1, 1] → R be defined by f (x) = then
0, x=0
1. f is continuous iff a > 0.
2. f is differential (i.e.,f 0 (0) exists) iff a > 1.
3. f 0 is continuous iff a − c > 1.
4. f 0 is bounded iff a − c ≥ 1.
5. f 00 (0) exists iff a − c > 2.
6. f 00 is continuous iff a − 2c > 2.
7. f 00 is bounded iff a − 2c > 2
Angle between two functions or curves: Let f and g be two functions and let (x0 , y0 ) be a common
point of f and g. i.e., f (x0 ) = y0 , g(x0 ) = y0 the angle between f and g at point (x0 , y0 ) is the angle between
the tangents of f and g at the point (x0 , y0 ).
Suppose that the slope of the tangent of f at the point (x0 , y0 ) is m1 , that of g is m2 . If θ is the angle between
m1 −m2
these tangents, then θ = tan−1 1+m 1 m2
where m1 = f 0 (x0 , y0 ), m2 = g 0 (x0 , y0 )
Convex functions: Let f : A → B, where A, B ⊆ R be a function, f is said to be a convex function on A,
if f (λx + (1 − λ)y) ≤ λf (x) + (1 − λ)f (y) ∀ x, y ∈ A, λ ∈ [0, 1].
Example: ex , x2 , x4 , (x − 2)2 etc.
If f is a linear function, then f (λx + (1 − λ)y) ≤ λf (x) + (1 − λ)f (y)
Note: If f (λx + (1 − λ)y) < λf (x) + (1 − λ)f (y) ∀ x, y 6= A, then f is called strictly convex function.
Theorem:
1. Let f be differential on A, then f is convex on A iff f 0 is increasing on A.
00
2. Let f be twice differential on A, then
 n f is convex
 on A, iff f (x) ≥ 0 on A.
P n
P Pn
Result: Let f be convex on A, then f λi xi = λi f (xi ) where λi = 1, λi ∈ [0, 1], xi ∈ A.
i=1 i=1 i=1
x+y f (x)+f (y)


Theorem: Let f be continuous on A, and satisfies the property f 2
< 2
, ∀ x, y ∈ A, x 6= y, then
f is strictly convex on A.
Result:
1. Let f : R → R be convex and bounded above then f is constant on R.
2. Let f be a convex function on an open interval I, then f satisfies Lipschitz’s conditions locally on I.
Mean Value Theorems
(I) Rolle’s Theorem: Let f : [a, b] → R be a function satisfying the following conditions.
(i) f is continuous on [a, b].
(ii) f is differential on (a, b).
0
(iii) f (a) = f (b) then there exists atleast one real number c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.
Result:
(i) If x1 and x2 (x1 < x2 ) are two real zero’s of a differential function f then there exists atleast one
zero of f 0 in (x1 , x2 ).
(ii) Between any two consecutive zero’s of a differential function there exists atleast one zero for its
derivative.
(iii) If all roots of a polynomial p, degree n ≥ 2 are real then all roots of p0 are also real.
 an
(iv) If n+1 + an−1
n
+ · · · + a0 , where ai ∈ R, then the polynomial p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a0 has
atleast one root in (0, 1).
0
(v) Let f be continuous differential on [a, b], and twice differential on (a, b) with f (a) = f (b) = f (a) =
0 then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
(vi) Let f be continuous differential on [a, b], and twice differential on (a, b) with f (a) = f (b) and
f 0 (a) = f 0 (b) = 0, then there exists c1 , c2 ∈ (a, b) with c1 6= c2 such that f 00 (c1 ) = f 00 (c2 ).

(II) Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem: Let f : [a, b] → R be a function satisfying the condition
(i) f is continuous on [a, b].
(ii) f is differential on (a, b).
f (b)−f (a)
Then there exists atleast one real number c ∈ (a, b) such that b−a
= f 0 (c)

Another version of LMVT: Let f : [a, b] → R be a function satisfying the conditions

(i) f is continuous on [a, b].
(ii) f is differential on (a, b).
0
Then f (a + h) = f (a) + hf (a + θh) where h = b − a, θ ∈ (0, 1)

Result: To find the approximate value of a function f satisfying LMVT, at some point, we use the
relation f (a + h) ≈ f (a) + hf 0 (a).
(III) Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem or Generalised MVT: Let f, g : [a, b] → R be two functions
satisfying the conditions,
(i) f, g are continuous on [a, b]
(ii) f, g is differential on (a, b)
(iii) g 0 (t), ∀ t ∈ (a, b)
f (b)−f (a) f 0 (c)
(iv) g(a) 6= g(b), then there exists atleast one c ∈ (a, b) such that g(b)−g(a)
= g 0 (c)

Note:
(i) The LMVT is a special case of CMVT in which we take g(x) = x.
(ii) Rolle’s theorem, is a special case of LMVT, in which we take f (a) = f (b).

Anti-Derivative

Integration:
(I) Indefine Integrals
(i) (ex f (x) + f 0 (x))dx = ex f (x) + c
R
Z 0
f (x)
(ii) f (x)
dx = log |f (x)| + c
Z
n+1
(iii) (f (x))n f 0 (x) dx = (f (x))
n+1
+c
Z
(iv) uv dx = uv1 − u0 v2 + u00 v3 − . . .
Z
(v) log x dx = x log x − x + c
√
Z
(vi) sin−1 x dx = x sin−1 x + 1 − x2 + c
 √
Z
(vii) cos−1 x dx = x cos−1 x − 1 − x2 + c

(viii) √ 1
x2 −a2
dx = cosh−1 x
a
+c
(ix) √ 1
x2 +a2
dx = sinh−1 x
a
+c

(II) Definite Integrals

Z b Z b
(i) f (x)dx = f (y)dy
a a
Z b Z a
(ii) f (x)dx = − f (x)dx
a b
Z b Z c Z b
(iii) f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx, a < c < b
a a c
Z b Z b
(iv) f (x)dx = f (a + b − x)dx
a a
Z a Z a
(v) f (a − x)dx
f (x)dx =
0 0
 Z a
Z a 2 f (x)dx, f (−x) = f (x)
(vi) f (x)dx =
−a  0
0, f (−x) = −f (−x)
 Z a
Z 2a 2 f (x)dx, f (2a − x) = f (x)
(vii) f (x)dx =
 0
0 0, f (2a − x) = −f (x)
 WORKSHEET QUESTIONS
1. If a and b are real numbers, then sup{a, b} =
a+b−|a−b|
(A) 2
a−b−|a−b|
(B) 2
a−b+|a+b|
(C) 2
a+b+|a−b|
(D) 2
2. Which of the function f : R → R is one-one and onto?
(A) f (x) = x3 + 2
(B) f (x) = sin x
(C) f (x) = cos x
(D) f (x) = x4 − x2
3. Let P (x) be a non-constant polynomial such that P (n) = P (−n) for all n ∈ N . Then P 0 (0) is
(A) −1
(B) 1
(C) 0
(D) −2
4. If α, β and γ are roots of the equation x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0, then α2 + β 2 + γ 2 is equal to
(A) p2 − 2q
(B) p2 + 2q
(C) 2p + q 2
(D) 2p − q 2
√
5. Given that 2 + i 3 is one of x3 − 5x2 + 11x − 7 = 0 then the other roots are
√
(A) 2 − i 3, −1
√
(B) 2 − i 3, 1
√
(C) 2 + i 3, 1
(D) None of the above
6. The quadratic function on a single variable attains its maximum value 5 at 3. The function is
(A) ax2 − 6ax + 9a + 5, a < 0
(B) ax2 − 6ax + 9a + 5, a > 0
(C) ax2 + 6ax + 9a + 5, a < 0
(D) None of the above
7. If log27 x = log3 27, then x is
(A) 27
(B) 3
(C) 327
(D) 273
√
8. The derivative of et with respect to t is
et
(A) √
2 t
√
2 t
(B) et
 √
(C) 2 tet
√
(D) 2 tet
9. The largest interval for which x12 − x9 + x4 − x + 1 > 0 is
(A) −4 < x ≤ 0
(B) 0<x<1
(C) −100 < x < 100
(D) 0<x<∞
(
n−1
2
when n is odd
10. Consider the function f : N → Z defined by fn = −n
. Then f is
n
when n is even
(A) one-to-one but not onto
(B) onto but not one-to-one
(C) both one-to-one and onto
(D) neither one-to-one nor onto
log(cos x)
11. The lim sin2 x
x→0

(A) does not exist

−1
(B) exists and its value is 2
(C) exists and its value is 0
1
(D) exists and its value is 2
x3 x5 x7 π
12. Limit of f (x) = x − 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+ . . . as x approches 2
is
2π
(A) 3
π
(B) 2
π
(C) 3
(D) 1
13. The number of real roots of x9 + x7 + x5 + x3 + x + 1 is
(A) 9
(B) 5
(C) 3
(D) 1
14. f : A → B is surjective ⇒ f is injective holds when
(A) A=B
(B) A, B are finite sets
(C) n(A) = n(B), A, B are finite
(D) Depends up on sets A, B
x+1 2x+1


15. Value of lim x+2 is
x→∞

(A) 0
(B) e
(C) e−1
(D) e−2
16. Consider f (x) = −x6 + 3x3 − 2x2 + 1. Then which of the following is true?
(A) f (x) has exactly one root in [−2, 2]
(B) f (x) has atmost one root in [2, 2]
 (C) f (x) has atleast one root in [−2, 2]
(D) f (x) is a monotone function
1
17. The function f (x) = x + 1+ex
(A) no fixed point
(B) unique fixed point
(C) infinite number of fixed points
(D) none of these

2x, 0 ≤ x < 1

18. The function f (x) = 3, x = 1

4x, 1 < x ≤ 2


(A) is continuous
(B) has a discontinuity of the first kind at x = 1
(C) has a discontinuity of the first kind from left at x = 1
(D) has a discontinuity of the second kind at x = 1
19. Let f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] be a continuous function. Suppose there exists points x, y in [0, 1] such that
f (x) = 0 and f (y) = 1. Then f is necessarily
(A) One-to-One
(B) Onto
(C) A bijection
(D) Monotonic increasing
20. A monotonic function
(A) is always continuous
(B) is continuous only, if it satisfies intermediate value property
(C) can be nowhere continuous
(D) can be discontinuous at infinitely many points
21. Let f be continuous on [a, b], a < b, then
(A) f is a constant function
(B) f attains both supremum and infimum on [a, b]
(C) f is bounded
(D) nothing can be concluded from the given data
22. Let f, g : 0, π2 → [0, 1] be given by f (x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x. Then max{f, g}
 
(
cos x, if x ∈ 0, π4
 
(A)
sin x, if x ∈ π4 , π2
 
(
sin x, if x ∈ 0, π4
 
(B)
cos x, if x ∈ π4 , π2
 
(
cos x, if x ∈ 0, π3
 
(C)
sin x, if x ∈ π3 , π2
 
(
sin x, if x ∈ 0, π3
 
(D)
cos x, if x ∈ π3 , π2
 
23. If Rolle’s theorem holds for f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx on [−2, 2] at x = 1, then find the values of a & b?
24. The function f (x) = sin 3x, x ∈ 0, π2 is increasing in the interval
 

(A) 0, π6

(B) π6 , π2

(C) 0, π2

(D) π3 , π2

25. Let I = [0, 1] for x ∈ R. Let φ(x) = dist(x, I) = inf{|x − y| : y ∈ I}. Then
(A) ϕ(x) is discontinuous somewhere on R
(B) ϕ(x) is continuous on R but not continuously differentiable exactly at x = 0
(C) ϕ(x) is continuous on R but not continuously differentiable exactly at x = 0, 1
(D) ϕ(x) is differentiable on R