What Is the OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer
systems use to communicate over a network. Introduced in 1983 by representatives of major
computer and telecommunications companies, it was adopted by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) as an international standard in 1984. The OSI model was the first
standard model for network communications, helping major companies adopt a unified
approach to networking.

Although the modern Internet relies on the simpler TCP/IP model, the OSI 7-layer model
remains widely used. It serves as a valuable tool for visualizing and understanding how
networks operate, and it is particularly useful for isolating and troubleshooting networking
problems. The OSI model provides a structured framework that aids in the design,
implementation, and management of complex network systems.

We’ll describe OSI layers “top down” from the application layer
that directly serves the end user, down to the physical layer.
1. Physical Layer

● Function: Transmits raw binary data over a physical medium.

● Key Points:
○ Hardware Specifications: Defines the physical characteristics of the network,
including cable types, connectors, and signal types.
○ Transmission: Converts data into electrical, optical, or radio signals for
transmission.
○ Bit Synchronization: Ensures timing and synchronization of bits for accurate
data transmission.
○ Components: Cables, hubs, repeaters, switches, and network interface cards
(NICs).
○ Protocols and Standards: IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet), RS-232 (Serial), and others.

2. Data Link Layer

● Function: Provides reliable node-to-node data transfer by detecting and possibly

correcting errors that may occur in the Physical layer.
● Key Points:
○ Framing: Divides data into frames for easier handling and error detection.
○ Error Detection and Correction: Uses techniques like CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) to detect errors in frames.
○ Flow Control: Manages the rate of data transmission to prevent overwhelming
the receiver.
○ Two Sub-layers:
■ Logical Link Control (LLC): Manages frame synchronization, flow
control, and error checking.
■ Media Access Control (MAC): Uses MAC addresses to identify devices
on the network and control access to the physical transmission medium.
○ Components: Switches, bridges, and NICs.
○ Protocols and Standards: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), and
others.

3. Network Layer

● Function: Manages the delivery of packets across multiple networks and determines the
best path for data transfer.
● Key Points:
○ Logical Addressing: Uses IP addresses to identify devices on the network.
○ Routing: Determines the optimal path for data to travel from source to
destination across interconnected networks.
○ Packet Forwarding: Moves packets from one network to another.
 ○ Fragmentation and Reassembly: Breaks down large packets into smaller ones
for transmission and reassembles them at the destination.
○ Components: Routers and Layer 3 switches.
○ Protocols and Standards: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control
Message Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), and others.

4. Transport Layer

● Function: Ensures complete and reliable data transfer between devices.

● Key Points:
○ Segmentation and Reassembly: Divides data into segments and reassembles
them at the destination.
○ Error Detection and Correction: Ensures data integrity through error checking
and retransmission if necessary.
○ Flow Control: Manages the rate of data transfer to match the capabilities of the
receiving device.
○ Connection Management: Establishes, maintains, and terminates connections
between devices.
○ Protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) for reliable communication and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) for faster, but less reliable communication.
○ Components: Gateways, firewalls.

5. Session Layer

● Function: Manages and controls the dialogues (sessions) between computers.

● Key Points:
○ Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: Manages the
creation, maintenance, and termination of communication sessions.
○ Synchronization: Provides synchronization points in data streams to allow
recovery from crashes or interruptions.
○ Dialogue Control: Manages the direction of data flow (half-duplex or full-duplex).
○ Protocols and Standards: NetBIOS, RPC (Remote Procedure Call), PPTP
(Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol).

6. Presentation Layer

● Function: Translates data between the application layer and the network format.
● Key Points:
○ Data Translation: Converts data formats between the application and the
network (e.g., character encoding, data serialization).
○ Data Encryption and Decryption: Ensures data security during transmission.
○ Data Compression: Reduces the size of data to save bandwidth.
○ Protocols and Standards: SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer
Security), JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC.
7. Application Layer

● Function: Provides network services directly to end-user applications.

● Key Points:
○ Interface for User Applications: Directly interacts with software applications to
provide communication functions.
○ Network Services: Manages protocols for various network services, such as
email, file transfer, and web browsing.
○ Protocols and Standards: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File
Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), DNS (Domain Name
System), POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3), IMAP (Internet Message Access
Protocol).

Advantages

For Users and Operators of Computer Networks:

1. Determine Hardware and Software Requirements:

○ The OSI model helps users and operators identify the necessary
hardware and software to build their network.
2. Understand and Communicate Networking Processes:
○ It allows users to understand and communicate the processes
followed by components communicating across a network.
3. Troubleshoot Network Issues:
○ It assists in performing troubleshooting by identifying which network
layer is causing an issue and focusing efforts on that layer.

For Network Device Manufacturers and Networking Software Vendors:

4. Enable Open Interoperability:

○ The OSI model enables manufacturers to create devices and
software that can communicate with products from any other vendor,
allowing for open interoperability.
5. Define Network Product Scope:
○ It helps vendors define which parts of the network their products
should work with.
6. Communicate Product Operations:
 ○ It allows vendors to communicate to users at which network layers
their product operates – for example, only at the application layer, or
across the stack.

Drawbacks of the OSI Model

1. Complexity:
○ The OSI model can be overly complex for practical implementation,
leading to confusion and difficulty in understanding for some users.
2. Theoretical Nature:
○ It is a theoretical model and not always directly applicable to
real-world networking scenarios. The OSI model does not always
align perfectly with practical implementations.
3. Redundancy:
○ Some functions are repeated across different layers, leading to
redundancy. For example, error detection can occur in both the data
link layer and the transport layer.
4. Implementation Inflexibility:
○ Strict adherence to the OSI model can lead to inflexibility, as
real-world protocols often span multiple layers or do not fit neatly into
a single layer.
5. Performance Overhead:
○ Implementing all seven layers can introduce performance overhead,
especially in smaller or less complex networks where a simpler
model might suffice.

OSI vs. TCP/IP Model

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

 TCP/IP stands for
OSI stands for Open Systems
Full Form Transmission Control
Interconnection
Protocol/Internet Protocol

Layers It has 7 layers It has 4 layers

Usage It is low in usage It is mostly used

It is horizontally
Approach It is vertically approached
approached

Delivery of the package is

Delivery of the package is
Delivery not guaranteed in TCP/IP
guaranteed in OSI Model
Model

Replacement of tools and changes Replacing the tools is not

Replacement
can easily be done in this model easy as it is in OSI Model
 It is more reliable than
Reliability It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model
OSI Model

Not tied to specific protocols, but

examples include HTTP
HTTP, FTP, TCP, UDP, IP,
Protocol Example (Application), SSL/TLS
Ethernet
(Presentation), TCP (Transport), IP
(Network), Ethernet (Data Link)

Built into Data Link and Transport Built into protocols like
Error Handling
layers TCP

Both connection-oriented (TCP) TCP

Connection
and connectionless (UDP) protocols (connection-oriented),
Orientation
are covered at the Transport layer UDP (connectionless)