NUMBER SYSTEM

Important points to remember:

1. The product of ‘n’ consecutive natural numbers is always divisible by n!

2. Square of any natural number can be written in the form of 3n or 3n+1.

3. Square of a natural number can only end in 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9. Second last

digit of a square of a natural number is always even except when last digit is
6. If the last digit is 5, second last digit has to be 2.

4. Any prime number greater than 3 can be written as 6k+1 or 6k-1.

5. Any two-digit number ‘mn’ can effectively be written as 10m+n and a

three-digit number ‘lmn’ can effectively be written as 100l+10m+n.

6. Sum of 1st n natural number, 1+2+3+.....+n = Σn = n(n+1)/2

7. Sum of 1st n positive even numbers, 2+4+6-------+2n = n(n+1)

8. Sum of 1st n positive odd numbers, 1+3+5+------+(2n – 1) = n2

9. Sum of squares of 1st n natural numbers:

12+22+32+----+n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6

10. Sum of cubes of 1st n natural numbers:

13+23+33+--------+n3 = (Σn)2 = [n(n+1)/2]2

11. 0 and 1 are neither composite nor prime.

12. There are 25 prime numbers less than 100.

13. There are 15 prime numbers less than 50.

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Divisibility rules

2 – when last digit of the number is 0, 2, 4, 6, 8.

4 – when last two digits of the number is 00 or divisible by 4.
8 - when the last three digits of the number is 000 or divisible by 8.
5 – when last digit is 0 or 5.
2n - when last n digits of the numbers are divisible by 2n.
5n - when last n digits of the number are divisible by 5n.

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Divisibility rule for 3 and 9
3 – Sum of the digits should be divisible by 3.
9 – Sum of digits should be divisible by 9.

Divisibility rule for 7 and 11

7 - the difference between twice the unit digit of the given number and the
remaining part of the given number should be a multiple of 7 or it should be
equal to 0”.
For example, 798 is divisible by 7.
11 - if the difference between the sums of the alternate digits of the given
number is either 0 or divisible by 11, then the number is divisible by 11.

Divisibility rules of 6, 12, 14, 15, 18, etc.

Whenever we have to check the divisibility of a number N by a composite
number C, the number N should be divisible by all the prime factors (the
highest power of every prime factor) present in C.

Properties of factors and co-prime numbers

For any natural number N = ax * by * cz...., where a, b, c.... are prime

numbers and x, y, z are their powers which are natural numbers. (N is prime
factorized here).

Number of factors of N = (x+1) (y+1) (z+1) ....

Number of even factors = same as above, but just consider one
power of 2 less while calculating.
Number of odd factors = (Total – even) OR do not consider 2 in
finding factors.

Remainders and Remainder Theorems

Dividend = Divisor x Quotient + Remainder

Mod, which stands for modulus simply means ‘remainder’. So, the value of a
mod b is simply the remainder obtained on dividing a by b.

If Rem [N1/D] = R1, Rem [N2/D] = R2, .........., Rem [Nm/D] = Rm then
i. Rem [(N1+N2+….+Nm)/D] = Rem [(R1+R2+….+Rm)/D]
ii. Rem [(N1*N2*….*Nm)/D] = Rem [(R1*R2*….*Rm)/D]

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iii. Negative Remainder: Sometimes we use negative remainder to find the
actual remainder easily. Let us try to understand it:-
We know that remainder when 19 is divided by 10 is 9 but we can also take
the remainder as –1 which is (9 – 10).

Remainder Theorems:

1. Wilson’s Remainder
Theorem
For any prime number P,
(P−1)!
Rem [ P ], i.e.,
(P-1)! mod P = (P – 1) or – 1
18!
E.g., Rem [ 19 ] = 18 or -1

2. Euler’s Totient
Theorem
For two coprime numbers N
𝐍𝐤.𝐄(𝐃)
and D, Rem [ 𝐃 ] = 1,
where k is a natural
number and E(D) is Euler of
the number D. (Calculation
of how to calculate Euler
mentioned above).

Example: What is the remainder when 4732 is divided by 51?

2 16
Solution: 51 = 3*17 so E (51) = 51*3*17 = 32.
We can see that 47 and 51 are coprime, so using Euler’s remainder theorem,
4732
Rem [ ] = 1.
51

Finding the Last digit or Unit’s Digit (UD) of a Number:

Unit’s digit of a number, i.e., the last digit is the remainder when the
number is divided by 10.

E.g. Unit’s digit of 2345 is 2345 mod 10 = 5

Unit’s digit of (234 + 567) = Unit digit of (4 + 7) = Unit Digit of 11 = 1
Similarly, to find the unit’s digit of (234*567), we just need to consider the
unit’s digits of these two numbers viz: 4*7 = 28. Hence the unit’s digit of the
given product is 8.

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How to calculate the unit’s digit of numbers of the form ab such as 2253,
393, 474 etc.?
Case 1: When b is NOT
a multiple of 4.
We find the
remainder when b is
divided by 4.
Let b = 4k + r, where
r is the remainder
when b is divided by
4, and
0 < r < 4.
The unit’s digit of
a4k+r is the unit digit
of ar.

Case 2: When b is a
multiple of 4.
We observe the
following conditions:
Even numbers 2, 4,
6, 8 when raised to
powers which are a
multiple of 4 give the
unit’s digit as 6.
Odd numbers 3, 7,
and 9 when raised to
powers which are a multiple of 4 give the unit’s digit as 1.
Unit’s digit of a4k = units digit of a4

Finding the Last Two Digits (LTD) of a number:

Last two digits of a number is the remainder when the number is divided by
100.
E.g. LTD(123456) = 56, LTD(123*456) = LTD(23*56) = LTD(1288) = 88

How to calculate last two digits of numbers in the form ab such as 24356,
53903, 79714 etc.?

Case 1: When the unit’s digit of a is 1, multiply the ten’s digit of the number
with the last digit of the exponent to get the ten’s digit and it is easy to
understand that the unit’s digit is equal to one.

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Example: Find the last two digits of 2143.
Solution: We know that unit’s digit of the given number will be 1.
As mentioned above, to find the second last digit we need to multiply the
ten’s digit of the number (2) to the unit’s digit of the exponent (3), 2*3 = 6.
So LTD of 2143 is 61.

Case 2: When a = 2n while finding last two digits of ab.

210 = 1024, 241 = 24, 242 = 576, ........., 243 = xxx24, 244 = xxxxx76

Following the pattern, it can be noticed that,

LTD(24odd) = 24 and LTD(24even) = 76.

Example:
LTD(16125) = LTD(2500) = LTD(xx2450) = LTD(24even) = 76.

Case 3: When the unit’s digit of a is 5 while finding the last two digits of ab.
LTD(xxA5B) = 75, when A and B are odd.
LTD(xxA5B) = 25, otherwise.

LTD(35125) = 75, LTD(45242) = 25, LTD(85775) = 25, LTD(75364) = 25.

LCM, HCF AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Important points to remember:

1. For two natural numbers x and y where x = h*a and y = h*b where a, b are
co-prime numbers and HCF (x, y) = h, LCM (x, y) = h*a*b and Product (x, y) =
h2*a*b
It can be noticed that:
(i) Product (x, y) = LCM (x, y) * HCF (x, y)
(ii) LCM is always a multiple of HCF.

2. If N is a positive integer which leaves remainder 'r' each time when divided
by x, y or z then N = {LCM (x, y, z) * k} + r, where k is a whole number.

E.g. Find the smallest number which leaves a remainder of 3 when divided
by 4, 5 or 6.
Solution: LCM(4,5,6)*1 + 3 = 63

3. If N is a positive integer which leaves remainders r1, r2 and r3 when

divided by x, y and z respectively, where x - r1 = y - r2 = z - r3 = r then

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N = {LCM (x, y, z) * k} - r, where k is a natural number.

E.g. Find the smallest number which when divided by 8, 9, 10 leaves

remainders 3, 4, 5 respectively.
Solution: We see that 8-3 = 9-4 = 10-5 = 5
So, smallest number = LCM (8, 9, 10)*1 – 5 = 355

4. N is the greatest positive integer which divides x and y, leaving remainder

r1 and r2 respectively, then N = HCF (x-r1, y-r2).

5. N is the greatest positive integer which divides x, y and z, leaving a

remainder r in each case, then N = HCF (y-x, z-y).

Index of Greatest Power

The highest power of a

number m that can divide
another number n is
known as IGP of m in n.

For any prime number p,

n n n
IGP(p) in n! = [p] + [p2 ] + [p3 ]
n
+ [p4 ] + ------- where [x]
denotes the greatest integer
less than or equal to x.
There is another way to get
the IGP. It is shown in the
example below.

Example: What is highest

power of 2 that can divide
40!?
Solution: IGP of 2 in 40! =
40 40 40 40 40
[ 2 ] + [22 ] + [23 ] + [24 ] + [25 ] =
20+10+5+2+1 = 37
OR
40 20 10 5
[ 2 ] --> [ 2 ] --> [ 2 ] --> [2] -->
2
[2] --> 1
Answer = 20+10+5+2+1 = 37

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AVERAGES

𝐒𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬

Average =
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬

Note: Average of a set of values always lies between minimum to maximum.

i.e., Minimum ≤ Average ≤ Maximum
Remember the following points about averages:
n+1
i. Average on 1st n natural number = 2 (i.e., n(n+1)/2/n = (n+1)/2)
ii. Average of 1st n odd numbers (1, 3, 5, ....., 2n – 1) = n (i.e., n2/n = n)
iii. Average of 1st n even numbers (2, 4, 6, ....., 2n) = n + 1
n+1
iv. Average of n terms in Arithmetic Progression = 2 th term = middle term,
when n is odd.
For example: Average (3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27) = 15
n n
th term+( +1)th term
v. Average of n terms in Arithmetic Progression = 2 2
= Average
2
of middle terms, when n is even.
18+22
For example: Average of (6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26, 30, 34) = = 19
2
1st term+last term
v. Average of n terms of an Arithmetic Progression =
2

2nd term+2nd last term

=
2

3rd term+3rd last term

=
2

and so on............
vi. If each term in a set is increased by
the value k, then their average is also
increased by k.

vii. If each term in a set is decreased

by the value k then their average is
also decreased by k.

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viii. If each term in a set is multiplied by the value k then their average is
also multiplied by k.

ix. If each term in a set is divided by the value k then their average is also
divided by k.

Concept of assumed average:

Example: Find the average of 54, 55, 57, and 61
Solution: Let us assume average is 57 (We pick the assumed average in such
a way that it lies around the middle of min and max values)
Next, we find deviation of the values from this assumed average.
54 – 57 = –3
55 – 57 = –2
57 – 57 = 0
61 – 57 = 4
(−3)+(−2)+(0)+4
Average of all the deviations = = -0.25
4
Hence, actual average will be 57 – 0.25 = 56.75.

PERCENTAGES

The percentage equivalents of fractions:

Fraction Percentage Fraction Percentage Fraction Percentage
1/2 50% 1/8 12.50% 1/14 7.14%
1/3 33.33% 1/9 11.11% 1/15 6.66%
1/4 25% 1/10 10% 1/16 6.25%
1/5 20% 1/11 9.09% 1/17 5.88%
1/6 16.16% 1/12 8.33% 1/18 5.56%
1/7 14.28% 1/13 7.69% 1/19 5.26%

Important points:
x
i. x is what % of y = y*100%
ii. x% of y = y% of x
(x−y)
iii. x is what % more than y = *100, x > y.
y
(y−x)
iv. x is what % less than y = *100, x < y.
y

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v. Multiplication Factor (MF)

For example, increase x by 10%:

10
x + 10% of x = x(1+10%) = x(1 + 100) = x(1 + 0.1) = 1.1x
Here we are basically
multiplying x by 1.1
which is known as
multiplication factor
for 10% increase.
So next time if we want
to decrease a quantity
by 10% we can directly
multiply that quantity
by (1 – 10%) = 0.9 and
get the desired value.

E.g. Find the resultant

value when100 is
increased by 20%,
decreased by 30% and
then increased by
12%.
Solution: 100 x 1.2 x
0.7 x 1.12 = 94.08

Here are a few

multiplication factors
for the respective %
changes:

Percentage Multiplication Percentage Multiplication

Change Factor Change Factor
+5% 1.05 -5% 0.95
+10% 1.1 -10% 0.9
+15% 1.15 -15% 0.85
+20% 1.2 -20% 0.8
+25% 1.25 -25% 0.75
+30% 1.3 -30% 0.7
+40% 1.4 -40% 0.6
+50% 1.5 -50% 0.5
+60% 1.6 -60% 0.4

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SIMPLE & COMPOUND INTEREST

Difference & Graphical Presentation of Simple and Compound Interest:

- Simple interest is always - Compound interest is

charged on a sum(original charged on principle and
principal) at a particular accumulated interest.
rate and specified period - Compound interest for all
of time. years is different.
- Simple interest for all
years is the same.

Let P be the principal, R be the interest rate % Per annum, and T be the time
period (in years)

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Simple Interest :
𝐏𝐱𝐑𝐱𝐓
S.I = 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Compound Interest:

R T r
C.I = P (1 + 100) − P Amount, A = P (1 + )T
100

r/n n*T
If interest is being compounded n-times a year then A = P (1 + )
100

Difference between
Compound Interest and
Simple Interest
For Principal = P, Rate of
interest per annum = R%
R
= 100
i. Difference between C.I
and S.I after 1 year = 0
ii. Difference between C.I
and S.I after 2 years =
R
P(100)2
iii. Difference between
C.I and S.I after 3 years
R R
= P(100)2(3 + 100)

PROFIT & LOSS

i. Keywords
a. Cost Price (CP): Price of an article at which it is bought.
b. Selling Price (SP): Price of an article at which it is sold.

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c. Marked Price (MP): It is also known as listed price or printed price or
maximum retail price of an article which is decided by the seller so that he
can sell it to a customer and make profit.
d. A Profit is earned when selling price of an article is greater than the cost
price of the same article. Profit % is calculated on the cost price.
SP−CP Profit
Profit = SP – CP, Profit % = ( CP )*100 = ( CP )*100.
e. A Loss occurs when selling
price of an article is lesser
than the cost price of the
same article. Loss % is also
calculated on the cost price.
Loss = CP – SP, Loss % =
CP−SP Loss
( CP )*100 = ( CP )*100.
f. Mark up is the difference
between marked price and
cost price of an article. Mark
up % is also calculated on the
cost price.
Mark up value = MP – CP,
MP−CP
Mark up % = ( CP )*100
g. Discount is the difference
between marked price and
selling price. Discount % is
calculated on marked price.
MP−SP
Discount = MP – SP, Discount % = ( MP )*100.

If there are two articles, one of them is sold at x% profit and other is sold at
x% loss then overall profit OR loss % on overall transaction will be
1. 0, when both articles have same CP.
X2
2. Loss = %, when both articles have same SP.
100

iii. Dishonest Seller & Faulty Measurements

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These are cases when a shopkeeper uses lesser weights or measurements
than what is promised to the customer while selling goods to get some profit
out of it.
In these types of situations,
Claimed weight− Actual weight
Profit % = *100
Actual weight

E.g. A seller sells 800g for the price of 1000g.

Profit % = (1000-800)/800 x 100 = 25%

iv. Partnerships:
When n number of people invest A1, A2, A3,......., An amounts for T1, T2,
T3,........, Tn time periods in the same business then profits are shared in the
ratio A1T1 : A2T2 : A3T3 :.............: AnTn.

ALLIGATION & MIXTURE

Alligation: The rule allows us to determine the ratio of quantity in which two
or more ingredients at the given price must be combined to produce the
desired price.

Rule of Alligation:

If two ingredients are mixed, then

Quantity of C.P. of dearer - Mean

cheaper Price
=
Quantity of Mean price - C.P. of
dearer cheaper

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Cross proportion representation:

∴ (Cheaper quantity) : (Dearer quantity) = (d - m) : (m - c)

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Removal and Replacement
Let us say a container has x units of liquid, and y units are removed
and replaced by water.
y n
After n operations, the quantity of the pure liquid = x (1 − x) units.

• General formula for n operations:

Final or reduced concentration

amount being replaced in each operation n
= initial concentration(1 − )
total amount

• Weighted Average method:

Two mixtures having weights f1, f2 and corresponding averages A1, A2,
A ∗f + A ∗f
their weighted average Aw = 1 f1 + f 2 2
1 2

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RATIO & PROPORTION

Properties of ratio:
A 𝐀 𝐀+𝐱
i. If 0 < < 1, then < where x > 0.
B 𝐁 𝐁+𝐱
9 109
For example: <
11 111

A 𝐀 𝐀+𝐱
ii. If > 1, then > where x > 0.
B 𝐁 𝐁+𝐱
17 57
For example: >
13 53

A C E
iii. If = = = .......... = K then
B D F

A+C+E+ −−−−−
a. =K
B+D+F+ −−−−−

pA+qC+rE+ −−−−−
b. =K
pB+qD+rF+ −−−−−

pAn +qCn +rEn + −−−

c. = Kn
pBn +qDn +rFn + −−−

Note: In points a, b, and c none of the denominators should be equal to zero.

Merging Ratios
Ratios are merged to compare all the quantities at once. Usually, ratios are
merged by making the common term equal or multiplying all the ratios
together.

E.g. If a : b = 3 : 5 and b : c = 4 : 5 then find a : b : c.

Solution:

Method – 1: firstly, it can be noticed that b is common in both so we can

make it equal in both ratios, LCM (4, 5) = 20.
a : b = 3 : 5 = 12 : 20, b : c = 4 : 5 = 20 : 25

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Hence, a : b : c = 12 : 20 : 25.

Method – 2:
a a b
= b∗c
c
a 3 4 12
or, c = 5 ∗ 5 = 25,
when a = 12, b = 20 and c = 25.
Hence, a : b : c = 12 : 20 : 25.
This method is very useful when there are more than two ratios to be
merged.

Proportion:
a b
i. If a, b and c are in continued proportion, then b = c and vice-versa is also
true.
Here a is known as the first proportion, b is known as the mean proportion
and c is known as the third proportion.
a c
ii. If a, b, c and d are in continued proportion, then = and vice-versa.
b d

a c
iii. If = , then
b d
a+b c+d
= c−d which is
a−b
also known as
Componendo &
Dividendo.

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TIME, SPEED & DISTANCE:

General formula: Distance = Speed × Time

Unit conversion:
km
Unit of speed = hr
km 5 m 18
1 = 18 m/sec, 1 sec = km/hr
hr 5

Proportionality:
1 1
1. When distance is constant: s ∝ or t ∝ so, st = constant, s1t1 = s2t2
t s

A B P Q R
Speed 3 : 4 3 : 4 : 6
1 1 1 1 1
Time : : :
3 4 3 4 6

4 : 3 4 : 3 : 2
Note: If speed is being multiplied by a factor x, then time will be multiplied
1
by x.

2. When speed is constant: D ∝ t or D1 : D2 = t1 : t2

3. When time is constant: D ∝ s or D1 : D2 = s1 : s2
Average Speed: Total Distance/Total time taken
Relative speed:
The relative speed of two objects moving with speeds S1 & S2 when they are
moving in:
1. Same direction, SR = S1 – S2, S1 > S2
2. Opposite direction, SR = S1 + S2

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Special Cases for Trains:

• When a train passes a pole (or, any stationary object of negligible length),
it covers a distance which is equal to its own length.
• When a train passes a platform, it covers a distance which is equal to the
sum of the length of the platform and its own length.
• When a train A passes a moving train B, it covers a distance which is
equal to the sum of the length of both the trains A and B with relative
speed.
• When a train A crosses a stationary train B, it covers a distance which is
equal to the sum of the length of both the trains.
Special Cases for Boats:
Speed of Boat = B, Speed of river or stream = R (in still water)
Speed in downstream (D) = B + R
Speed in upstream(U) = B - R
In the case of boats and streams, as the distance is constant in upstream
and downstream movements, time taken is inversely proportional to the
upstream and downstream speeds.

LINEAR & CIRCULAR RACES:

Linear races:

1. In a race of d meters A beats B by x metres:

SA/SB = d/(d-x)
2. In a race, A beats B by t seconds:

SA/SB = (tA + t)/tA

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3. In a race, A beats B by x meters or t sec.
𝐱
SB = m/sec
𝐭

Circular Races:
If two people are running on a circular track with speeds in ratio A: B where
A and B are co-prime, then
• They will meet at A+B distinct points if they are
running in opposite direction.

• They will meet at |A-B| distinct points if they are

running in same direction

If two people are running on a circular track having perimeter L, with speeds
m and n,
• The time for their first meeting = L/(m +n) (when they are running in
opposite directions)
• The time for their first meeting = L/(|m-n|) (when they are running in the
same direction)
• Time when 3 objects meet for the first time: Find the time taken for any 2
pairs to meet for the first time and then take the LCM of those times.
• Time when 2 objects meet for the first time at the starting point after
moving = LCM (L/m, L/n)

Note: LCM of Fractions LCM (a/b, c/d) = LCM (a, c)/HCF (b, d)

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TIME & WORK

t – time, e – efficiency, a – amount of work

𝟏 𝟏
Case 1: When a is constant, t ∝ 𝐞 𝐨𝐫 𝐞 ∝ 𝐭
Case 2: When t is constant, a ∝ 𝐞 or e ∝ 𝐚
Case 3: When e is constant t ∝ 𝐚 𝐨𝐫 𝐚 ∝ 𝐭

Wages ∝ amount of work done by worker

𝟏
• If A can do a piece of work in n days, then A's 1 day's work = 𝐧
• If A can do a piece of work in x days and B in y days, and together they
take z days to complete the work. Then,
1/z = 1/x + 1/y
𝐱𝐲
 z=
𝐱+𝐲

Concept of Man-days: If M1 men can do W1 work in D1 days working H1

hours per day and M2 men can do W2 work in D2 days working H2 hours per
day (where all men work at the same rate), then

𝐌𝟏 × 𝐃𝟏 × 𝐇𝟏 𝐌𝟐 × 𝐃𝟐 × 𝐇𝟐
=
𝐖𝟏 𝐖𝟐

Points to Remember for Pipe & Cistern questions:

• If we are filling the tank, the Inlet pipes do positive work while the
Outlet pipes do negative work.
• If the goal is to empty the tank, the Outlet Pipes do positive work while
the Inlet Pipes perform negative work.

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QUADRATIC & OTHER EQUATIONS

Some important Algebraic Identities:

• (a + b)² = a² + b² + 2ab
• (a - b)² = a² + b² - 2ab
• (a + b + c)² = a² + b² + c² + 2
(ab + bc + ca)
• (a + b)³ = a³ + b³ + 3ab (a + b)
• (a - b)³ = a³ - b³ - 3ab (a - b)
• a³ + b³ = (a + b) (a² - ab + b²)
• a³ - b³ = (a - b) (a² + ab + b²)
• a² - b² = (a + b) (a - b)
• (a + b + c)³ = a³ + b³ + c³ + 3(a
+ b) (b + c) (c + a)
• a³ + b³ + c³ - 3abc = (a + b + c)
(a² + b² + c² - ab – bc -ca)
If a + b + c = 0, then a³ + b³ +
c³ = 3abc

A quadratic equation is represented as

ax² + bx + c = 0 (if a = 0, then equation becomes linear)

−𝐛 ± √𝐛 𝟐 −𝟒𝐚𝐜
𝐱=
𝟐𝐚

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All values of ‘x’ satisfying the eqaution are known as roots/zeroes of the
equation.

Note: An equation of degree ‘n’ will have n roots (real and imiginary) (E.g.
Cubic equation has 3 roots)
▪ If c' and 'a' are equal then the roots are reciprocal to each other.
▪ A quadratic whose roots are reciprocal of the roots of ax²+bx+c = 0 is
cx²+bx+a = 0
▪ If b = 0, then the roots are equal and are opposite in sign
▪ Discriminant :
It is denoted by D, and D = 𝐛𝟐 − 𝟒𝐚𝐜. Depending on the sign and value of D,
nature of the roots would be as follows:
▪ If D < 0, Roots will be imaginary. The graph would not touch x axis.
▪ If D > 0, Roots will be real and distinct. Graph cuts X axis at two distinct
points.
▪ If D = 0, Roots are real and equal. Graph just touches the x axis at one
point.
Note: Complex or irrational roots always occur in pair i.e., they are
conjugate. E.g.: x2 – 4x – 1= 0
x = (2 ± √5) i.e., roots are 2 + √5 and 2 - √5 which are conjugate pairs.
Quadratic Equation Cubic Equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0 ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0

Sum of roots α + β = -b/a α + β + γ = -b/a

Product of
αβ = c/a αβγ = -d/a
roots

Pairwise sum
of Product of - αβ + βγ + λα = c/a
roots

A quadratic eq. can be written as x2 - Sx + P = 0

where S = sum of roots and P = product of roots

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▪ For any given equation y = f(x) = 0 the number of times the graph of this
equation cuts the X axis is equal to the distinct real roots of this
equation. For Exp: (x-1) (x + 2) (x – 2) = 0 will intersect x axis at 3 distinct
points: 1, -2, 2
▪ Any quadratic equation will be of the form (x-a) (x-b) = 0 and will cut the
axis at a and b.
▪ When a > 0, ax² + bx + c has minimum at x = -b/2a & that minimum is -
D/4a = (4ac-b²)/4a
▪ When a < 0, ax² + bx + c has maximum at x = -b/2a & that maximum is -
D/4a = (4ac-b²)/4a

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INEQUALITIES
If Roots are Real,

• when (x-a) (x-b) > 0

x ∈ (-∞, a) U (b, ∞)

• when (x-a) (x-b) < 0

x ∈ (a, b)

Note:

• If product of n positive
numbers is constant,
then their sum will be
minimum when all are
equal or close to each
other.

• If the sum of n positive

numbers is constant,
then their product will be
maximum when all are
equal or close to each
other.

• In case of equations, for

example 3x = 5y,
multiplying with -1 on
both sides results in -3x
= -5y.
But in the case of inequalities, for example 3x > 5y, on multiplying
with -1 on both sides, the inequality changes to -3x < -5y
For example 7 > 4, but -7 < -4.

• In inequalities, one cannot cancel the common multiple on both sides.

For example, cancelling the common multiple ‘x’ in x(x-1) > x(y-2) is
not allowed.

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SURDS & INDICES
Important points to remember:

• In surd questions, every surd is an irrational number.

2 3
Ex: √𝟒 , √5 √7

• Any integer raised to the power zero will always equal one.

Law of surds Law of indices

√𝒎 × 𝒏 = √𝒎 × √𝒏 an . am = am+n
an ⋅ bn = (a ⋅ b)n
𝒎 √𝒎 am/ an = am-n
√ =
𝒏 √𝒏
an / bn = (a / b)n
𝒓 𝒓 √𝒔 𝒓√𝒔
= × = (an)m = an⋅m
√𝒔 √𝒔 √𝒔 𝒔
anm = a(n^m)
𝒑√𝒒 ± 𝒓√𝒒 = √𝒒(𝒑 ± 𝒓) m√(𝑎 𝑛 ) =a n/m

𝒓
: Multiply num and den n√𝑎= a1/n
𝒑±𝒒√𝒏
a-n = 1 / an
by 𝒑 ∓ 𝒒√𝒏 to rationalise the
denominator

LOGARITHMS
• ax = N can be expressed in logarithmic form as x = loga N
log a = x means that a = 10x
• Natural Logarithm: 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝑵 is called Natural logarithm, denoted by ln
N i.e., when the base is ‘e’ then it is called as Natural logarithm.
• Common Logarithm: 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 N is called common logarithm i.e., when
base of log is 10, then it is called as common logarithm.
• Both functions are graphed below: Base of 2 and base of e

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 Logarithm Properties:
• log (mn) = log m + log n, m > 0, n > 0 (Addition)
𝑚
• log ( 𝑛 ) = log m - log n, m > 0, n > 0 (Subtraction)
• log mn = n (log m) (Logarithm of a power)
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦
• 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 (Change of base rule)
𝑎
1
• logx y = (Inverse)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦 𝑥

• logx1 = 0 (x ≠ 0, 1).
Note: The logarithm of "0" and negative numbers is not defined.
•
• logb1= 0 (∵ b0 = 1)
• logb b = 1 (∵ b1 = b)
• y = ln x → x = ey
• x = ey = → ln x = y
• x = ln ex = eln x
• logb by = y

SEQUENCES, SERIES & PROGRESSIONS

Arithmetic Progression (A.P)

An A.P. is of the form a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, ... where a is called the 'first term'
and d is called the 'common difference'.

nth term of an A.P: Tn = nth term = a + (n – 1) d

(d = common difference, n = numbers of terms)

𝒏 𝒏
Sum of the first n term of an A. P: Sn = 𝟐 [𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅] = [𝐚 + 𝐋]
𝟐

(L = last term, a = first term)

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 1 1
Arithmetic Mean (A.M): A.M = 2(Sum of all terms) = 2(first term + last term)

Geometric Progression (G.P)

A G.P. is of the form a, ar, ar2, ar3, ... where a is called the 'first term' and r
is called the 'common ratio'.

nth term of a G.P: Tn = a r n-1

𝒂|1−𝒓𝒏 | 𝒂
Sum of the first n terms in a G.P: Sn = ; Sum of ∞ terms: S∞ =
|𝟏−𝒓| |𝟏−𝒓 |

Geometric Mean (G.M): b = √𝑎𝑐

(a, b, c are the 3 consecutive terms of a GP)

Harmonic Progression (H.P.)

If the reciprocals of the terms of a sequence are in arithmetic progression,
the sequence is called harmonic progression.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
For E.g. 1, 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 … is in harmonic progression. If we write it in form of H.P
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
i.e., , , ,…
𝒂 𝒂+𝒅 𝒂+𝟐𝒅

2𝑥𝑦
Harmonic Mean (H.M) of x, y = 𝑥+𝑦

For any two positive number a and b, A.M  G.M  H.M

Some useful results:

𝒏(𝒏+𝟏)
• Sum of first n natural numbers =
𝟐
𝒏(𝒏+𝟏)(𝟐𝒏+𝟏)
• Sum of the squares of first n natural numbers =
𝟔
𝒏(𝒏+𝟏) 𝟐
• Sum of the cubes of first n natural nos. = [ ]
𝟐
• Sum of first n natural odd numbers = n2
• Sum of first n even numbers = n(n+1)

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FUNCTIONS & GRAPHS

A function is a special relationship where each input has a single output

(but 2 different inputs can have the same output). It is often written as
"y = f(x)" where x is the input value in the function y.

Domain: Set of real and finite values that x can take.

Range: Set of real and finite values that y can have corresponding to the
values of x.

Note: Set A has m elements & set B has n elements then no. of functions
possible from set A to set B = nm

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Some important graphs:
y=x y = logax, a >1 y = logax, a <1

Y = |x| y = x2 y = x3

Y = √𝑥 y = ax, a > 1 y = ax , a < 1

1 1
Y=𝑥 y = |𝑥|

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GEOMETRY

Complementary & Supplementary Angles:

Two angles which add up to 90 degrees are called complementary angles and
two angles which add up to 180 degrees are called supplementary angles.

Vertically Opposite Angles:

∠𝑷𝑶𝑴 = ∠𝑵𝑶𝑸 & ∠𝑷𝑶𝑵 = ∠𝑴𝑶𝑸

Point to be remember:
The ratio of intercepts formed by a transversal intersecting three parallel
lines is the same as the ratio of intercepts
formed by any other transversal.

𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝑄
𝑖. 𝑒., =
𝐵𝐶 𝑄𝑅

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Polygons:
Straight sided, 2-D shapes that close in a space are known as polygons.

𝒏(𝒏 – 𝟑)
- Number of diagonals in an n-sided polygon =
𝟐
- Sum of all the exterior angles of any polygon = 360°
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
- Measure of each exterior angle of a regular polygon =
𝒏
- Sum of all interior angles of any polygon = (n-2) x 1800
(𝒏 − 𝟐)𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎
- Measure of each interior angle in a regular polygon=
𝒏

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Triangle:
Type of triangles Characteristics Figure
A triangle with sides of
Scalene Triangle differing lengths.

Is one with two sides that

Isosceles Triangle have the same length.

Equilateral Triangle A triangle with all sides of

equal length

Right-angled Triangle One angle of 90°

Obtuse-angled Triangle One of the angles of the

triangle is more than 90°

Acute-angled Triangle All the angles of the triangle

are less than 90°

Isosceles Right-angled A right-angled triangle,

Triangle whose two sides containing
the right angle are equal in
length.

Pythagoras Theorem:
Pythagoras theorem is applicable in the case of a right-angled triangle. It
says that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other two sides.

Hypotenuse2 = Base2 + Perpendicular2

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Properties of a triangle:
- The sum of all the angles of a triangle = 180° (∠𝑎 + ∠𝑏 + ∠𝑐 = 180)
- The sum of lengths of any two sides > length of the third side
- The difference of any two sides of any triangle < length of the third side

The area of any triangle formula:

𝟏 𝟏
Area = × base × height = r × s = (a × b × c)/4R = × a × b × sin C
𝟐 𝟐

where a, b and c are the sides of

the triangle, r is the inradius, R
is circumradius, and s is the
semi perimeter.

By Heron’s formula, the area of

the triangle is given by:

Area = √𝒔(𝒔 – 𝒂)(𝒔 – 𝒃)(𝒔 – 𝒄)

where ‘s’ is the semi perimeter

𝒂+𝒃+𝒄
𝒔=
𝟐

Some important Definitions:

Altitude of Triangle: Perpendicular drawn from a vertex of a triangle to the

side opposite side.

Median of triangle: The straight lines drawn from the vertex of triangle that
bisect the opposite sides of the triangles is called median of a triangle.

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Orthocentre: The point inside a triangle where the
altitudes meet is called orthocentre of the triangle.

AD, BE and EF are altitudes of the triangle and O is

the orthocentre of the triangle.

Circumcentre: The point inside a triangle where the perpendicular bisectors

of each side meet.

Centroid: The place/point where all the medians meet is called centroid of
the triangle. The Centroid divides each median in the ratio 2: 1.

AD, BF, CE – medians of ΔABC.

G is the centroid of the Δ.
AG: GD = 2: 1
CG: GE = 2: 1
BG: GF = 2: 1

Centroid divides the line joining the circumcentre & orthocentre in ratio 2:1.

Incentre: The point inside a triangle where the angle bisectors meet.

Note: All the above points are same in case of Equilateral triangle.

Right angle triangle:

H
Circumradius = 2

P+B−H
Inradius (r) = 2

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Important Theorems for Triangles

Basic Proportionality Theorem (BPT):

Any line parallel to one side of a
triangle divides the other two sides
proportionally. So, if DE is drawn parallel to
BC, then it would divide sides AB and AC
proportionally.

i.e., AD/DB = AE/EC

Mid-point theorem: The line segment joining

mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to
the third side of the triangle and is half of it.

P and Q are the mid points of AB and AC

respectively.
PQ || BC & PQ = BC/2

Apollonius’ theorem: In a
triangle, the sum of the
squares of any two sides
of a triangle is equal to
twice the sum of the
square of the median to
the third side and square
of half the third side.

AB2 + AC2 = 2(AD2 + BD2)

(AD is median)

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Interior angle Bisector theorem: In a triangle,
the angle bisector of an angle divides the
opposite side to the angle in the ratio of the
remaining two sides.

Exterior angle Bisector theorem: In a

triangle, the angle bisector of any exterior
angle of a triangle divides the side opposite
to the external angle in the ratio of the
remaining two sides

Similarity of Triangles:
- AA similarity (angle – angle)
- SSS similarity (side – side – side)
- SAS similarity (side – angle – side)

Types of Quadrilaterals

Quad = four. So, quadrilaterals are polygons with 4 sides.

Square & Rectangle are the most basic quadrilaterals.

Parallelogram: A parallelogram is a quadrilateral when its opposite sides are

equal and parallel. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

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Perimeter = 2 × sum of adjacent sides
Area = b × h
(b – width, h – length of perpendicular)

Rhombus: A rhombus is a quadrilateral when all sides are equal. The

diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles (90°)

Perimeter = 4 × Side
1
Area = 2 × d1 × d2
(d1 and d2 are diagonals)

Trapezium: A trapezium is a
quadrilateral in which only one pair
of the opposite sides is parallel.

Area = ½ × (a + b) × h
Perimeter = Sum of all four sides

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CIRCLE:

Area =  r2
Perimeter = 2r = d (as we know d = 2r)

Properties of circles:

1. ⊥ bisector of any chord always passes through

centre & vice – versa is also true.

2. If the ⊥ distances from the centre are equal then

chords are equal
If OP = OQ, then AB + AD

(MN = secant, AB & AD are chords. Arc AB = minor arc,

Arc ADB = major arc.)

3. The angle bisector of two equal chords always passes through the centre.

4. The angle at the center of a circle is twice the

angle at the circumference.

a) So, angle made by the diameter on the

circumference = 1800/2 = 900

b) Angle made by a chord in the major arc is & in

minor arc is obtuse & these angles are
supplementary.

c) Angles made by a chord or chords of equal

lengths on the circumference are equal.

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Tangent of circle: A straight line
that touches the circumference of the
circle at only one point.

- The angle between a tangent and

radius is 90 degrees.

- Tangents drawn by a point on circle

are always equal. AB = AD

PA × PB = PC × PD

PT 2 = PA × PB (where PT is a tangent)

Alternate segment theorem:

For any circle, the angle formed between the tangent
and the chord through the point of contact of the
tangent is equal to the angle formed by the chord in
the alternate segment

Mensuration:
Cube:
V = a3
L.S.A = 4a2
T.S.A = 6a2
Length of each face diagonal
= a√2
Length of body diagonal = a√3

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Cuboid:

V = l.b.h
LSA = 2 (lh + bh) = 2h (l + b)
TSA = 2 (lb + bh + hl)
Lengths of face diagonals are √l2 + b 2 , √l2 + h2 , √b 2 + h2
Length of body diagonal = √l2 + b 2 + h2

Sphere:
4
Volume = 3 𝛑r 3
Total surface area = 4𝛑 r2

Hemisphere:
2
Volume = 3 𝛑 r 3
C.S.A = 2 𝛑 r 2
T.S.A = 3 𝛑 r 2

Cylinder:
V = r 2 h
LSA = 2𝛑rh
TSA = 2𝛑 r 2 + 2𝛑rh = 2𝛑 r( r + h)

Cone:
1
Volume = 3 𝛑r 2 h
LSA = 𝛑rl
TSA = 𝛑r2 + 𝛑r(r + l)
Slant height = √r 2 + h2

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PERMUTATION & COMBINATION

P&C Basics:
When two tasks are performed in succession, i.e., they are connected by an
'AND', to find the total number of ways of performing the two tasks, you
must MULTIPLY the individual number of ways.
When only one of the two tasks is performed, i.e., the tasks are connected by
an 'OR', to find the total number of ways of performing the two tasks you
must ADD the individual number of ways.

▪ Arrangement: n items can

be arranged in n! ways
▪ Permutation: A way of
selecting and arranging r
objects out of a set of n
objects. Denoted as nPr =
n!/(n-r)!

▪ Combination: A way of
selecting r objects out of n
(arrangement does not
𝐧!
matter) nCr = (𝐧−𝐫)!𝐫!

▪ Number of ways of
selecting r things out of n
distinct things is nCr = nCn-r

▪ No. of ways of choosing

any number of things out of
n distinct things is 2n
▪ No. of ways of choosing any number of things out of n identical things is
n+1
▪ No. of ways of distributing n identical things among r distinct groups such
that all may get any number of things is (n+r-1)C(r-1)

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▪ No. of ways of distributing n identical things among r distinct groups such
that all get at least 1 is (n-1)C(r-1)

▪ No. of ways of distributing n distinct things among r distinct groups is rn

▪ If x items out of n items are repeated, then the number of ways of arranging
these n items is n!/x! ways. If a items, b items and c items are repeated
𝐧!
within n items, they can be arranged in ( ) ways.
𝐚!𝐛!𝐜!

▪ Derangement: If n distinct items are arranged, the number of ways they

can be arranged so that they do not occupy their intended spot is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 (−𝟏)𝐧
𝐃 = 𝐧! ( – + – +⋯… )
𝟎! 𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑! 𝐧!

▪ Circular arrangement of 'n' distinct items: Fix the first item and then
arrange all the other items linearly with respect to the first item. This can be
done in (n-1)! ways.
(𝐧−𝟏)!
Note: In a necklace, it can be done in ways.
𝟐

PROBABILITY

Probability is nothing but determining the chance, that event might occur. It
is denoted by P (E), where P is probability and E is the event.

0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1 by definition

Number of favourable outcomes

Probability of event occurring = Total no.of outcomes

E.g. The sample space for the tossing of three coins simultaneously is given
by:
S = {(T , T , T) , (T , T , H) , (T , H , T) , (T , H , H ) , (H , T , T ) , (H , T , H) ,
(H , H, T) ,(H , H , H)}
Total outcomes = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8 since each coin can have 2 outcomes.

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