DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

REVIEWER

“ EXPLORE THE NETWORK “

COMMUNICATING IN NETWORK-CENTRIC WORLD

Early Data Network – Limited to exchanging character-based information between connected computer
system.

Current Network - Evolved to carry voice, video streams, text, and graphics between many different
types of devices. Previously separate and distinct communication forms have converged onto a common
platform.

The use of internet spread quickly as connectivity became available in 1990s. The early users of the
World Wide Web were mostly university researchers exchanging information, but other people
businesses quickly figures out how to take advantage of web-based communications. This sparked the
creation of many new businesses and careers.

Popular Communication Tools

 Instant Messaging
 Blogs
 Podcasting
 Email
 Video Conferencing

Network Supporting the Way we Learn

The advances in the internet and collaboration tools have been force behind major changes in
education. As web reliability and access have increased, more institutions have come to depend on
technology to perform core educational functions.

Travel sites can respond to last-minute market conditions for hotel, flight, and cruise availability.

Media and entertainment companies provide websites that offer books, games, TV shows, and
movies.

Communication is the sending and receiving of information and can be one-on-one or between
groups of people, and can be face-to-face or through communication devices. Communication requires a
sender, the person who initiates communication, to transfer their thoughts or encode a message.
COMMUNICATION: AS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF OUR LIVES

 Protocols – rules of communication

QUALITY OF COMMUNICATION

External Factors

 The quality of the pathway bet. Sender and Receiver.

 The number of times the message has to change form
 The number of time the message has to be redirected or readdressed.
 The number of other messages being transmitted simultaneously on the communication
network.
 The amount of time allotted for successful communication.

Internal Factors

 Size of message
 Complexity of message
 Importance of message

Note: More complex message can be more difficult to the recipient to understand, and larger messages
have greater potential to be distorted or incomplete at the destination.

THE NETWORK AS PLATFORM

ELEMENTS OF A NETWORK (Four Basic Elements)

 Rules or Agreement – protocols, governs how the message are sent, directed, received and
interpreted.
 Messages – unit of information
 Medium – interconnected devices
 Devices – use for exchanging messages

RULES
The following list ties together how the elements of networks—devices, media, and services– are
connected by rules to deliver a message:

1. An end user types an instant message to a friend using an application on a PC.

2. The instant message gets converted into a format that can be transmitted on the network. All
types of message formats—text, video, voice, or data– must be converted to bits before being
sent to their destinations. After the instant message is converted to bits, it is ready to be sent
onto the network for delivery.
3. The network interface card (NIC) inside the PC generates electrical signals to represent the bits
and places the bits on the medium so that they can travel to the first network device.
4. The bits are passed from device to device in the local network.
5. If the bits need to leave the local network, they leave through a router connecting to a different
network. There can be dozens, even hundreds, of devices handling the bits as they are routed to
their destination.
6. As the bits get close to their destination, they once again get passed through local devices.
7. Finally, the NIC on the destination device accepts the bits and converts them back into a
readable text message.

“ CONVERGED NETWORKS “

Convergence in networking occurs when one network provider delivers networking services for
voice, data, and video in a single network offering, instead of providing a separate network for each of
these services. This allows a business to use one network from one provider for all communication and
cloud-based services.
“ NETWORK ARCHITECTURE “
 Security

 Ensuring confidentiality
 Maintaining communication integrity
 Ensuring availability

NETWORK TRENDS

1. Bring your own device (BYOD)

2. Online collaboration
3. Video communication
4. Cloud computing
 “ THE PLATFORMS OF COMMUNICATION “

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Message Source or Sender

2. Destination or Receiver of a message
3. Channel

“ COMMUNICATING THE MESSAGE “

Segmentation – a process wherein all messages are broken into smaller pieces that can be easily
transported together across a medium.

Two Primary Benefits:

1. Multiplexing – occurs when the segment of two or more messages

can shuffle into each other and share the medium.

2. Increased efficiency of network communication

“ COMPONENTS OF NETWORK “

Devices and media are the physical elements or hardware of the network . Hardware is often the visible
components of the network platform.

END DEVICES -refers to a piece of equipment that is either the source or the destination of the message
on the network. Another generic term for an end device that sends or receives messages is a host.

NETWORK MEDIA – refers to the communication channels used to interconnect nodes on a computer
network.
INTERMEDIARY DEVICES

“ LANS, WANS and INTERNETWORKS “

LOCAL NETWORK AREA (LAN)

Local networks come in all sizes. They can range from simple networks consisting of two
computers, to networks connecting hundreds of thousands of devices. Networks installed in small
offices, or homes and home offices, are referred to as small office/home office (SOHO) networks. SOHO
networks let you share resources such as printers, documents, pictures, and music, between a few local
users.

In business, large networks can be used to advertise and sell products, order supplies, and
communicate with customers. Communication over a network is usually more efficient and less
expensive than traditional forms of communication, such as regular mail or long distance phone calls.
Networks allow for rapid communication such as email and instant messaging, and provide
consolidation and access to information stored on network servers. Business and SOHO networks usually
provide a shared connection to the internet. The internet is considered a “network of networks”
because it is literally made up of thousands of local networks that are connected to each other.

Small home networks connect a few computers to each other and to the internet.

Small Office and Home Office Networks (SOHO) –allows computers in a home office or a remote office
to connect to a corporate network, or access centralized, shared resources.

Medium To Large Networks, such as those used by corporations and schools, can have many locations
with hundreds or thousands of interconnected hosts.
WIDE NETWORK AREA (WAN) - The internet is a network of networks that connects hundreds of
millions of computers world-wide.

THE INTERNET: A NETWORK OF NETWORKS

An internetwork is a collection of two or more LANs connected by WANs. Internetworks are referred to
interchangeably as data networks or simply networks. The most popular internetwork is the Internet,
which is open to public use.

An INTRANET is a private web of networks closed to the public but open for employees to browse. For
example, many companies use intranets to share company information and training across the globe to
far-away employees.

Internetworks made up of LANs and WANs

  Internet service providers (ISP), which are often also TSPs, connect their customers to the
Internet.
 The ISPs cooperate with TSPs and other ISPs to make sure that all users have access to the web.

“ NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM “

Networking Software
 A Network Operating System (NOS) is the core system of a server that provides applications and
utilities to enhance business operations. It facilitates the sharing of resources like files, printers,
and internet connections in a networked environment.

Cisco IOS (Cisco Internetwork Operating System)

 Developed in the 1980s by William Yeager, an Engineer at Stanford University, the core function
of Cisco IOS is to enable data communications between network nodes. Cisco IOS enables the
administration, operation and management of Cisco network devices.
KEY FEATURES:

 Interface configuration
 Network management and monitoring
 Quality of service (QoS)
 Routing
 Security
 Switching

Cisco IOS offers dozens of additional services that an administrator can use to improve the
performance and security of network traffic. Such services include authentication, encryption, firewall
capabilities, policy enforcement, deep packet inspection, intelligent routing and proxy server capability.
In Cisco’s Integrated Services Routers, IOS can also support call processing and unified communications
services.

In addition to the Standard Cisco IOS.

3 primary variants of the OS:
- IOS XE
- IOS XR
- NX-OS
CISCO IOS is BASED ON: As proprietary software, Cisco IOS is not based on other OSes, like Linux. It is a
monolithic OS with a custom KERNEL. However, newer incarnations, including IOS XE, are based on a
Linux kernel. This provides modularity and other modern features absent in basic IOS, including memory
protection, virtualization support, high availability (HA), scalability, automation capabilities, enhanced
security features and in-service software upgrades.

Cisco IOS Firewall is a security feature set available in Cisco IOS. IOS Firewall provides integrated
firewall functionality directly within Cisco routers, enabling simultaneous routing and firewall
capabilities.

IOS Firewall features:

 Application inspection and control.

 Context-based access control.
 Disk OS protection.
 Intrusion detection system.
 URL filtering.
 Java blocking.
 Per-user authentication and authorization.
 Stateful packet inspection.
 Virtual private network integration.
Cisco IOS commands are used to configure, manage and troubleshoot Cisco networking devices.
Administrators can enter these commands through Cisco IOS’ command-line interface (CLI). These
commands can be categorized based on their functionalities, such as global configuration, interface
configuration, routing, diagnostic and maintenance commands.

The specific commands and their syntax often vary depending on the IOS version, the device type and
the installed feature sets. IOS commands include various subsets of arguments and keywords to enable
additional functionality.

“ NETWORK PROTOCOLS AND COMMUNICATION “

Rules of Communication

Communication Fundamentals

 Rules or protocols govern all methods of communication.

Rule Establishment

 Protocols are necessary for effective communication and include:

• An identified sender and receiver

• Common language and grammar
• Speed and timing of delivery
• Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements
 Protocols used in network communications also define:

1. Message encoding

 Encoding between hosts must be in appropriate format for the medium.

 Messages are first converted into bits by the sending host.
 Each bit is encoded into a pattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical Impulses depending
on the network media
 The destination host receives and decodes the signals in order to Interpret the message.
2. Message delivery options
3. Message Formatting and Encapsulation
 There is an agreed format for letters and addressing letters which is required for proper
delivery.
 Putting the letter into the addressed envelope is called ENCAPSULATION.
 Each computer message is encapsulated in a SPECIFIC FORMAT, called a FRAME, before it is
sent over the network.
 A FRAME acts like an envelope providing destination address and source address.
4. Message Timing
 Access Method
• Hosts on a network need to know when to begin sending messages and how to respond
when collisions occur.
 Flow Control
• Source and destination hosts use flow control to negotiate correct timing to avoid
overwhelming the destination and ensure information is received.
 Response Timeout
• Hosts on the network have rules that specify how long to wait for responses and what
action to take if a response timeout occurs.
5. Message Size
 Humans break long messages into smaller parts or sentences.
 Long messages must also be broken into smaller pieces to travel across a network.
• Each piece is sent in a separate frame.
• Each frame has its own addressing Information.
• A receiving host will reconstruct multiple
 Frames into the original message.
 “ NETWORK PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS “

Networking Protocols define a common format and set of rules for exchanging messages between
devices. Ex. HTTP, TCP, IP.

Protocol Interaction

 Communication between a web server and web client is an example of an interaction between
several protocols:

• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - an application protocol that governs the way a web
server and a web client interact.

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - transport protocol that manages the individual
conversations.

• Internet Protocol (IP) – encapsulates the TCP segments into packets, assigns addresses, and
delivers to the destination host.

• Ethernet - allows communication over a data link and the physical transmission of data on the
network media.

Protocol Suites and Industry Standards

 A PROTOCOL SUITE is a set of protocols that work together to provide comprehensive network
communication services.
• May be specified by a standards organization or developed by a vendor.
  The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard, the protocols are freely available, and any
vendor is able to implement these protocols on their hardware or in their software.
Development:
• Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the predecessor to today’s
Internet.
• ARPANET was funded by the U.S. Department of Defense for use by universities and research
laboratories.

June 8, 2011 – First World IPv6 day

TICP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TICP COMMUNICATION PROCESS

When sending data from a web server to client the encapsulation procedure would be as follows:

 The webserver prepares the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) page. The HTTP Application
layer protocol sends the data to the transport layer.
 The transport layer breaks the data into segments and identifies each.
 Next the IP source and destination addresses are added, creating an IP Packet.
 The Ethernet information is then added creating the Ethernet Frame, or data link frame.
 This frame is delivered to the nearest router along the path towards the web client. Each router
adds new data link Information before forwarding the packet.
TICP COMMUNICATION PROCESS (CONST.)

When receiving the DATA LINK FRAMES from the WEB SERVER, the client PROCESSES AND REMOVES
each PROTOCOL HEADER in the opposite order it was added:

• First the Ethernet header is removed

• Then the IP header

• Then the Transport layer header

• Finally the HTTP information is processed and sent to the client’s web browser

TCIP/IP Protocols – set of rules how the data is transferred to the internet.

Data Packets – data that is broken into smallest chunks. Why Use? – make Internet run Smoother and
More efficient.

3 Section
 HEADER – source and destination IP address, where from/going?
 PAYLOAD – contains actual data
 TRAILER – informs the dost. that it has reached the end/error checking.

STANDARD ORGANIZATION - are usually vendor-neutral, non-profit organizations established to

develop and promote the concept of OPEN STANDARDS.

OPEN STANDARDS encourage interoperability, competition, and innovation.

INTERNET STANDARDS

 Internet Society (ISOC) –promotes open development and evolution of Internet use globally.
 Internet Architecture Board (IAB) - management and development of Internet standards.
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) - develops, updates, and maintains Internet and TCP/IP
technologies.
 Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) -focused on long-term research related to Internet and TCP/IP
protocols.
 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) - coordinates IP address allocation
and management of domain names.
 Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) - manages IP address allocation, domain name
management, and protocol identifiers for ICANN.

Electronics and Communications Standard Organizations

 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) - dedicated to advancing technological

innovation and creating standards in a wide area of industries including networking.
 Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) - standards related to electrical wiring, connectors, and network
racks.
 Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) standards for radio equipment, cellular towers,
Voice over IP (VoIP) devices, and satellite communications.
 International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T)
standards for video compression, Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), and broadband
communications.

REFERENCE MODEL

Benefits of using Layered Model

• Assisting in protocol design since protocols at each layer have defined functions.

• Fostering competition because products from different vendors can work together.

• Preventing technology changes in one layer from affecting other layers.

• Providing a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities.

THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

 Application - contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.

 Presentation - provides for common representation of the data.
 Session - provides services to the presentation layer to organize its dialogue and to manage data
exchange.
 Transport - defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data.
 Network - provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network between
identified end devices.
 Data Link - provides methods for exchanging data frames between devices over a common
media.
 Physical - describes the mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural means to transmit bits
across physical connections.

THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL MODEL

• Created in the early 1970s for Internetwork communications.

 Open Standard.
• Also called The TCP/IP Model or the Internet Model.
OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL COMPARISON

“ DATA TRANSFER IN THE NETWORK “

DATA ENCAPSULATION

Message Segmentation

• Large streams of data are divided into smaller, more manageable pieces to send over the network.

• By sending smaller pieces, many different conversations can be interleaved on the network, called
multiplexing.

• Each piece must be labeled.

• If part of the message fails to make it to the destination, only the missing pieces need to be
retransmitted.

Protocol Data Units

 As application data is passed down the protocol stack, information is added at each level. This is
known as the ENCAPSULATION PROCESS.
  The form that the data takes at each layer is known as a Protocol Data Unit (PDU).

• Data - application layer PDU

• Segment – Transport layer PDU

• Packet – Network layer PDU

• Frame – Data Link Layer PDU

• Bits – Physical Layer PDU

DATA ENCAPSULATION

The ENCAPSULATION process works from top to bottom:

• Data is divided into segments.

• The TCP segment is encapsulated in the IP Packet.

• The IP packet is encapsulated in the Ethernet Frame.

The DE-ENCAPSULATION process works from bottom to top.

 De-encapsulation is the process used by a receiving device to remove one or more of the protocol
headers.
 The data is de-encapsulated as it moves up the stack toward the end-user application.

DATA ACCESS

Network Access

Network layer source and destination addresses - Responsible for delivering the IP packet from the
original source to the final destination.

• Source IP address - The IP address of the sending device, the original source of the packet.

• Destination IP address - The IP address of the receiving device, the final destination of the packet.
Data Link Address

• The purpose of the data link address is to deliver the data link frame from one network interface to
another network interface on the same network.

• As the IP packet travels from source to destination it is encapsulated in a new data link frame when
it is forwarded by each router.
DEVICES ON SAME NETWORK

 The network layer addresses, or IP addresses, indicate the original source and final destination.

• Network portion – The left-most part of the address indicates which network the IP address is a
member of.

• Host portion – The remaining part of the address identifies a specific device on the network.

 The data link frame which uses MAC addressing, is sent directly to the receiving device.

• Source MAC address - address of sending device.

• Destination MAC address – address of receiving device.

DEVICES ON REMOTE ACCESS

 Sending to a remote network - the source and destination IP addresses represent hosts on different
networks.
 The data link frame cannot be sent directly to the remote destination host. Therefore the frame is
sent to the default gateway (nearest router interface).
 The router removes the received Layer 2 information and adds new data link information before
forwarding out the exit interface.
 “ NETWORK ACCESS “

PHYSICAL LAYERS CONNECTION – can be wired using cable/wireless connection using radio waves.

TYPES:

 Network Interface Card (NICs) – connect a device to a network.

- Used for wired connection.
- WLAN NICs used for wireless connection.

PURPOSE:

3 BASIC FORMS OF NETWORK MEDIA

 Electrical Signals (Copper Cable)

 Light Pulse (Fiber-Optic Cable)
 Microwave Signals (Wireless)

Physical Layers Characteristics

FUNCTION:

 Encoding – converting a stream of data bits into predefined “codes”.

 Signal Method – representing the bits.
- 1 Long pulse, 0 Short pulse.

• Bandwidth – capacity of medium to carry data.

- Digital Bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time.

• Throughput – measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time.
Factors: Usually does not measured the specified bandwidth

- Amount of Traffic
- Time of Traffic
- Latency (encountered bet. Source and Destination)

Goodput – is throughput minus traffic for establishing sessions, acknowledgment, and encapsulation.

NETWORK MEDIA

Copper Cabling

• Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP) Cable – most common networking media. Terminated RJ-45
connectors.
• Shielded Twisted pair (STP) Cable – better noise protection than UTP. More expensive,
difficult to install. Uses RJ-45 as well.
• Coaxial Cable – used to transmit electronic signals.

Copper Media Safety

 Copper media are susceptible in to the fire and electrical hazard.