UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION TO SMART GRID

1. What is Smart Grid?

A smart grid is an electricity network that uses digital and other advanced technologies to
monitor and manage the transport of electricity from all generation sources to meet the varying
electricity demands of end users.

(Or)

The smart grid makes use of technologies such as state estimation that improve fault detection
and allow self-healing of the network without the intervention of technicians. This will ensure a
more reliable supply of electricity and reduce vulnerability to natural disasters or attacks.

(Or)

A smart grid refers to an advanced electricity distribution network that incorporates modern
communication, sensing, and control technologies to efficiently manage and optimize the
generation, distribution, and consumption of electricity. It is an enhanced version of the
traditional electrical grid that enables two-way communication between the utility and the
consumers, allowing for real-time monitoring, analysis, and control of electricity flows.

The key features of a smart grid include:

Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI): Smart grids employ smart meters that provide
detailed information on energy consumption and enable two-way communication between the
utility and consumers. This allows for accurate billing, remote reading, and real-time monitoring
of electricity usage.

Automated Control and Monitoring Systems: Smart grids use advanced sensors, automation,
and monitoring systems to gather real-time data on electricity generation, transmission, and
distribution. This data helps grid operators identify and respond to fluctuations in electricity
demand, voltage levels, and potential faults, improving the overall reliability and efficiency of
the grid.

Distributed Energy Resources (DERs): Smart grids integrate various distributed energy
resources such as solar panels, wind turbines, energy storage systems, and electric vehicles into
the grid infrastructure. These resources can feed surplus electricity back into the grid or draw
power from it as needed, enabling better management of intermittent renewable energy sources
and supporting decentralized power generation.

Demand Response and Energy Efficiency: With a smart grid, consumers can actively
participate in managing their energy consumption. They can access real-time energy pricing
information, receive automated energy usage feedback, and adjust their consumption patterns
accordingly. This enables demand response programs where consumers can voluntarily reduce
their electricity usage during peak periods, helping to balance the grid and avoid blackouts.
Grid Resilience and Self-Healing: Smart grids are designed to be more resilient against power
outages and faults. Through advanced monitoring and control mechanisms, they can quickly
identify and isolate affected areas, reroute power flows, and restore service faster. This self-
healing capability improves overall grid reliability and reduces downtime.

Improved Integration of Renewable Energy: Smart grids facilitate the integration of

renewable energy sources into the electricity grid by providing real-time monitoring and control
of power flows. This enables better management of the intermittent nature of renewable energy
and promotes the use of clean energy resources.

The implementation of a smart grid aims to optimize electricity delivery, enhance grid reliability,
reduce energy waste, and enable the integration of renewable energy sources, ultimately leading
to a more sustainable and efficient electrical infrastructure.

2. Working definitions of smart grid and associated concepts:

A smart grid refers to an advanced electrical grid system that incorporates modern
communication, control, and monitoring technologies to enhance the efficiency, reliability,
sustainability and security of electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. While there is
no universally accepted definition, here are two commonly used working definitions of a smart
grid:

Definition emphasizing advanced technology:

A smart grid is an intelligent and digitally enabled electricity network that integrates advanced
sensors, meters, communication infrastructure, and control systems to optimize the generation,
distribution, and consumption of electricity. It enables two-way communication between the
utility and consumers, facilitates the integration of renewable energy sources, supports demand
response programs, and enhances system reliability and resilience.

Definition emphasizing system objectives:

A smart grid is a modernized electrical power infrastructure that encompasses a wide range of
technologies, strategies, and policies. It aims to achieve multiple objectives, such as improving
energy efficiency, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, integrating distributed energy resources,
empowering consumers with information and control, enhancing grid security, enabling the
electrification of transportation, and facilitating the integration of new technologies and services
into the energy ecosystem.
3. Smart grid functions:
A smart grid is an advanced electrical grid that uses digital communication technology and
advanced sensors to improve the efficiency, reliability, and sustainability of electricity
distribution. It incorporates various functions to enable better management and control of power
generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption. Here are some key functions of a smart
grid:
1. Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI): Smart grids employ smart meters to collect real-
time data on energy consumption and provide two-way communication between the utility and
consumers. This enables accurate billing, remote meter reading, and demand response programs.

2. Demand Response (DR): Smart grids facilitate demand response programs where consumers
can adjust their energy usage based on signals from the grid. This helps balance electricity
supply and demand during peak periods, reducing strain on the grid and avoiding blackouts.

3. Distribution Automation: Smart grids utilize automation technologies to monitor and control
the distribution of electricity. This includes automated switches, reclosers, and sensors that detect
faults, optimize power flow, and quickly isolate and restore power in case of outages.

4. Renewable Energy Integration: Smart grids support the integration of renewable energy
sources, such as solar and wind, by efficiently managing their intermittent generation and
variability. They enable real-time monitoring and control of renewable energy resources to
balance supply and demand.

5. Energy Storage Management: Smart grids facilitate the integration of energy storage
systems, such as batteries, into the grid infrastructure. Energy storage helps store excess energy
during periods of low demand and releases it during peak times, enhancing grid stability and
optimizing resource utilization.

6. Grid Resilience and Self-healing: Smart grids are designed to be resilient to disruptions and
able to quickly recover from faults or outages. Self-healing capabilities enable the grid to
automatically detect, isolate, and reroute power in the event of a fault, minimizing the impact on
customers.

7. Grid Analytics: Smart grids employ advanced data analytics techniques to process the vast
amount of data collected from various grid components. This data analysis helps utilities
optimize grid performance, detect anomalies, predict demand patterns, and plan maintenance and
infrastructure upgrades more effectively.

8. Electric Vehicle (EV) Integration: With the growing adoption of electric vehicles, smart
grids play a crucial role in managing EV charging infrastructure. They enable intelligent
charging and load balancing to ensure efficient charging without overloading the grid.

9. Micro grids and Peer-to-Peer Energy Trading: Smart grids can facilitate the formation of
micro grids, which are localized, self-contained grids that can operate independently or connect
to the main grid. They also enable peer-to-peer energy trading, allowing consumers to buy and
sell excess energy directly to others within the grid.

These functions of a smart grid contribute to a more efficient, reliable, and sustainable electricity
system, enabling better utilization of resources, reduced energy waste, and enhanced grid
management capabilities.
4. Traditional power grid and smart grid:
The traditional power grid refers to the conventional electricity distribution system that has been
in use for many decades. It consists of a centralized power generation system, typically using
fossil fuel-based power plants or nuclear power plants that produces electricity and transmits it
over long distances through high-voltage transmission lines. The electricity is then distributed to
consumers through a network of lower voltage distribution lines.

The traditional power grid operates with limited real-time monitoring and control capabilities. It
generally lacks advanced communication and information technologies, which limits its ability to
efficiently manage power generation, transmission, and distribution. The main features of the
traditional power grid include:

1. One-way power flow: Electricity flows in one direction, from the power plants to consumers,
with limited feedback or interaction from the consumers.
2. Limited visibility: The grid operators have limited visibility into the real-time status of power
generation, transmission, and distribution, making it challenging to respond quickly to faults or
fluctuations in demand.
3. Inefficiency: The traditional grid is less efficient due to power losses during transmission and
distribution, and the inability to dynamically adjust power generation to match demand
accurately.

On the other hand, a smart grid is an advanced electricity distribution system that incorporates
modern communication, information, and control technologies to optimize the efficiency,
reliability, and sustainability of the electrical grid. The smart grid aims to enhance the traditional
grid by adding intelligence and automation to various components of the system. Some key
characteristics of a smart grid are:
1. Two-way power flow: The smart grid enables two-way power flow, allowing for the
integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) like solar panels and wind turbines.
Consumers can generate their own electricity and feed the excess back into the grid.
2. Advanced metering and monitoring: Smart meters are installed at consumer premises to
enable real-time monitoring of energy consumption. This data helps consumers and utilities to
make informed decisions and optimize energy usage.
3. Enhanced automation and control: The smart grid utilizes advanced control systems and
sensors to improve fault detection, isolation, and restoration. It enables remote control and
monitoring of grid assets, optimizing their operation and reducing downtime.
4. Integration of renewable energy sources: The smart grid facilitates the integration of
renewable energy sources into the grid by providing mechanisms for efficient management of
intermittent generation and demand response programs.
5. Improved efficiency and reliability: Through better monitoring and control capabilities, the
smart grid reduces power losses, optimizes power flow, and enables quicker response to outages
or fluctuations in demand. This leads to improved energy efficiency and overall grid reliability.
6. Demand response and consumer engagement: The smart grid empowers consumers by
providing them with real-time information on energy usage and pricing. It enables demand
response programs where consumers can adjust their electricity consumption based on pricing
signals, leading to reduced peak demand and better grid management.
The transition from a traditional power grid to a smart grid involves upgrading the existing
infrastructure, deploying advanced sensors and communication networks, and implementing
advanced analytics and control systems. The smart grid is seen as a critical component of the
future energy system, enabling a more sustainable, efficient, and reliable electricity grid.
 Comparison between Conventional Grid and Smart Grid
The following table highlights the comparison between the conventional grid and the smart grid:
Conventional Grid Smart Grid
Conventional grid is a traditional Smart grid is a modern electric grid
interconnected network of electrical which is developed by the
to convey electricity from points of integration of information and
generation to points of utilization. communication technologies into
electrical transmission and
distribution networks.
Conventional grid provides one-way Smart grid provides two-way
communication. communication.
Conventional grid has centralized Smart grid has distributed
generation. generation.
Conventional grid has a hierarchical Smart grid has a network type
structure. structure.
Conventional grid has a low level of Smart grid has a high level of
automation. automation.
Conventional grid has low Smart grid had high efficiency.
efficiency.
Conventional grid is less reliable. Smart grid is more reliable.
Conventional grid has high losses. Smart grid has low losses.
Conventional grid provides low Smart grid provides high customer
customer satisfaction. satisfaction.
Conventional grid has a bad effect Smart grid has less impact on the
on the environment. environment.
 5. New technologies for smart grid:
The development of smart grid technologies has been ongoing, and there are several new and
emerging technologies that are transforming the energy landscape. Here are some of the notable
advancements in smart grid technologies:
1. Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI): AMI, also known as smart meters, enables two-
way communication between the utility and the consumer. It provides real-time data on energy
consumption, allows for remote meter reading, and facilitates demand response programs. Smart
meters enable more accurate billing, efficient load management, and greater consumer awareness
of energy usage.
2. Grid Sensors and Monitoring: Advanced sensors are deployed throughout the grid to gather
real-time data on power flows, voltage levels, and other crucial parameters. These sensors help
utilities monitor and analyze grid performance, detect faults or outages, and optimize grid
operations. By identifying and addressing issues proactively, utilities can improve reliability and
reduce downtime.
3. Distribution Automation: Distribution automation involves the deployment of intelligent
devices, such as reclosers, switches, and sensors, on the distribution grid. These devices enhance
fault detection and isolation, reduce outage duration, and enable automatic reconfiguration of the
network to restore power quickly. Distribution automation improves the reliability and resiliency
of the grid.
4. Energy Storage: Energy storage technologies, such as batteries, play a vital role in optimizing
the integration of renewable energy sources and managing peak demand. They enable the storage
of excess electricity generated during low-demand periods and its utilization during high-demand
periods. Energy storage enhances grid stability, improves renewable energy integration, and
supports load balancing.
5. Microgrids: Microgrids are localized energy systems that can operate independently or in
connection with the main grid. They integrate distributed energy resources (DERs) like solar
panels, wind turbines, and energy storage. Microgrids can disconnect from the main grid during
outages and provide reliable power to critical facilities. They enhance grid resilience, enable
localized energy management, and support renewable energy deployment.
6. Demand Response Technologies: Demand response programs incentivize consumers to
adjust their energy usage during periods of high demand. With smart grid technologies, utilities
can communicate real-time price signals or load reduction requests to consumers. Smart
appliances, programmable thermostats, and home energy management systems enable consumers
to participate in demand response and optimize their energy consumption.
7. Grid Analytics: Grid analytics leverage advanced data analytics techniques, machine
learning, and artificial intelligence to gain insights from the vast amount of data generated by the
grid. By analyzing historical and real-time data, utilities can improve grid planning, predictive
maintenance, asset management, and optimize grid operations. Grid analytics enhance grid
efficiency and facilitate proactive decision-making.

These are just a few examples of the new technologies driving the advancement of smart grids.
The combination of these technologies is transforming the traditional power grid into a more
reliable, efficient, and sustainable energy system.
 6. Advantages of Smart grid:

Smart grids offer numerous advantages over traditional electricity grids. Here are some of the
key advantages:
Improved reliability: Smart grids utilize advanced sensors, automation, and monitoring systems
to detect and respond to outages and disturbances in real time. This allows for faster
identification and restoration of power, reducing downtime and improving overall grid
reliability.
Efficient energy management: Smart grids enable better energy management through the
integration of renewable energy sources, energy storage systems, and demand response
programs. This helps optimize the generation, distribution, and consumption of electricity,
leading to reduced energy waste and improved efficiency.
Enhanced integration of renewable energy: Smart grids facilitate the integration of renewable
energy sources such as solar and wind power by providing the necessary infrastructure and grid
management capabilities. They enable better monitoring, forecasting, and control of renewable
energy generation, supporting a smoother and more reliable integration into the grid.
Improved grid flexibility: Smart grids enable bi-directional energy flow, allowing consumers to
become producers who can generate and sell excess electricity back to the grid. This fosters the
growth of distributed energy resources (DERs) like rooftop solar panels, small wind turbines,
and electric vehicle charging stations. The grid's ability to accommodate these distributed
resources enhances flexibility, resilience, and local energy independence.
Enhanced grid security: Smart grids incorporate advanced cybersecurity measures to protect
against cyber threats and physical attacks. With improved monitoring and control systems,
potential issues can be identified quickly, and appropriate actions can be taken to mitigate risks
and ensure the security of the grid infrastructure.
Cost savings: Smart grids help reduce operational costs by optimizing grid performance,
minimizing transmission and distribution losses, and enhancing maintenance and asset
management. By facilitating demand response programs, they also enable load shifting, reducing
peak demand and avoiding the need for costly infrastructure upgrades.
Better customer engagement: Smart grids provide consumers with real-time information about
their energy usage, allowing them to make more informed decisions about their consumption
patterns and costs. This engagement empowers consumers to take control of their energy usage,
conserve energy, and potentially reduce their bills.
Environmental benefits: By integrating renewable energy sources and optimizing energy
management, smart grids contribute to a more sustainable and greener energy system. They help
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, promote the adoption of cleaner technologies, and support the
transition to a low-carbon economy.

Overall, smart grids offer a wide range of advantages that enhance grid reliability, efficiency,
flexibility, security, and customer engagement while supporting the integration of renewable
energy and contributing to environmental sustainability
 7. Indian Smart Grid

Smart Grid Vision for India

“Transform the Indian power sector into a secure, adaptive,

sustainable and digitally enabled ecosystem that provides reliable
and quality energy for all with active participation of stakeholders”

National Smart Grid Mission

Background:
During the implementation of Smart Grid Pilot Projects in State Utilities, it was felt that smart
grid efforts required urgent concerted focus for which it was necessary to create a comprehensive
institutional arrangement capable of dedicating the manpower, resources and organizational
attention needed to take it forward.

NSGM Establishment:
In above light the National Smart Grid Mission (NSGM) has been established by the Govt. of
India under the Ministry of Power (MoP) in the year 2015 to accelerate Smart Grid deployment
in India. NSGM has been operational since January 2016 with dedicated team and its own
resources, authority, functional & financial autonomy to plan and monitor the implementation of
the policies and programs related to Smart Grids in the country.

The National Smart Grid Mission (NSGM) supports the development of smart grid projects
through assistance for pre-feasibility studies, as well as funding of projects and training and
capacity building for state-level project management units (PMUs).

Apart from this, pilot smart grid projects implemented by the MoP provide lessons for scaling up
smart grid implementation in the country. Under the pilot projects, the discoms witnessed a
reduction in the aggregate technical and commercial (AT&C) loss level, and newer IT solutions
were taken up and successfully integrated with the legacy system.
Some of the functionalities/technological advancements that are expected to be adopted by the
pilot projects in Indian Smart Grid scenario are:

1. Advanced Metering Infrastructure [AMI]

2. Peak Load Management [PLM]
3. Power Quality Management [PQ]
4. Outage Management System [OMS]
5. Microgrid [MG]
6. Distributed Generation [DG]

The initiative under the support of NSGM since its inception and their status as on 2024 is as
descripted in the table below. It also indicates the smart grid functionalities that these projects
have incorporated.

Status of Completed and Ongoing Pilot Projects in India by NSGM under the aegis of
MoP, GoI (as on Sept, 2024)
Sl. Project Title Area No. of Functionalities Project Status
No. Consumers Incorporated
Benefitted
01 IIT Kanpur Smart City Pilot -- -- Project Completed
Smart City Pilot in IITK Campus
02 CESC, Mysore V V Mohalla, 21,824 AMI, OMS, Project Completed
Mysore. PLM, MG/DG
03 UHBVN, Panipat City 10,188 AMI, PLM, Project Completed
Haryana Sub-Division. OMS.
04 Smart Grid POWERGRID -- AMI, OMS, Project Completed
Knowledge Complex, MG/DG, EVCI,
Center, Manesar Manesar HEMS, Cyber
Security &
Training Infra.
05 HPSEB, Kala Amb 1,335. AMI, OMS, PLM Project Completed
Himachal Industrial Area.
Pradesh
06 UGVCL, Naroda. 23,760 AMI, OMS, Project Completed
Gujarat PLM, PQ
07 PED, Division 1 of 28,910. AMI. Project Completed
Puducherry Puducherry.
08 WBSEDCL, Siliguri Town 5,164. AMI, PLM Project Completed
West Bengal
09 APDCL, Assam – Guwahati 14,519. AMI, PLM Project Completed
Division.
10 TSSPDCL, Jeedimetla 8,882. AMI, PLM, Project Completed
Telangana Industrial Area. OMS, PQ
11 TSECL, Tripura Electrical 43,081. AMI, PLM. Project declared go-
Division No.1, live in June 2019.
Agartala
12 JVVNL, – Baran, 1.45 lakh. AMI Project O&M
Rajasthan (6 Bharatpur, commenced from
Urban Towns) Bundi, Dholpur, 1st November 2023.
Jhalawar, (1.45 lakh smart
Karauli. meters installed)
13 CED, Subdivision 5 of 24,214 AMI, DTMU, O&M commenced
Chandigarh Chandigarh. SCADA. from 1st July 2023.
(Sub Div-5)
 UNIT-2
SMART GRID ARCHITECTURE

1. Components and Architecture of Smart Grid Design

2. Review of the proposed architectures for smart grid:

Smart grid architectures are designed to modernize and enhance the efficiency, reliability, and
sustainability of the electrical grid. Several proposed architectures have emerged over the years,
each with its own strengths and limitations. Here is a review of some common architecture for
smart grids:
Centralized Architecture:
In this architecture, a central control system manages and monitors the entire grid. It allows for
efficient coordination and optimization of grid operations. However, it can be vulnerable to
single points of failure and may have limited scalability.
Distributed Architecture:
A distributed architecture decentralizes control and decision-making by deploying intelligence
and control capabilities at various points within the grid. It offers greater flexibility, reliability,
and resilience compared to a centralized approach. However, coordination and communication
between distributed components can be challenging.
Hierarchical Architecture:
A hierarchical architecture combines elements of both centralized and distributed approaches. It
features multiple levels of control, where higher-level controllers oversee broader aspects of the
grid, while lower-level controllers manage localized functions. This architecture strikes a balance
between scalability and efficiency but may introduce complexities in coordination.
Peer-to-Peer Architecture:
In a peer-to-peer architecture, devices within the grid, such as smart meters and distributed
energy resources (DERs), communicate and exchange information directly with each other. This
eliminates the need for a central control system and offers greater autonomy and efficiency.
However, ensuring security and trustworthiness in peer-to-peer communications can be
challenging.
Cloud-based Architecture:
Cloud-based architectures leverage cloud computing resources to store and process grid data,
enabling advanced analytics and decision-making. This architecture offers scalability,
accessibility, and powerful computing capabilities. However, concerns regarding data privacy,
latency, and dependency on external networks may arise.
Microgrid Architecture:
A microgrid architecture focuses on creating localized, self-contained grids that can operate
independently or in coordination with the main grid. It allows for integration of renewable
energy sources and promotes energy independence. However, managing the interconnection
between microgrids and the main grid can be complex.
It's important to note that these architectures are not mutually exclusive, and hybrid approaches
can be employed based on specific requirements and use cases. The choice of architecture
depends on factors such as grid size, geographical constraints, technology maturity, regulatory
frameworks, and cybersecurity considerations.
In summary, each smart grid architecture has its own advantages and challenges. The selection of
an appropriate architecture should be based on careful analysis of the specific needs and goals of
the grid deployment, along with considerations for scalability, reliability, security, and
operational efficiency.

3. The fundamental components of smart grid designs:

Smart grid designs typically consist of several fundamental components that work together to
enable efficient and reliable electricity generation, distribution, and consumption. Here are the
key components of a smart grid:
Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI): AMI includes smart meters that provide two-way
communication between utility companies and consumers. Smart meters enable real-time
monitoring of energy usage, facilitate remote meter reading, and enable demand response
programs.
Distribution Automation: This component involves the use of sensors, communication
networks, and automated control systems to monitor and control the distribution of electricity. It
helps identify and isolate faults, optimize power flow, and improve the overall reliability and
efficiency of the distribution system.
Demand Response (DR): DR programs allow consumers to adjust their electricity usage based
on price signals or grid conditions. Consumers can voluntarily reduce their electricity
consumption during peak demand periods, which helps balance the supply and demand, avoid
blackouts, and optimize grid operations.
Energy Storage: Energy storage technologies, such as batteries and flywheels, play a vital role
in smart grids. They allow for the integration of intermittent renewable energy sources by storing
excess electricity during periods of low demand and supplying it when needed. Energy storage
also enhances grid stability and resilience.
Renewable Energy Integration: Smart grids encourage the integration of renewable energy
sources, such as solar and wind, into the power grid. They enable efficient monitoring, control,
and management of distributed energy resources, promoting the seamless integration of variable
renewable generation.
Grid Monitoring and Control: Smart grids rely on advanced monitoring and control systems
that collect real-time data from various grid components, such as transformers, substations, and
power lines. This information helps grid operators optimize operations, detect and respond to
faults quickly, and improve overall grid reliability.
Cybersecurity: Given the increased connectivity and reliance on digital systems, smart grids
require robust cybersecurity measures. Protection against cyber threats is crucial to ensure the
integrity, confidentiality, and availability of grid operations and data.
Data Analytics and Management: Smart grids generate vast amounts of data from multiple
sources. Data analytics and management systems help utilities extract valuable insights, optimize
energy operations, predict demand patterns, and enhance grid planning and asset management.
Microgrids and Decentralized Energy Systems: Smart grids often incorporate microgrids,
which are smaller-scale power systems that can operate independently or in parallel with the
main grid. Microgrids facilitate localized generation, storage, and consumption of electricity,
promoting energy resilience and reducing transmission losses.

Electric Vehicle (EV) Integration: Smart grids facilitate the integration of electric vehicles into
the grid. They provide charging infrastructure, demand management for EV charging, and
vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capabilities, allowing EVs to serve as energy storage resources and
participate in grid balancing.
These components work together to create a flexible, efficient, and reliable electricity
infrastructure capable of accommodating changing energy demands, promoting renewable
energy integration, and improving grid resilience.
4. Transmission Automation:
Transmission automation includes the following smart grid technologies. They are
1. Dynamic Line Rating
2. High Temperature Low sag conductors
3. HVDC and FACTS
4. Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)
5. Renewable Energy Management System

1. Dynamic Line Rating

Dynamic Line Rating (DLR) is a method for increasing the capacity of transmission lines by
using real-time data to account for local conditions. DLR can help grid operators make more
efficient use of existing infrastructure, reduce congestion, and save money.

Here are some ways DLR works:

 Data collection: DLR sensors monitor the line's conductor temperature, line angle,
ambient temperature, and wind speed.
 Data analysis: The data is sent to a cloud solution or centralized control system, which
uses software to calculate the line's current capacity.
 Capacity increase: DLR can increase a line's ampacity by up to 200%.
 Weather forecasts: DLR uses weather forecasts to allocate additional capacity to the
market.
 Benefits: DLR can help with transmission line congestion, wind energy integration, and
reliability.

DLR is one of many Grid Enhancing Technologies that can help the power grid become more
efficient and reliable.

ADDITIONAL STUDY

Dynamic Line Ratings: An Innovative Tool for Increasing Grid Capacity

Dynamic Line Ratings (DLR) is an innovative approach to operating transmission lines that
allow electric utilities to utilize the true maximum safe capacity that can be transmitted through
the lines (ampacity). Carrying more power on existing infrastructure allows utilities to save on
transmission upgrades, reduce congestion, and ultimately save consumers money.

DLR is made possible by different methodologies that measure the various properties in the field
such as ambient weather conditions and temperature of the conductors on a transmission line.
Data on conductor conditions and the surrounding environment are collected and used to
calculate the DLR for the line.

DLR has the potential to significantly improve the efficiency and reliability of the power grid.
Implementations of the technology require no new construction and can be operational and
provide benefits to the grid in months. As the electricity demand continues to grow from
electrification, DLR will be an important piece of the puzzle for operators to adequately meet
demand.

History of DLR
DLR is an established technology that has been around for longer than you may have thought.
The first research on DLR was conducted in the 1990s. This research was focused on developing
methods for calculating the thermal rating of transmission lines based on real-time weather
conditions.

The first pilot projects for DLR were conducted in the early 2000s. These projects successfully
demonstrated the potential benefits of DLR, leading to the development of commercial DLR
systems in the mid-2000s. DLR technology has continued to mature in recent years aided by
sophistication in hardware and software and is now being deployed by utilities around the world.

Line Ratings

Heat Transfer Equation for a Conductor. Source: U.S. Department of Energy

To break down DLR, we first need to examine the principles of a conductor. All transmission
lines have a thermal limit (maximum operating temperature) that determines the amount of
power that can flow through the conductor.

The conductor is heated from power loading on the line and solar radiation. At the same time, the
line can be cooled by the ambient air, wind, and radiative cooling. As the conductors heat up, the
metal expands causing them to sag, becoming closer to the ground. As conductors cool down,
they contract and return to their original position. Too much sag can result in the conductor
coming into contact with vegetation or other objects, becoming damaged, failing, or sparking a
wildfire.

Line ratings are thus used to prevent the damage and failure of transmission lines. The current
standard method to determine the limit of a line is to use conservative assumptions about a line’s
conductor type, average weather conditions, wind speed/direction, ambient temperatures, and
solar conditions for summer and winter. These standard ratings are called Static Line Ratings
(SLR). These ratings generally prevent failures of transmission systems, but are static in nature,
meaning that they do not account for changes in the environmental conditions except on a
seasonal basis.
Mixing a static assumption with a dynamic environment can lead to issues and deficiencies.
SLRs tend to leave an unnecessarily wide berth when the weather is cool, the solar radiation is
low, or the wind is higher than expected, leaving essential grid capacity unused. Other times,
SLRs can overestimate a line’s capacity in times of low wind, high solar intensity, and high
ambient temperatures, increasing the risk of excessive sag or damage.

Two different types of ratings address these issues — Ambient Adjusted Ratings and Dynamic
Line Ratings.

Ambient-Adjusted Ratings (AARs) are often adjusted daily or hourly using ambient
temperature weather modeling but still make assumptions about local wind speeds. They are
calculated with the following variables:

 Ambient temperature
 Presence of Solar Radiation
 Conductor Properties, Emissivity, and Absorptivity
 Conductor Maximum Operating Temperature

Dynamic line ratings use field-monitored data and represent the true line rating — making no
assumptions. They use sensors to collect real-time data about the conductor temperature, sag, and
the contributing factors to conductor conditions; air temperature, solar radiation, and wind speed
and direction on the transmission line. Armed with this crucial information grid operators can
utilize the additional capacity to optimize system operations.

There are a number of different methods for calculating DLR. Some of the most common
methods include:

 Thermal monitoring: This method uses sensors to measure the temperature of the
conductors on a transmission line. The data from the sensors is then used to calculate the
dynamic line rating for the line.
 Thermal modeling: This method uses a computer model to simulate the thermal
behavior of a transmission line. The model takes into account the weather conditions, the
conductor type, and the line configuration.
 Hybrid methods: These methods combine thermal monitoring and thermal modeling.
This allows for more accurate and reliable dynamic line ratings.
The Difference:
While they sound similar, DLR and AAR work differently.

DLR is more accurate — Under DLR approaches, the use of real-time weather and wind speed
data (beyond the ambient temperature data used in AAR approaches) allows DLRs to even more
accurately reflect transfer capability.

DLR can occasionally be lower (safer) than AAR — DLRs will occasionally identify that the
near-term weather and/or other conditions are actually more extreme than the assumptions
under other methodologies, and will therefore result in a line rating that is lower than a static,
seasonal, or AAR rating would have allowed. Sometimes less is more — DLR’s additional data
inputs avoid overstated ratings, reducing operational risk.
Deploying DLR sensors brings additional benefits — DLR improves operational and
situational awareness by helping transmission operators to better understand real-time
transmission line conditions and potential anomalies, such as possible clearance violations.
Sensor-validated DLR allows an extra layer of protection, accuracy, and deep learning,
compared to software-only models.

Current usage of DLR

DLR is a widely-accepted tool, validated by organizing bodies such as IEEE and CIGRE. DLR is
currently being installed around the world — according to the WATT Coalition, DLR has been
installed in at least 12 countries, with more being added each year.

DLR has been proven to alleviate several problems the modern grid is facing, including:

 Increasing the capacity of new and existing transmission lines

 Reducing congestion on the power grid, saving consumers money
 Improving the reliability of power supplies
 Integrating renewable energy sources into the grid
 Incorporating Commercial & Industrial load growth

The Impacts of DLR

DLR has the potential to have a significant impact on the power grid. By increasing the capacity
of transmission lines by up to 40%, DLR can help to reduce congestion on the grid and improve
the reliability of power supplies.

DLR can also help to integrate renewable energy sources into the grid by adding additional
capacity, which is important as the demand for renewable energy continues to grow. DLR is
particularly compatible with wind energy, as there is a relationship to wind speeds, turbine
output, and the cooling of conductors — when the wind blows, wind farms are more likely to be
curtailed, but can be mitigated by higher line ratings during the wind. Additionally, DLR can
occasionally be lower than SLR, which allows grid operators to avoid thermal damage to lines
and incidents associated with too much sag

Overall, DLR is a technology that has the potential to significantly improve the capacity and
reliability of the power grid. Dynamic Line Ratings are an essential piece of the puzzle when it
comes to increasing the capacity of the transmission system to enable enough electrons to fuel a
net zero future.

https://www.linevisioninc.com/news/dynamic-line-ratings-an-innovative-tool-for-
increasing-grid-
capacity#:~:text=Dynamic%20Line%20Ratings%20(DLR)%20are,operators%20to%20a
dequately%20meet%20demand.

EOM
2. High Temperature Low sag conductors

High Temperature Low Sag (HTLS) conductors are a type of overhead power line
conductor that can handle higher temperatures and carry more power than
conventional conductors. They are made from advanced materials, such as aluminum-
zirconium alloys, thermal-resistant aluminum alloys, and composite cores made from
carbon fibers.
Here are some benefits of HTLS conductors:
 Higher power capacity
HTLS conductors can carry more power than conventional conductors.
 Improved sag performance
HTLS conductors sag less than conventional conductors at high temperatures.
 Increased ampacity
HTLS conductors can increase ampacity without the need to modify most existing towers.
 Temperature tolerance
HTLS conductors can operate efficiently at temperatures up to 250°C or higher, compared
to 90°C to 150°C for conventional conductors.

HTLS conductors are a relatively new technology that are considered for overhead
transmission. They are more expensive than conventional conductors.

ADDITIONAL STUDY

HTLS Conductors: What their applications are how to choose them

A transmission line is a structure used to carry power or signals over large distances. A
transmission line is made up of the structure and the relative cables passing through it. In this case
we are talking about high voltage power lines which can be overhead, with an infrastructure made
up of pylons (commonly in metal, but also in wood or concrete) and conductors, or underground,
with an infrastructure made up of underground pipes (cable ducts where the cables pass. The
conductor, therefore, is a fundamental element of the transmission line and must be chosen with
particular care and according to criteria of sustainability, economy and performance. In this
scenario, HTLS is the acronym that identifies the type.

HTLS stands for High-Temperature Low Sag, it is a conductor capable of not physically
deteriorating and maintaining its transmission capabilities intact at higher temperatures than
conventional conductors. As it is easy to understand, precisely because of these properties, it is a
more expensive conductor to implement on a new line, but it constitutes an economic choice for the
modernization of existing lines.

1. HTLS conductors
Building a new transmission line does not only have technical and/or economic difficulties: being a
work that impacts the environment for tens, sometimes hundreds of km, it involves several actors
both at a political and institutional level. Furthermore, finding suitable places for it to pass is not
always easy. If one builds an underground line, he may run into difficulties due to the structure of
the ground (just think of a rocky layer which can be very expensive to cross or excessive
permeability which could lead to stagnation which in the long run would damage the hardware
components of the infrastructure). If, on the other hand, an overhead transmission line is built, it is
easy to understand how a fundamental interlocutor becomes the body in charge of landscape
authorization since the infrastructure of pylons and cables impacts on the natural or urban landscape
in which it is located. For this type of transmission line, however, the technical and environmental
difficulties remain due, for example, to a changing climate and the unpredictability of an element
such as snow load and, although the engineers always work with abundant safety margins , the
economy of the works foresees not to presuppose “impossible” scenarios that could all happen in
the event of exceptional events that are difficult to predict.

It is easy to understand that, in order to do so, we try to limit the construction of new lines as much
as possible and we aim to modernize existing ones to obtain the maximum possible performance in
terms of efficiency and safety.

Installation of an ACCS-Sens for Elia Belgium

1.1 HTLS conductors: what are they for?

To optimize existing lines it is necessary to ensure that they are able to support an increase in
voltage without decreasing their performance. Increasing the voltage means increasing the work
the cable has to do to handle it, and this work translates into heat. This heat leads to overheating of
the infrastructure which, if it is not suitably prepared, loses effectiveness while rapidly deteriorating.
An example? Suppose our old transmission line is a person untrained to run who is walking to get
from point A to point B. If we suddenly ask him to run, for sure he can do it, but his body will get
hot, sweat , and he will get tired until he stops before the finish line which perhaps he would have
reached more slowly, but comfortably, by continuing to walk.
It is clear that an HTLS conductor is a person trained to run, i.e. a thicker or more resistant cable. It
is understood that, exactly as happens for a person, even if well trained, he has a threshold beyond
which he cannot go fast without getting tired or hurting himself. Therefore, even an HTLS
conductor still has maximum limits of use in terms of temperature and stress.

1.2 HTLS conductors: what are they?

The drop in performance mentioned in the previous paragraph actually causes a decrease in the
distance they can travel – for example before the presence of a pylon, or an elevation of the pylon
itself – if you do not want to increase the number of poles, but both solutions appear not very
acceptable from a landscape point of view. In the same way, underground lines, even if they don’t
have to bear snow, wind and frost, have another terrible enemy: vibrations (without disturbing a
telluric phenomenon we can imagine the proximity of a subway or the passage of a railway line
itself) and an increase voltage on unsuitable cables would amplify the damage. HTLS
conductors are nothing more than conductors “trained” to withstand the situations of conventional
cables, but in situations of higher temperatures. In fact, as we will analyze in the next paragraph,
they are “only” cables made with more resistant materials or with a more performing
technological development.

2. HTLS conductors: types

Most transmission lines today use aluminum as the main material due to its conductivity and light
weight. At most, it reinforces it with steel to increase its resistance to bending even in the case of
larger spans. By span we mean the distance that the cable must cover, for example from a pylon A
to a pylon B. The cable cannot be tensioned as this would increase its rigidity, weakening it in the
presence of loads (for example snow) and cannot nor be too slow as this would cause dangerous
oscillations or an unacceptable proximity to other cables in the presence of wind. Therefore it can be
said that the conductor must be “as stretched as possible” in the configuration in which it bears
atmospheric loads. This result can be added with HTLS conductors chosen for technology, materials
and costs.

2.1 Smart conductors

A Smart Conductor is a conductor that consists of a cable composed of a steel and aluminum tube
with an optical fiber inside capable of communicating the status of the line
(faults, breakages, temperature, vibrations) with predisposed equipment. As it is easy to
understand, this real-time monitoring of the transmission line leads to an almost cancellation of
outages thanks to targeted maintenance which, in turn, leads to a saving of resources with a
consequent reduction in costs.
It is a technology suitable for the modernization of existing lines which allows saving on
infrastructural works with a “discount” equal to 75% compared to the cost of a new line.

2.2 Invar core conductors

An Invar Core conductor is an HTLS conductor which consists of a cable composed of an “Invar”
iron and nickel alloy interior characterized by a reduced coefficient of thermal expansion, to
which conductive mantles in Thermal Aluminum Alloy Al-Zr ( IEC 62004). This is the most
widely used technology in the world due to its low cost of installation and its ability to withstand
very high voltages.

2.3 Gap-type conductors

A Gap-Type conductor is an HTLS conductor that consists of a conductor with a gap filled with a
heat-resistant lubricant that separates the galvanized steel or ACS (Aluminium Clad Steel) core
from the outer Thermal Aluminum Alloy conductive layers Al-Zr. It has extraordinary mechanical
characteristics even in adverse weather conditions. It is a technology suitable for the modernization
of existing lines as it allows to maintain the pylons that already exist, saving on infrastructural
works.

2.4 ACSS conductors

An ACSS conductor is an HTLS conductor with a core composed of UHTS high tensile steel wires
and protected by a zinc-aluminium tube, while the conductive mantles are made of annealed
aluminium. It is a technology suitable for the modernization of existing lines that operate with
AAAC conductors which increases the energy flow rate and limits line losses.
2.5 ACCM conductors
An ACCM conductor is an HTLS conductor which consists of a cable composed of a load-bearing
core made up of several composite elements in heat-resistant carbon fiber and stranded together.
This core is protected by a tape and an aluminum tube which makes it resistant to atmospheric
agents. It is the most innovative bare conductor in the world because it combines all the
advantages of the previous conductors in a single cable: transmission, robustness, lightness and
safety, even if it is less economical than a standard bare conductor in reinforced aluminium.

2.6 ACCS conductors

An ACCS conductor is an HTLS conductor formed by a heat-resistant carbon fiber core,
covered with a tape and protected by an extruded aluminum tube which makes it resistant to
atmospheric agents. It is a conductor with excellent performance in terms of strength, transmission
and lightness compared to a standard conductor.

2.7 ACCS-Sens conductors

An ACCS-Sens conductor is an HTLS conductor which consists of the ACCS conductor with
inserted optical fibers in direct contact with the carbon core. These have the goal of monitoring the
integrity of the core during the production and installation phases.

https://www.deangeliprodotti.com/en/articles/htls-conductors-what-their-applications-are-and-
how-to-choose-
them/#:~:text=In%20this%20scenario%2C%20HTLS%20is%20the%20acronym,intact%20at%2
0higher%20temperatures%20than%20conventional%20conductors.

https://www.entsoe.eu/Technopedia/techsheets/high-temperature-low-sag-conductors-
htls#:~:text=High%20Temperature%20Low%20Sag%20Conductors%20(HTLS)%20can%20wit
hstand%20operating%20temperatures,most%20of%20the%20existing%20towers.

EOM
3. HVDC and FACTS

High-voltage direct current (HVDC) and flexible alternating current transmission

systems (FACTS) are technologies that are crucial for smart grids:
 HVDC
HVDC is especially effective for integrating renewable energy sources like wind and solar into
the grid. It can efficiently transfer large amounts of power over long distances, even between
asynchronous grids. HVDC is also used to connect offshore wind farms to the power grid.

 FACTS
FACTS devices are used to improve the stability and controllability of the power grid. They
can be used to control power flow, maintain system stability, and mitigate grid
disturbances. FACTS systems can be configured in parallel, series, or a combination of both.
Together, HVDC and FACTS technologies help to: Maintain healthy voltage levels,
Improve power quality, Reduce system losses, and Increase reliability and availability
of the electrical transmission system.

HVDC
A high-voltage direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system uses direct current for
the bulk transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the most common alternating current
(AC) systems.

 HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC transmission systems.

 For long-distance transmission, HVDC system may be less expensive and suffer lower
electrical losses.
 An HVDC link can be controlled independently of the phase angle between source and
load, it can stabilize a network against disturbances due to rapid changes in power.
 The longest HVDC link in the world is currently Xiangjiaba-Shanghai 2,071 km.
 Various HVDC links in India are:
 500kV, 1500 MW, Rihand-Delhi HVDC, 814km
 500kV, 2000 MW, HVDC Talcher – Kolar Transmission link, 1450km
Advantages of HVDC:

 Technical Advantages:
 No requirement of reactive power.
 Practical absence of transmission line length limitations.
 No system stability problems.
 Interconnection of asynchronously operated power systems.
 No production of charging current.
 No increase of short circuit power at the connection point.
 Independent control of AC systems
 Fast change of energy flow i.e. ability of quick and bidirectional control of
energy flow.
 Lesser corona loss and radio interference.
 Greater reliability.
 Increase of transmission capacity.
 Can be used for submarine and underground transmission.

 Economic Advantages:
 Low cost of DC lines and cables.
 Simple in construction.
 Low cost for insulators and towers.
 Less line losses.
 Transmission line can be built in stages.

Disadvantages of HVDC:

 Use of converters, filters etc. increases the overall cost.

 DC Circuit breakers are more expensive.
 HVDC converters have low overloading capacity.
 Insulators require more maintenance.
 Voltage transformation is possible only on AC side.

FACTS
Definition of “FACTS” & “FACTS Controller”

FACTS: (IEEE Definition)

Alternating current transmission systems incorporating power-electronic based and other static
controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability.

FACTS Controller:
A power electronic based system and other static equipment that provide control of one or more
AC transmission system parameters.
Advantages of FACTS technology:

 Control of power flow to ensure optimum power flow.

 Increase the loading capability of lines to their thermal capabilities, including short term
and seasonal. This can be achieved by overcoming other limitations, and sharing power
among lines according to their capability.
 Increase the system security by raising the transient stability limit.
 Provides greater flexibility in siting new generation.
 Reduce reactive power flows, thus allowing the lines to carry more active power.

Advantages of HVDC over HVAC using FACTS transmission:

 Controlled power
 Very less corona and Ferranti effect
 Asynchronous operation possible between regions having
different electrical parameters (i.e. frequency)
 No restriction on line length as no reactance in DC lines
4. Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)

The growth of electrical power system is a challenge for Energy Management Systems to
ensure a safe and reliable operation. The situation originates the need for tools that helps to
visualize and control electrical system variables using high speed communication channels
and accurate data, allowing the grid operator to estimate the state of the system in real time
through mathematical calculations.

New technologies for monitoring electrical systems implement Phasor Measurement Units as a
main element of measurement, to generate synchronized actions with sampling times exceeding
those currently obtained with conventional SCADA system. A comprehensive process of
conceptualization, components and architecture are required for the implementation of a WAMS
data acquisition system for electrical power system.
Challenges for future smart monitoring and analysis systems:

There are a number of issues that make the development of wide area monitoring systems an
extremely difficult and challenging task. Some of the prominent issues are:
 Sensor selectivity and intelligent data fusion
 Data paucity
 Integrated communication across the grid
 Advanced sensing and metering
 Sensor placement
 Analysis of incomplete data
 Bandwidth requirements

How WAMS works? :

Wide area monitoring systems (WAMS) are based on the new data acquisition technology of
phasor measurement and allow monitoring transmission system conditions over large areas in
view of detecting and further counteracting grid instabilities.

Current, voltage and frequency measurements are taken by Phasor Measurement Units
(PMUs) of selected locations in the power system and stored in a data concentrator (PDC)
every 100 milliseconds. The measured quantities include both magnitudes and phase angles, and
are time-synchronized via Global Positioning Systems (GPS) receivers with an accuracy of one
microsecond. The phasors measured at the same instant provide snapshots of the status of the
monitored nodes.

By comparing the snapshots with each other, not only the steady state, but also the dynamic
state of critical nodes in transmission and sub-transmission networks can be observed.
Thereby, a dynamic monitoring of critical nodes in power systems is achieved. The early
warning system contributes to increase system reliability by avoiding the spreading of large area
disturbances, and optimizing the use of assets.

Why WAMS? :

Power management, as a tool for security analysis to ensure reliability and economical operation
of the electrical system, are heavily dependent on the accuracy of the data provided by the
measuring equipment installed on the system.

In recent years, progress in system monitoring (power and control) has been possible because of
WAMS, that implement Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs). When a PMU is installed on a
node, it is possible to measure voltage and current phasors in some or all adjacent areas to this
node with high accuracy, enhancing the efficiency of the methods for fault detection and
allowing to make decisions to keep system stability.
Problems with SCADA based WAMS? :

 Data time skewed. Data scan rate upto 10sec.

 Only magnitude measurements and phasors through state estimation-time extensive.

A WAMS process includes three different interconnected sub-processes: data acquisition, data
transmitting, and data processing. Measurement Systems and Communication Systems together
with Energy Management Systems* perform these sub-processes, respectively.

In general, a WAMS acquires system data from conventional and raw data resources, transmits it
through communication system to the control center(s) and process it. After extracting
appropriate information from the system data, decision on operation of power system are made.
 *Energy Management System (Advance Functions)

-- Supervisory Control & Data Acquisition (SCADA) functions

-- System Monitoring and Alarm functions
-- State Estimation
-- Online load flow
-- Economic Load Dispatch
-- Optimal Power Flow (including Optimal Reactive Power Dispatch)
-- Security Monitoring and Control
-- Automatic Generation and Control
-- Unit Commitment
-- Load Forecasting
-- Log Report Generation (Periodic & Event logs) etc.

A program scheduler may invoke various Application Programs at fixed intervals

It may be noted again that WAMS are essentially based on data acquisition technology of phasor
measurements. Current, Voltage and frequency measurements are carried out by PMUs at
selected locations in the power grid (Generation, Transmission, and Distribution Systems) and
stored in a data concentrator every 100 milliseconds. The measured variables include both
magnitudes and phase angles, and are time-synchronized via Global Positioning System
(GPS) receivers with an accuracy of one microsecond. The measured phasors provide
instantaneous snapshots of the status of the monitored nodes. By comparing the snapshots with
each other, not only the steady state, but also the dynamic state of critical nodes in Generation,
Transmission and Distribution Systems can be obtained. Thereby, a dynamic monitoring of
critical nodes in power systems is achieved. These early warnings in the system contribute to
increase system reliability by avoiding the spreading of large area disturbances, and optimizing
the use of assets.
WAMS Components:

WAMS collect the information from the power system, analyze the data and interpret the result,
giving “warnings” to the system operator or initiating “defense schemes” in order to prevent
stability problems.

WAMS consists of three major components:

 Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU)
 Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC)
 Communication Channel
WAMS Architecture:

Set-up of Wide Area Protection Schemes with PMUs

 Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) are the input equipment for WAMS.
 PMUs Measure voltage, current, frequency and frequency change rate as prescribed
standard and send to PDC based on the synchronized time set on GPS.
 The communication channel is responsible to transfer data from PMUs to PDC.
 Then the PDC processes, monitors and analyzes the input data.

WAM Architecture

----- XXXX --------

5. Renewable Energy Management System

Energy Management System (EMS) is a technology that helps optimize electricity distribution
and management to integrate new energy sources effectively, achieving a more sustainable,
stable, and efficient electricity supply. It is not just a simple technical solution, but is a strategic
approach aimed at optimizing the use and allocation of energy resources to maximize efficiency
as well. The intelligent management provided by the EMS enables collaboration between new
energy sources and the traditional power grid, reducing electricity costs and decreasing carbon
emissions.
It encompasses the entire process, from real-time monitoring of energy data to data analysis, and
to intelligent control and decision-making. By adopting the EMS, businesses, organizations, and
even individuals can better manage their energy consumption, reduce energy costs, minimize
adverse environmental impacts, and respond to the ever-growing goals of sustainability. The
Widespread utilization of power electronics devices can improve the operational flexibility of
microgrids greatly, helping to mitigate the fluctuations in Renewable Energy Source (RES)
outputs and fortify the primary electrical grid. This strategy has the potential to advance rural
electrification and contribute to long-term energy sustainability, resulting in substantial
advantages for consumers and society. Building a highly intelligent and adaptive electrical
system to achieve effective management and sustainable power supply is the core idea behind the
EMS in the Smart Grid.

The EMS in a smart grid consists of several devices, including smart switches, remote
monitoring systems, intelligent computations, and the ability to regulate the electrical network.
These gadgets provide it access to real-time knowledge of the power system's condition. Because
of this, potential problems may be quickly identified and addressed, thus increasing the grid's
dependability.

The administration of distributed energy resources, including solar panels and energy storage
devices, is also made possible by the close integration of the EMS with the Distributed Energy
Resource System (DERMS). The DER plays a crucial role in the transition to renewable energy
because they are primarily based on cutting-edge technologies to support solar and wind energy,
electrical energy storage systems, EV chargers, as well as aggregated DERs in forms of
microgrids, virtual power plants (VPPs), and demand response (DR) programs.

Overview of Energy Management System

It plays a vital role in promoting intelligent resource utilization, reducing waste, and contributing
to the development of the future energy system. By gaining a deeper understanding of the
principles and applications of the EMS, people can make contributions to a more sustainable
future, achieving harmony between energy and the environment.

The EMS encompasses various functions such as real-time data analysis, monitoring analysis,
weather forecasting, and data collection, among others. The use of EMS in a smart grid is
illustrated in Fig. below.
 Fig.1 The various uses of EMS

As a comprehensive solution, the EMS is dedicated to monitoring, analyzing, and optimizing

energy usage, making it a crucial tool in today's sustainability. Its core objective is to provide in-
depth insights into energy consumption through real-time data monitoring and intelligent
analysis, enabling the development of effective energy management strategies. With the growing
demand for energy and the threat of climate change driving these concerns, the importance of the
EMS is becoming increasingly significant. The concept of the EMS includes a variety of tools,
procedures, and policies used to control and keep track of energy usage. It emphasizes the
optimization of energy use through data analysis and intelligent control, going beyond simple
energy monitoring. It can offer thorough insights by gathering energy data in real-time and
revealing patterns, trends, and new opportunities in energy usage. This data-driven strategy
equips businesses and people with the knowledge they need to manage resources in a way that
balances social responsibility, environmental protection, and economic gain. Through the EMS,
businesses can gain a better understanding of their energy usage patterns, identify high-
consumption areas, and develop targeted energy-saving plans. Additionally, the governments are
increasingly prioritizing energy management, making more sustainable environmental
regulations to the society. In the ever-changing energy landscape, the EMS has become an
increasingly vital tool for achieving energy efficiency, cost control, and environmental
sustainability, offering critical support for future sustainable development.

Fig.2 Framework for the EMS

Energy Management System’s Composition and Architecture:

The composition and architecture of the EMS are crucial elements for achieving energy
monitoring and optimization. A typical energy management system consists of various
components, including monitoring, central data processing, data analysis, and control units,
which form a coordinated architecture. The framework of the EMS is illustrated in Fig. 2. The
primary task of it is real-time monitoring of energy consumption. This requires the use of various
monitoring devices and sensors to collect several types of data related to energy usage. Like
power sensors, current sensors, and voltage sensors can monitor power consumption, while
others have their own effects. It is necessary to centrally store, process, and ultimately transfer
the data gathered by monitoring devices to the central processing unit. After that, data from
various locations or devices can be combined using the distributed data gathering units. The
central data processing unit, which oversees storing and analyzing massive volumes of energy
data, is the brain of the energy management system. The data includes details about energy
usage, equipment condition, and other information gathered from various sensors and monitoring
tools.

The usefulness of the information regarding energy usage that may be gleaned from energy data
determines its worth. The data analysis and optimization module can spot patterns, trends, and
anomalies in energy data by utilizing techniques like big data analysis and machine learning. The
system can offer energy optimization recommendations based on the findings of these studies to
assist users in creating more efficient energy-saving and energy management plans and to
automatically modify equipment operation. These control techniques must be put into action by
the control and execution unit, which also modifies equipment on/off states, temperature settings,
lighting parameters, and other factors to accomplish ideal energy consumption and energy-saving
objectives. Therefore, the architecture of the EMS is a highly coordinated and integrated system.
The synergy of these components allows it to achieve real-time energy monitoring, in-depth data
analysis, and intelligent energy optimization, helping the organizations and individuals achieve
optimal energy consumption management.

The Distributed Energy Resource Management System (DERMS), Microgrid Energy

Management System (MG-EMS), and Smart Grid Energy Management System (SG-EMS) are
the three main technologies in the EMS area.

For DERMS, it is a system that integrates various distributed energy resources such as solar
panels, wind turbines, energy storage systems, etc., to achieve optimal energy management and
distribution. Its primary objective is to enhance the efficiency and sustainability of the power
system. The transition to renewable energy relies heavily on DERs, which are based primarily on
cutting-edge technologies to support solar and wind energy, electrical energy storage systems,
EV chargers, as well as aggregated DERs in the form of microgrids, virtual power plants (VPPs),
and demand response programs (DR).

The second technology is the MG-EMS, which is used to manage small-scale internal power
networks typically composed of renewable energy sources, energy storage devices, and loads. A
low voltage distribution network comprising interconnected DERs, manageable loads, and
critical loads is referred to as an MG. Depending on how the main grid operates, it can run in
either a grid-connected or an island mode. Its primary purpose is to provide stable power supply,
improve energy utilization, and respond to unexpected events. Reduced greenhouse gas
emissions, reactive power assistance for voltage management, decentralized energy supply,
integration of waste heat for cogeneration, ancillary services, and demand response (DR) are just
a few benefits of microgrids. Additionally, they can lessen power outages and line losses in
transmission and distribution networks. However, they also have drawbacks, such as high
construction and maintenance costs and limited applicability in all regions; for large-scale energy
needs, they may need to be interconnected with external grids, adding complexity.

The third technology is the SG-EMS, which is an upgraded system for traditional power systems.
It achieves real-time monitoring and dynamic adjustment of the power system by integrating
advanced communication and control technologies, thereby improving energy efficiency and
reliability. The main functions of it include predicting the power output from renewable energy
sources and the expected load demand, developing optimal strategies for charging and
discharging energy storage devices within the microgrid, setting power and voltage setpoints for
individual distributed energy controllers within the microgrid and stuff. This helps achieve the
economic, sustainable, and reliable operation of an intelligent microgrid.
 Unit – III Tools and Techniques for Smart Grid
Computational Techniques – Static and Dynamic Optimization Techniques – Computational
Intelligence Techniques – Evolutionary Algorithms – Artificial Intelligence Techniques.

1. Computational Techniques
Computational techniques are used in smart grids to improve performance and address
challenges. Some examples of computational techniques used in smart grids include:

1.1 Regression and classification:

Regression vs. Classification in Machine Learning

Regression and Classification algorithms are Supervised Learning algorithms. Both the
algorithms are used for prediction in Machine learning and work with the labeled datasets. But
the difference between both is how they are used for different machine learning problems.

The main difference between Regression and Classification algorithms that Regression
algorithms are used to predict the continuous values such as price, salary, age, etc. and
Classification algorithms are used to predict/Classify the discrete values such as Male or
Female, True or False, Spam or Not Spam, etc.

Consider the below diagram:

Classification:
Classification is a process of finding a function which helps in dividing the dataset into classes
based on different parameters. In Classification, a computer program is trained on the training
dataset and based on that training, it categorizes the data into different classes.

The task of the classification algorithm is to find the mapping function to map the input(x) to the
discrete output (y).
Example: The best example to understand the Classification problem is Email Spam Detection.
The model is trained on the basis of millions of emails on different parameters, and whenever it
receives a new email, it identifies whether the email is spam or not. If the email is spam, then it
is moved to the Spam folder.

Types of ML Classification Algorithms:

Classification Algorithms can be further divided into the following types:

o Logistic Regression
o K-Nearest Neighbours
o Support Vector Machines
o Kernel SVM
o Naive Bayes
o Decision Tree Classification
o Random Forest Classification

Regression:
Regression is a process of finding the correlations between dependent and independent variables.
It helps in predicting the continuous variables such as prediction of Market Trends, prediction
of House prices, etc.

The task of the Regression algorithm is to find the mapping function to map the input variable(x)
to the continuous output variable(y).

Example: Suppose we want to do weather forecasting, so for this, we will use the Regression
algorithm. In weather prediction, the model is trained on the past data, and once the training is
completed, it can easily predict the weather for future days.

Types of Regression Algorithm:

o Simple Linear Regression

o Multiple Linear Regression
o Polynomial Regression
o Support Vector Regression
o Decision Tree Regression
o Random Forest Regression
 Difference between Regression and Classification
Regression Algorithm Classification Algorithm

In Regression, the output variable must be of In Classification, the output variable must be a
continuous nature or real value. discrete value.

The task of the regression algorithm is to map the The task of the classification algorithm is to map
input value (x) with the continuous output the input value(x) with the discrete output
variable(y). variable(y).

Regression Algorithms are used with continuous Classification Algorithms are used with discrete
data. data.

In Classification, we try to find the decision

In Regression, we try to find the best fit line,
boundary, which can divide the dataset into
which can predict the output more accurately.
different classes.

Classification Algorithms can be used to solve

Regression algorithms can be used to solve the
classification problems such as Identification of
regression problems such as Weather Prediction,
spam emails, Speech Recognition, Identification of
House price prediction, etc.
cancer cells, etc.

The regression Algorithm can be further divided The Classification algorithms can be divided into
into Linear and Non-linear Regression. Binary Classifier and Multi-class Classifier.

1.2 Time Series Prediction:

Time series forecasting is a statistical or machine learning technique that uses historical data to
predict future values:
Definition
Time series forecasting is a data science technique that uses historical data to predict future
values of time-series data.
How it works
Time series forecasting uses historical data to build models that can be used to make
observations and drive future strategic decision-making.
Examples
Time series forecasting can be used in a variety of fields, including astronomy, weather
forecasting, and population growth prediction.
Assumptions
Time series forecasting is based on the assumption that future values of the series can be
estimated from past values.
Time series data
Time series data is a sequence of data points measured at uniform time intervals.
Some things to consider when using time series forecasting include:
  Stationary time series: A stationary time series has a constant mean and constant
variance.
 Additive and multiplicative decomposition: Time series data can be represented as
additive or multiplicative, depending on how its components are combined.
 Validation set: A data scientist needs to use a validation set that exactly follows a
training set on the time axis to see if the trained model is good enough.
__________________________________
Time series forecasting occurs when you make scientific predictions based on historical time
stamped data. It involves building models through historical analysis and using them to make
observations and drive future strategic decision-making. An important distinction in forecasting
is that at the time of the work, the future outcome is completely unavailable and can only be
estimated through careful analysis and evidence-based priors.

Time series forecasting is the process of analyzing time series data using statistics and modeling
to make predictions and inform strategic decision-making. It’s not always an exact prediction,
and likelihood of forecasts can vary wildly—especially when dealing with the commonly
fluctuating variables in time series data as well as factors outside our control. However,
forecasting insight about which outcomes are more likely—or less likely—to occur than other
potential outcomes. Often, the more comprehensive the data we have, the more accurate the
forecasts can be. While forecasting and “prediction” generally mean the same thing, there is a
notable distinction. In some industries, forecasting might refer to data at a specific future point in
time, while prediction refers to future data in general. Series forecasting is often used in
conjunction with time series analysis. Time series analysis involves developing models to gain
an understanding of the data to understand the underlying causes. Analysis can provide the
“why” behind the outcomes you are seeing. Forecasting then takes the next step of what to do
with that knowledge and the predictable extrapolations of what might happen in the future.
_____________________________

1.3 Newton’s method for non-linear equations:

1.4 Convex Optimization:
1.5 Model Predictive Control:
For the automation of technical systems, feedback controllers (also called closed-loop
controllers) compare a reference r with a measured variable y determining a suitable value for
the manipulated variable u on the basis of the resulting deviation e = r −y (Fig. 1). Based on the
working principle, they can be divided into the categories: classical controllers, predictive
controllers, and repetitive controllers. Classical controllers, such as PID controllers, bang-bang
controllers, or state controllers, only consider past and current system behavior (i.e. they are
“reactive” to a deviation). Predictive controllers use a system model to predict the future
behavior anticipating deviations from the reference. Repetitive controllers, on the other hand,
consider the system behavior of the previous cycle and calculate an optimal trajectory for the
next cycle.
 Fig.1 Block Diagram of a Classical Feedback Control Loop (e.g. PID Control)

The PID controller is the best known controller with an outstanding importance and spread in
industrial applications. Although there exist several setup rules, it is often difficult to find a
parametrization—especially for nonlinear or time-variant systems.

“The effectiveness of any feedback design is fundamentally” limited by system dynamics and
model accuracy. Hence, even in theory, perfect tracking of time-varying reference trajectories is
not possible with feedback control alone—regardless of design methodology.

Special cases, such as technical limitations of actuators, require individual solutions that are
often heuristically based, hard to understand, and maintain. Higher control methods, such as
sliding mode controllers or back-stepping controllers, are similarly abstract and complex in their
interpretation.

In fact, the founders of MPC theory stressed that classic control suits 90% of all control
problems perfectly. Only for the remaining fraction advanced control needs to be applied.
Instead, we want to argue that MPC is a decent approach in almost all problems—even in those,
which have not been controlled so far due to a lack of control theoretic understanding or of
missing trust in feasibility. MPC is based on a repeated real-time optimization of a mathematical
system model. Based on this system model, the MPC predicts the future system behavior
considering it in the optimization that determines the optimal trajectory of the manipulated
variable u, Fig. 2. Thus, MPC comes with an intuitive parameterization through adjusting a
process model at the cost of a higher computational effort than classical controllers.

Simplified Block Diagram of a MPC-based Control Loop

The anticipating behavior and the fact that it can consider hard constraints makes the method so
valuable for controlling real systems. Aligned with the rise of computational power and as
models of complex processes become more and more available for all kinds of different systems,
MPC now enables for the control of systems that were previous unthinkable.

MPC relies on models, which are available in almost every discipline. This allows to make use of
this long-grown knowledge and saves the tedious formulation of an explicit control law—a task
that is usually reserved for control experts. Instead, MPC determines the control law
automatically through a model-based optimization. This implicit formulation, the flexibility, and
the explicit use of models are the main advantages of MPC and the reasons for us to campaign
for MPC in the engineering community. This paper shall give a summary from the application
point of view, but it shall not claim the MPC to be the optimal choice over all control algorithms
in every particular problem.

1.6 Optimization Techniques:

The optimization problem can be defined as a computational situation where the objective is to
find the best of all possible solutions.

Using optimization to solve design problems provides unique insights into situations. The model
can compare the current design to the best possible and includes information about limitations
and implied costs of arbitrary rules and policy decisions. A well-designed optimization model
can also aid in what-if analysis, revealing where improvements can be made or where trade-offs
may need to be made. The application of optimization to engineering problems spans multiple
disciplines.

Optimization is divided into different categories. The first is a statistical technique, while the
second is a probabilistic method. A mathematical algorithm is used to evaluate a set of data
models and choose the best solution. The problem domain is specified by constraints, such as the
range of possible values for a function. A function evaluation must be performed to find the
optimum solution. Optimal solutions will have a minimal error, so the minimum error is zero.

Optimization Problems
There are different types of optimization problems. A few simple ones do not require formal
optimization, such as problems with apparent answers or with no decision variables. But in most
cases, a mathematical solution is necessary, and the goal is to achieve optimal results. Most
problems require some form of optimization. The objective is to reduce a problem’s cost and
minimize the risk. It can also be multi-objective and involve several decisions.

There are three main elements to solve an optimization problem: an objective, variables, and
constraints. Each variable can have different values, and the aim is to find the optimal value for
each one. The purpose is the desired result or goal of the problem.

Let us walk through the various optimization problem depending upon varying elements.
Continuous Optimization versus Discrete Optimization
Models with discrete variables are discrete optimization problems, while models with continuous
variables are continuous optimization problems. Constant optimization problems are easier to
solve than discrete optimization problems. A discrete optimization problem aims to look for an
object such as an integer, permutation, or graph from a countable set. However, with
improvements in algorithms coupled with advancements in computing technology, there has
been an increase in the size and complexity of discrete optimization problems that can be solved
efficiently. It is to note that Continuous optimization algorithms are essential in discrete
optimization because many discrete optimization algorithms generate a series of continuous sub-
problems.

Unconstrained Optimization versus Constrained Optimization

An essential distinction between optimization problems is when problems have constraints on the
variables and problems in which there are constraints on the variables. Unconstrained
optimization problems arise primarily in many practical applications and the reformulation
of constrained optimization problems. Constrained optimization problems appear in applications
with explicit constraints on the variables. Constrained optimization problems are further divided
according to the nature of the limitations, such as linear, nonlinear, convex, and functional
smoothness, such as differentiable or non-differentiable.

None, One, or Many Objectives

Although most optimization problems have a single objective function, there have been peculiar
cases when optimization problems have either — no objective function or multiple objective
functions. Multi-objective optimization problems arise in engineering, economics, and logistics
streams. Often, problems with multiple objectives are reformulated as single-objective problems.

Deterministic Optimization versus Stochastic Optimization

Deterministic optimization is where the data for the given problem is known accurately. But
sometimes, the data cannot be known precisely for various reasons. A simple measurement error
can be a reason for that. Another reason is that some data describe information about the future,
hence cannot be known with certainty. In optimization under uncertainty, it is called stochastic
optimization when the uncertainty is incorporated into the model.
Optimization problems are classified into two types:
Linear Programming:
In linear programming (LP) problems, the objective and all of the constraints are linear
functions of the decision variables.

As all linear functions are convex, solving linear programming problems is innately easier than
non- linear problems.

Quadratic Programming:
In the quadratic programming (QP) problem, the objective is a quadratic function of the
decision variables, and the constraints are all linear functions of the variables.
A widely used Quadratic Programming problem is the Markowitz mean-variance portfolio
optimization problem. The objective is the portfolio variance, and the linear constraints dictate a
lower bound for portfolio return.

Linear and Quadratic programming

We all abide by optimization since it is a way of life. We all want to make the most of our
available time and make it productive. Optimization finds its use from time usage to solving
supply chain problems. Previously we have learned that optimization refers to finding the best
possible solutions out of all feasible solutions. Optimization can be further divided into Linear
programming and Quadratic programming. Let us take a walkthrough.

Linear Programming
Linear programming is a simple technique to find the best outcome or optimum
points from complex relationships depicted through linear relationships. The actual relationships
could be much more complicated, but they can be simplified into linear relationships.
Linear programming is a widely used in optimization for several reasons, which can be:
 In operation research, complex real-life problems can be expressed as linear
programming problems.
 Many algorithms in specific optimization problems operate by solving Linear
Programming problems as sub-problems.
 Many key concepts of optimization theory, such as duality, decomposition, convexity,
and convexity generalizations, have been inspired by or derived from ideas of Linear
programming.
 The early formation of microeconomics witnessed the usage of Linear programming, and
it is still used in departments of planning, pro production, transportation, technology, etc.

Quadratic Programming
Quadratic programming is the method of solving a particular optimization problem, where it
optimizes (minimizes or maximizes) a quadratic objective function subject to one or more linear
constraints. Sometimes, quadratic programming can be referred to as nonlinear programming.
The objective function in QP may carry bilinear or up to second-order polynomial terms. The
constraints are usually linear and can be both equalities and inequalities. Quadratic Programming
is widely used in optimization. Reasons being:
 Image and signal processing
 Optimization of financial portfolios
 Performing the least-squares method of regression
 Controlling scheduling in chemical plants
 Solving more complex non-linear programming problems
 Usage in operations research and statistical work

Types of Optimization Techniques

There are many types of mathematical and computational optimization techniques. An essential
step in the optimization technique is to categorize the optimization model since the algorithms
used for solving optimization problems are customized as per the nature of the problem.
Integer programming, for example, is a form of mathematical programming. This technique can
be traced back to Archimedes, who first described the problem of determining the composition
of a herd of cattle. Advances in computational codes and theoretical research led to its formal
development. Listed below are some examples of problems that can be solved with integer
programming.
Genetic algorithms (GANs) are another mathematical and computational optimization technique.
These algorithms use the same mathematical principles to optimize complex systems. The main
principle behind GAs is to minimize a linear objective function while minimizing the cost. This
type of algorithm also relies on satisfying linear inequality constraints. On the other hand,
nonlinear algorithms use real numbers and nonlinear functions. These algorithms are often more
complex than the simplest version.
Different forms of genetic algorithms are widely used for calculating the optimal solution to a
problem. Genetic algorithms, for example, have been widely used for decades. Genetic
algorithms (GCRs), genetic algorithms (GMOs), and constrained optimization (LP) are two of
the most commonly used methods. Genetic algorithms have also revolutionized the way
algorithms solve optimization problems. They can help in maximizing the yields of a given
product or service.
The term optimization is a synonym for computer programming. The field combines the study of
optimization problems’ mathematical structure, the invention of methods for solving them, and
implementation on computers. The complexity and size of optimization problems have increased
with the development of faster computers. As a result, the development of these techniques has
followed a similar pattern. It is particularly true of genetic algorithms, which have several
biological and chemical research applications.

1.7 Heuristic Optimization:

In mathematical optimization and computer science, heuristic (from Greek "I find, discover") is
a technique designed for problem solving more quickly when classic methods are too slow for
finding an exact or approximate solution, or when classic methods fail to find any exact solution
in a search space. This is achieved by trading optimality, completeness, accuracy, or
precision for speed. In a way, it can be considered a shortcut.
The objective of a heuristic is to produce a solution in a reasonable time frame that is good
enough for solving the problem at hand. This solution may not be the best of all the solutions to
this problem, or it may simply approximate the exact solution. But it is still valuable because
finding it does not require a prohibitively long time.
Here are some heuristic optimization techniques:
Genetic algorithm
Based on natural evolution, this algorithm can find optimal solutions faster than standard
optimization algorithms.
Particle swarm optimization
Inspired by the cooperative behavior of fish or birds, this technique uses a complex
communication system between particles.
Ant colony optimization
Inspired by ants, this algorithm uses pheromones to help ants find resources. Ants lay down
pheromones on the ground, and other ants follow the pheromones to find resources.
Simulated annealing
Inspired by metal annealing in metallurgy, this method is a modified version of stochastic hill
climbing.
Tabu search
This modern heuristic optimization method can find optimal or sub-optimal solutions in a short
time.
Metaheuristics
These high-level algorithmic concepts can be used to develop heuristic optimization
algorithms. They can find optimal or near optimal solutions to combinatorial optimization
problems.
Gray wolf optimization
This algorithm mimics the hunting mechanism and leadership hierarchy of gray wolves in
nature.

Heuristic algorithms are useful when exact methods can't be implemented. They can provide
flexible techniques to solve difficult problems with low computational cost and simple
implementation.

1.8 Evolutionary Computational Techniques:

Evolutionary computation (EC) is one computational intelligence model used to mimic the
biological evolution phenomenon. Currently, EC includes four algorithms: genetic algorithm
(GA), evolutionary programming (EP), evolution strategies (ES), and genetic programming
(GP). GA was proposed by the American scholar Holland in the 1950s in a study of self-adapting
control. To study the finite-state machine of AI, the American scholar Fogel proposed EP in the
1960s. At nearly the same time, the German scholars Rechenberg and Schwefel proposed ES to
solve numerical optimization. In the 1990s, based on the GA, the American scholar Koza
proposed GP to study the automatic design of computer programs. Although the four algorithms
were proposed by different scholars for different purposes, their computing processes are similar
and can be described as follows.
(a)One group of initial feasible solutions are created;
(b)The properties of the initial solutions are evaluated;
(c)The initial solutions are selected according to their evaluation results;
(d) The selected solutions are conducted by the evolutionary operations and the next
generation of feasible solutions can be obtained;
(e) If the feasible solutions obtained during the above step can meet the requirements,
then the computation will stop. Otherwise, the feasible solutions obtained during the
above step are taken as the initial solutions, and the computation process returns to step b.

Generally, as one global optimization method, EC has the following characteristics:

(i) The search process begins from one group and not from one point;
(ii) only the objective function is used in the search process; and
(iii) the random method is used in the search process.
Therefore, this method has the following advantages:
(i) Highly versatile and can be used for different problems;
(ii) it can solve problems that are highly nonlinear and nonconvex; and
(iii) the model’s plasticity is very high and can be deserialized very easily.

1.9 Pareto Methods:

Pareto optimization is widely used to solve multi-objective optimization problems having
conflicting objectives. Solutions that provide reasonable trade-offs among different objectives
are considered. Rather than constructing a single solution, multiple solutions are generated that
satisfy Pareto optimality criterion. A solution S is chosen only if no solution is better than S
taking into account entire objectives. Suppose if S is worse than some solution S′ with respect to
one objective, S is chosen given that it is better than S′ with respect to some other objective.
Hence every Pareto optimal solution is good with respect to some optimization criterion. The set
of all Pareto optimal solutions makes Pareto front/Pareto set.

1.10 Artificial Intelligence Techniques:

Smart grids use artificial intelligence (AI) techniques to process the large amount of data they
generate. Some AI techniques used in smart grids include: Supervised learning, Unsupervised
learning, Reinforcement learning, and Ensemble methods.

Smart grids use computational techniques to address challenges such as:

 Demand response
 Cybersecurity
 Electric load and price forecasting
 Integration and control of new sustainable electric energy sources
 Intelligent monitoring and protection
 Intelligent optimization

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 Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)

Introduction:

What is a hybrid? A hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources. Possible
combinations include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery. Typically,
one energy source is storage, and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy. The combination of
two power sources may support two separate propulsion systems. Thus to be a True hybrid, the
vehicle must have at least two modes of propulsion.

For example, a truck that uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in turn drives several electrical
motors for all-wheel drive, is not a hybrid . But if the truck has electrical energy storage to
provide a second mode, which is electrical assists, then it is a hybrid Vehicle.
These two power sources may be paired in series, meaning that the gas engine charges the
batteries of an electric motor that powers the car, or in parallel, with both mechanisms driving
the car directly.

Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)

Consistent with the definition of hybrid above, the hybrid electric vehicle combines a gasoline
engine with an electric motor. An alternate arrangement is a diesel engine and an electric motor
(figure 1).

As shown in Figure 1, a HEV is formed by merging components from a pure electrical vehicle
and a pure gasoline vehicle. The Electric Vehicle (EV) has an M/G which allows regenerative
braking for an EV; the M/G installed in the HEV enables regenerative braking. For the HEV, the
M/G is tucked directly behind the engine. In Honda hybrids, the M/G is connected directly to the
engine. The transmission appears next in line. This arrangement has two torque producers; the
M/G in motor mode, M-mode, and the gasoline engine. The battery and M/G are connected
electrically.

HEVs are a combination of electrical and mechanical components. Three main sources of
electricity for hybrids are batteries, FCs, and capacitors. Each device has a low cell voltage, and,
hence, requires many cells in series to obtain the voltage demanded by an HEV. Difference in the
source of

• The FC provides high energy but low power.

• The battery supplies both modest power and energy.
• The capacitor supplies very large power but low energy.

The components of an electrochemical cell include anode, cathode, and electrolyte (shown in
fig2). The current flow both internal and external to the cell is used to describe the current loop.

A critical issue for both battery life and safety is the precision control of the Charge/Discharge
cycle. Overcharging can be traced as a cause of fire and failure.
Applications impose two boundaries or limitations on batteries. The first limit, which is dictated
by battery life, is the minimum allowed State of Charge. As a result, not all the installed battery
energy can be used. The battery feeds energy to other electrical equipment, which is usually the
inverter. This equipment can use a broad range of input voltage, but cannot accept a low voltage.
The second limit is the minimum voltage allowed from the battery.
 Economic and Environmental Impact of Electric Hybrid Vehicles

As modern culture and technology continue to develop, the growing presence of global warming
and irreversible climate change draws increasing amounts of concern from the world's
population. It has only been recently, when modern society has actually taken notice of these
changes and decided that something needs to change if the global warming process is to be
stopped.

Countries around the world are working to drastically reduce CO 2 emissions as well as other
harmful environmental pollutants. Amongst the most notable producers of these pollutants are
automobiles, which are almost exclusively powered by internal combustion engines and spew
out unhealthy emissions.

According to various reports, cars and trucks are responsible for almost 25% of CO2 emission
and other major transportation methods account for another 12%. With immense quantities of
cars on the road today, pure combustion engines are quickly becoming a target of global
warming blame. One potential alternative to the world's dependence on standard combustion
engine vehicles are hybrid cars. Cost-effectiveness is also an important factor contributing to the
development of an environment friendly transportation sector.

Hybrid Vehicle
A hybrid vehicle combines any type of two power (energy) sources. Possible combinations
include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery. Typically, one energy
source is storage, and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy. In the majority of modern
hybrids, cars are powered by a combination of traditional gasoline power and the addition of an
electric motor.
However, hybrid still use the petroleum based engine while driving so they are not completely
clean, just cleaner than petroleum only cars. This enables hybrid cars to have the potential to
segue into new technologies that rely strictly on alternate fuel sources.
The design of such vehicles requires, among other developments, improvements in power train
systems, fuel processing, and power conversion technologies. Opportunities for utilizing various
fuels for vehicle propulsion, with an emphasis on synthetic fuels (e.g., hydrogen, biodiesel,
bioethanol, dimethylether, ammonia, etc.) as well as electricity via electrical batteries, have been
analyzed over the last decade.
In order to analyze environment impact of vehicle propulsion and fueling system; we are
presenting a case study which has been reported in literature (Chapter: Ibrahim Dincer, Marc A.
Rosen and Calin Zamfirescu,” Economic and Environmental Comparison of Conventional and
Alternative Vehicle Options”, Book: Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Power Sources, Models,
Sustainability, Infrastructure and the Market by Gianfranco Pistoia (2010) )
A Case study
This case treated the following aspects: economic criteria, environmental criteria, and a
combined impact criterion. The latter is a normalized indicator that takes into account the effects
on both environmental and economic performance of the options considered.
Case compared four kinds of fuel-propulsion vehicle alternatives. Two additional kinds of
vehicles, both of which are zero polluting at fuel utilization stage (during vehicle operation) were
also included in analysis. The vehicles analyzed were as follows:
1. Conventional gasoline vehicle (gasoline fuel and ICE),
2. Hybrid vehicle (gasoline fuel, electrical drive, and large rechargeable battery),
3. Electric vehicle (high-capacity electrical battery and electrical drive/generator),
4. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (high-pressure hydrogen fuel tank, fuel cell, electrical
drive),
5. Hydrogen internal combustion vehicle (high-pressure hydrogen fuel tank and ICE),
6. Ammonia-fueled vehicle (liquid ammonia fuel tank, ammonia thermo-catalytic
decomposition and separation unit to generate pure hydrogen, hydrogen-fueled ICE).

For environmental impact analysis , all stages of the life cycle were considered, starting from
a. The extraction of natural resources to produce materials and
b. Ending with conversion of the energy stored onboard the vehicle into mechanical
energy for vehicle displacement and
c. Other purposes (heating, cooling, lighting, etc.).

In addition, vehicle production stages and end-of-life disposal contribute substantially when
quantifying the life cycle environmental impact of fuel-propulsion alternatives.

The analysis were conducted on six vehicles, each was representative of one of the above
discussed categories. The specific vehicles were:
1. Toyota Corolla (conventional vehicle),
2. Toyota Prius (hybrid vehicle),
3. Toyota RAV4EV (electric vehicle),
4. Honda FCX (hydrogen fuel cell vehicle),
5. Ford Focus H2 -ICE (hydrogen ICE vehicle),
6. Ford Focus H2 -ICE adapted to use ammonia as source of hydrogen (ammonia-fueled
ICE vehicle).

Economical Analysis
A number of key economic parameters that characterize vehicles were:
a. Vehicle price,
b. Fuel cost, and
c. Driving range.
This case neglected maintenance costs; however, for the hybrid and electric vehicles, the cost of
battery replacement during the lifetime was accounted for. The driving range determines the
frequency (number and separation distance) of fueling stations for each vehicle type. The total
fuel cost and the total number of kilometers driven were related to the vehicle life (see Table 1).
 Table1: Technical and economical values for selected vehicle types

For the Honda FCX the listed initial price for a prototype leased in 2002 was USk$2,000, which
is estimated to drop below USk$100 in regular production. Currently, a Honda FCX can be
leased for 3 years with a total price of USk$21.6. In order to render the comparative study
reasonable, the initial price of the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle is assumed here to be USk$100. For
e lectric vehicle, the specific cost was estimated to be US$569/kWh with nickel metal hydride
(NiMeH) batteries which are typically used in hybrid and electric cars.
Historical prices of typical fuels were used to calculate annual average price.
Environmental Analysis
Analysis for the first five options was based on published data from manufacturers. The results
for the sixth case, i.e. the ammonia-fueled vehicle, were calculated from data published by Ford
on the performance of its hydrogen-fueled Ford Focus vehicle. Two environmental impact
elements were accounted for in the:

a. Air pollution (AP) and

b. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

The main GHGs were CO2 , CH4 , N2O, and SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride), which have GHG impact
weighting coefficients relative to CO2 of 1, 21, 310, and 24,900, respectively.

For AP, the airborne pollutants CO, NOX , SOX , and VOCs are assigned the following weighting
coefficients: 0.017, 1, 1.3, and 0.64, respectively.
The vehicle production stage contributes to the total life cycle environmental impact through the
pollution associated with
a. The extraction and processing of material resources,
b. Manufacturing and
c. The vehicle disposal stage.

Additional sources of GHG and AP emissions were associated with the fuel production and
utilization stages. The environmental impacts of these stages have been evaluated in numerous
life cycle assessments of fuel cycles.
Regarding electricity production for the electric car case, three case scenarios were considered
here:
1. when electricity is produced from renewable energy sources and nuclear energy;
2. when 50% of the electricity is produced from renewable energy sources and 50% from
natural gas at an efficiency of 40%;
3. when electricity is produced from natural gas at an efficiency of 40%.

AP emissions were calculated assuming that GHG emissions for plant manufacturing correspond
entirely to natural gas combustion. GHG and AP emissions embedded in manufacturing a natural
gas power generation plant were negligible compared to the direct emissions during its
utilization. Taking those factors into account, GHG and AP emissions for the three scenarios of
electricity generation were presented in Table 2.

Table2: GHG and air pollution emissions per MJ of electricity produced

Hydrogen charging of fuel tanks on vehicles requires compression. Therefore, presented case
considered the energy for hydrogen compression to be provided by electricity.
 Table 3: GHG and air pollution emissions per MJ fuel of Hydrogen from natural gas produced

GHG and AP emissions were reported for hydrogen vehicles for the three electricity-generation
scenarios considered (see table 3), accounting for the environmental effects of hydrogen
compression

Table 4. Environmental impact associated with vehicle Overall Life cycle and Fuel Utilization

The environmental impact of the fuel utilization stage, as well as the overall life cycle is
presented in Table 4. The H2-ICE vehicle results were based on the assumption that the only
GHG emissions during the utilization stage were associated with the compression work, needed
to fill the fuel tank of the vehicle. The GHG effect of water vapor emissions was neglected in
this analysis due its little value,. For the ammonia fuel vehicle, a very small amount of pump
work was needed therefore, ammonia fuel was considered to emit no GHGs during fuel
utilization.
Results of technical–economical–environmental Analysis:
In present situation this case study provides a general approach for assessing the combined
technical–economical–environmental benefits of transportation options.
This analysis showed that the hybrid and electric cars have advantages over the others. The
economics and environmental impact associated with use of an electric car depends significantly
on the source of the electricity:
 a. If electricity is generated from renewable energy sources, the electric car is
advantageous to the hybrid vehicle.
b. If the electricity is generated from fossil fuels, the electric car remains competitive only
if the electricity is generated onboard.
c. If the electricity is generated with an efficiency of 50–60% by a gas turbine engine
connected to a high-capacity battery and electric motor, the electric car is superior in many
respects.
d. For electricity-generation scenarios 2 and 3, using ammonia as a means to store
hydrogen onboard a vehicle is the best option among those analyzed (as shown in fig.2).

Figure2: Normalized economic and environmental indicators for six vehicle types

The electric car with capability for onboard electricity generation represents a beneficial option
and is worthy of further investigation, as part of efforts to develop energy efficient and
ecologically benign vehicles.
The main limitations of this study were as follows:
(i) the use of data which may be of limited accuracy in some instances;
(ii) the subjectiveness of the indicators chosen; and
(iii) the simplicity of the procedure used for developing the general indicator without using
unique weighting coefficients.
Despite these limitations, the study reflects relatively accurately and realistically the present
situation and provides a general approach for assessing the combined technical–economical–
environmental benefits of transportation options.
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