CLASS-12th

Bles
BEST HANDWRITTEN NOTES

MADE WITH
By-Bharat Panchal Sir
bharat panchal 92
use n p
Chemistry Bj
demistry j m
 BIOMOLECULES
They are naturally occurring organic compounds which are essential component of
↑
living
organism present in different cell .

CARBOLYDRATES
These are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or

substances which on hydrolysis yield polyhydroxy aldehyde and kelones.

General formula : (x(10ly
classification on the basis of taste :

1)
Sugar :

These are crystalline solid, sweet in table and soluble in water

eg Glucose , Fructose, Cane

Sugar (sucrose)
2) Non-sugar : These are amorphous solid , tasteless and insoluble in water

starch, cellulose, glycogen ele.

e.g
NOTE
All the compound which fit into the formula ie ( (Holy may not be

classified as carbohydrates acetic acid (Chycoon) fit into this general formula
e
g
.

x (20ly but is not a carbohydrate similary rhamnose Clos is a

carbohydrate but does not fit into this definition.

classification Based on hydrolysis :

carbohydrates
↓ -
↓
Monsaccharide Oligosaccharide polysaccharide

↓ Y
Y

Disaccharide Trisaccharide Tetrasaccharide

eg sucrose
eg Raffinose eg stachyose
monosaccharides :
simplest carbohydrates ,
which can't be further hydrolysed
e Glucose, fructose
g
.

oligosaccharides :

which on hydrolysis gives 2 to 20 monosaccharides

e
.
g
.
sucrose drolysis> Glucose + fructose

drosis Glucoseusthose
maltose
Lactose

POLYSACCHARIDES :
which give 100-1000 monosaccharides on hydrolysis
Insulin, starch cellulose ele .
eg ,
 classification of monosaccharides
Aldose : Those monosaccharides which contain aldehyde group.

Ketose : Those monosaccharides which contain Ketone group

.

carbon atoms general term Aldehyde Ketone

3 Triose Aldo triose Ketotriose

↑ Tetrose Aldotelrose Ketotetrose
E Pentose Ketopentose
Aldopentose
6 Hexose Aldonexose Ketohexose
7 Heptose Aldoheptose Ketoheplose

GLUCOSE It is an aldonexose and also known as dextrose

·
It is the most abundant
organic compound on .
earth

& Methods of Preparation of Glucose

from Sucrose :

It GM1206
C 24012 THO ,
+ CoM1206
(glucose) (fructose)

from starch :
commercially glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of starch .

Ut
(GHOOgin +
140 < CoMnOg where n = 100 - 100

Properties of Glucose :
. Six carbon in
1
straight chain :

CHO
45 9

(nong
,
, Chy-Che-CH-CH-Chichs
n-Hexane
Inon
it forms that all six
on prolonged heating with HI
,
n-Nexane ,
suggesting carbon

atoms are linked in a

straight chain
. Presence
2 of carbonyl group :

- -
4- 0
- n -
=N -
04

(none +Non
,nowe + no
(nong +H CN

in on anyon in or

Oxime Cyanohydrin

Glucose react with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a molecule

of hydrogen cyanide to
give cyanohydrin . These reactions confirm
 the presence of a
carbony group in glucose .
Presence of aldehyde group

CHO Coor
Bra/ko
Canon)& , (nonle
inon con
Gluconic acid

Glucose gets oxidised to six Carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid)

mild Bromine water. This indicates
on reaction with a
oxidising agent like
that the
carbonyl group is present as an aldehyde group.

Presence of 5-on group :

CHO O CHO
it
(nonle CH3-C-0-c- Ch
Acetic anhydride
(n-o-cra)
inon ino-"c-chy
Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose penta acetate
which confirms the presence of 5-on group

Presence of 10 alcoholic group :

CHO COOH coon

UNO3 HNO3
(noule Oxidation
>
Knowle <
Oxidation (CHOH)
inzon coon inon
glucose saccharic acid .
gluconic acid

On oxidation with nitric acid glucose as well as gluconic acid both yield
a dicarboxylic acid called saccharic acid. This indicates the presence of primary
in
alcoholic group glucose .
NOTE :
All the naturally occurring sugars belong to D -
Series
eg D-glucose ,
D-Ribose and D-fructose .

·
D andI does not mean dextro rotatory (d) or laevo rotatory (1) . Although all
monosaccharides are optically active molecule · So for them (t) and () are

used to represent dextrorotation and laevo rotation respectively.

D-configuration on group on Rons configuration on group on LUS

- -

CHP CHU

n -'On D-Glyceraldehyde no -k-n Glyceraldehyde

cuz ou inzon
 Cyclic of Glucose
straight chain Str. Str .
Haworth projection
of Glucose Cfischer Projection)
C-D(t) Glucose CHON
n-y On
-

>
-
on in R U .

N H
O
OH H
n
at C1
nou &
170x
- Y

H
H On On
H On
Ou O OU
Y
no 4
CHION
H
H
OH
V
↓ Dcaucopranose
no
CH204" -
y CHON

O
B-D (t) Glucose N OU H
DCH) Glucose On
-

2
&
-

no U Y
on in LHS
at 11 H On on 1
O H
Y OU

CHION
u On
↓ D(H) Glucopyranose
NOTE :
projection the six membered cyclic Str of glucose is
: Haworth ,

called Pyranose structure (in analogy with pyran 1)

Anomers : Anomers are isomers that differs in configuration at C .

Supporting Evidence cyclic :

Str of Glucose

1 )
.
Despite having
aldehyde group, glucose does not give 2 4-DNP ,
test
,

schiff test and it does not form adduct with Nanso,

2) Pentacetate of glucose does not react with NK -on indicating ,
the abse-
once of free -no
group .
3) Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline form which are
named as < and B .
They both have different mpt and different temp.
too crystallisation.
FRUCTOSE :
It is a natural monosaccharides found in fruits honey and ,

vegetable. In its pure form it is used as a sweetener. It is also an

important ketonexose.
40

nomp
>
(b) 04 6 CH204
-

I
-
4 D( ) -

on
-

Fructose 404
CH OH n
,

c OU
4
on
= 0
4 -

crono n/ I
1
40 4 on

OU
H
40 CHOH n04, Oh
=j o
OH
I on
>

40
H
B-DCluctose on H
CHzOU

n I
nona
O
4 -

CHzon
 DISACCHARIDES
Two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide

linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule. Such a

linkage is
called Glycosidic linkage .

1. sucrose :

·
most common disaccharides is sucrose which on hydrolysis
gives equimolar mixture of DCH glucose and DC fructose .
· The two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic linkage
involved in
blu C of X-D glucose and 12 of B-D-fructose are

glycosidic
6
bond formation Sucrose is a .

non-reducing sugar .
CHOH

-0 &

nonc/0 M
H
H
H
& I 2 ,
On H On
4
-
O
OH CH2O4
3 & J 46
4
H OU OU

Hydrolysis of Sucrose
4+
G2 192022 +H 0
, > CoHecOg + CH1206
D-Sucrose D (t) -
Glucose DG fouclose
+ 66 . 50 + 52 . 50 -92 4 .

sucrose is dextro rotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextro

rotatory
glucose and laevorotatory fructose. Since the laevorotation of fructose

C 92 . 49 is more than dextro rotation of glucose (+ 32 5%) .

, the

mixture is lavorotatory .

Thus hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a

change in the sign of rotation ,

from dextro to lavo. This process

is known as inversion of sucrose . And product is called

invert sugar
MALTOSE
Maltose is composed of two X-D-glucose units in which Is

of one glucose is linked to C of another glucose unit

.

The free aldehyde group can beproduced at 11

of second glucose in solution and it shows
reducing properties
so it is a
reducing sugar
 6
CON 6CO4
O
H S 04 H 5
H

4
44 .
1 ↑ 2

On 4 On 4
O
OH On
12
is di 4
3

Or

Lactose :
it is more commonly known as milk sugar since this disaccharide is
found in milk. It is composed of B-D-galactose and B-D-glucose
·
The
linkage is blu 11 of galactose and 1 of
glucose . Free aldehyde group

may be produced atC-1 of glucose unit , hence it is also a

reducing sugar .

CHIon CHOH
40 O 4
In 0
-

on
I

Of
n o
4
on
H Y
U

H 4 OU
OH

B-D-Galactose B-D-Glucose

POLYSACCHARIDES :

1) starch .
It is a main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is
very important
diet for human beings. It is stored in seeds , roots and tubers like potatoes,

rice ,
maize , barley , wheat etc
STRUCTURE OF STARCH

i) Amylose ii) Amylopectin

·
It is 15 % to 20 % in starch ·
It is so to 83 % in starch
·
It is water soluble · It is water insoluble
It has linear chain of C-DGlucose is highly branched in which
It
long
· ·
,

·
The glycosidic linkages are formed chains are formed by glycosidic linkage
bloc and ce of two units blu C and C carbons of two C-D-glucose
glucose
units while branched chain are formed
by the formation of glycosidic linkage
blu < and 1 carbons & two <-D
Glucose unit.
 Cellulose
It is present only in plants
. It is the most abundant organic substance

found in plants . It is the main component of cell wall of plant cell.

The cellulose has B-D-glucose units linked by glycosidic linkage at C and (4

of two glucose units
. Its
glycosidic linkage is also called
B-glycosidic linkage

Glycogen :
It is also called animal starch .
It is present only in animals in their
muscles and liver and brain.
When the
·

body of animals needs glucose , then glycogen is changed into

glucose by enzymes
· Its structure is similar to
amylopectin of starch. That is a highly branched

structure having <-D-glucose units linked by glycosidic linkage

PROTEINS
These are the nitrogeneous biomolecules which are necessary for growth of

living organism.
· In our body all harmones , all enzymes, haemoglobin etc . all are proteins
Proteins are polymer of <-amino acids "
R
n - c-coon str of <-amino acids
Nu
NOTE With the exception of glycine ,
all other 2-amino acids have chiral

carbon atom and are optically active.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS

On the Basis of Nature :

Acidic amino acid

Total no ·
of carboxylic acid group are more than amino

group eg as partic acid and glutamic acid

CHCHL COON
&Co Ea n-c-coon
Nu Naz
Basic Amino Acid :
Total number of amino groups are more than carboxy
group e
g lysine and histidine

-CH-NH-ins
.

G (e-N1 Ca
4 - C- coor H-C -

COON

14 Will
 Neutral Amino Acids
Those amino acids which have equal no of carboxylic
acid and amino group . Glycine Alanine Valine
, ,

I CH3 CHy-CH-CHy &

n-c-coon
Fin
U-C-COOK n-- COOH

Niz NK
classification on the Basis of Synthesis

Essential amino acid

Not prepared by our body ,
so we have to take them from

in
outside through . These
our diet are total 10 number. Deficiency of essential

amino acids in diet can cause disease like 'Kwashorker'

valine, isoleucine , Lysine, leucine ele
eg

Non-Essential amino acid :

These are prepared inside our body and need not

to be taken from outside. These are also 10 im numbers.

eg glycine Alanine
, ,
Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid.
PROPERTIES
2) Amino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids
have
2) They high mpt due to their salt like structure
3) These are soluble in water.

ZWITTER ION OR DIPOLAR ION :

Amino acids exist as dipolarion and have both

positive and
negative charges. 4 H

R-c-coon1 'R C - -
1000

wan +
⑦
Wills zwilterion

zwitter ion is formed by the transfer of a proton from carboxy group

to amino
group .
PEPTIDES
when two or more -amino acids are linked together by peptide
linkage ,
then these are called peplides
-
when two amino acids combined a dipeptide is formed
-
when three amino acids combined a tripeptide is formed
> When more than three amino acids combined , polypeptide is formed.
i

non-concede
H CH3 a

Glycine Alanine Gly-Ala

 The polypeptide having molecular mass more than 10000 y are called proteins.
some times , a polypeptide with fewer amino acids is also called a protein if ,

they have a well defined conformation of a protein , such as insulin which ,

contain only 51 amino acids .

FIBROUS PROTIENS GLOBULAR PROTEINS

They have linear thread like str. ·

They have 3-D Spheroidal shape .

·
These are soluble in water or · These are insoluble in water but

solutions of acid base, salt in acid and bases

aqueous ,
soluble
strong
Protein chains held together by Protein molecules folded
·
are ·
are to give
intermolecular hydrogen Spheroidal shapes
&

bonding 3-D

· These are linear condemnation . These are cross linked condensation

products products of acidic and basic amino acids

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF HYDROLYSIS

simple Protein
e.g albumin
on hydrolysis gives only amino acids ,
Keratin

conjugated Protein on hydrolysis gives 4-amino acids as well as some non

protein portion also (called prosthetic group (

Name of Protein Prosthetic Group

Nucleo Proteins Nucleic acid

Glyco Proteins Sugars (Carbohydrates

Lipo Proteins Lipids such as lecithin
Phospho Proteins Phosphoric acid residue

Chromo Proteins such as Fe, Cu Chaemoglobin (

Derived Proteins :
They are the product of partial hydrolysis of simple or

conjugated proteins e.g Proteoses, peptones and peptides .

etc

STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
PRIMARY STRUCTURE : Each polypeptide in a protein has amino acids linked with each

other in a specific sequence and this sequence of amino acid is said to be

the primary structure of that protein

 SECONDARY STRUCTURE
secondary str ·
of proteins refers to the shape in which
chain exist
a
long polypeptide .

They are found to exist in two different type of

structure namely X-helix and

-pleated sheet structure

Tertiary structure
of proteins
The tertiary structure represents overall
folding
of the
folding of the polypeptide chains it further
folding of secondary Str .

It
gives rise to two major molecular shapes

namely fibrous and globular

Quaternary structure
some of the proteins are composed of two or more poly-
-

peptide chains referred to as subunits

The spatial arrangement of these subunits w r
. .
t

to each other is known as quaternary structure

DENATURATION OF PROTEINS
During denaturation secondary and tertiary structure

are destroyed but primary structure remains intact. The physical and biological
properties also changes but chemical properties remains same

It can be done by change in pH and temperature.

e .

g Boiling of egg ,
on
boiling it solidified i.e coagulate.
which is done by change in pu
·

carding of milk ,

ENZYMES
These are
biological catalyst, which increase rate of biochemical reaction
All globular proteins.
enzymes are
·

e .

g zymase , Invertase ,
Maltase ,
Lactase, Emulsion ,
Urease ,
Pepsin , Trypsin
They increase the rate of reaction , because they decrease the
magnitude
of activation energy of biochemical reactions Activation energy for acid
eg
hydrolysis of sucrose is 692k1lmd while it is only 2 15K5/mot , when .

hydrolysed with an enzyme.

Properties
of Enzymes
1)
High Efficiency
2) Extremely small quantities
3) Optimum temp and ph- about 37 % & around 7 Oh

4) Specificity
VITAMINS :
These are the organic compounds which can not be produced by
the body and must be taken in small quantity through diet ,
for normal

health
, growth and maintenance of body .

for simplicity these are designated as A, B, C, D , E and K.

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMIN :

water soluble vitamins :

These vitamins are soluble in water e

g Vitamin B and
. C

These must be taken regularly through diet as these are excreted in urine

and can not be stored.

fat Soluble Vitamins :

These are the vitamins which are soluble in fats but

insoluble in water Vitamin A, D E and K They are stored in liver and

eg
.

adipose (fat storing) tissues .

 NUCLEIC ACID :
These are biopolymers present inside a nucleus
the of all
living
cells in the form of nucleoproteins , responsible for heredity
. These are also called

polynucleotides.
The particles in nucleus of cell (responsible for heredity) ,
are called chrome
somes
chromosomes are made up of proteins and nucleic acid.

Nucleic Acid

↓ ↓
DNA RNA-
Ribo Nucleic Acid Ribo Nucleic Acid
Deoxy
is
sugar present in
in DNA R.N.A i
The
sugar present 2-Deoxy The
·
·

D() ribose DC -) Ribose

·
DNA has double stranded <-helix Str. ·
RNA has single stranded X-helix str-

Chiefly occurs in nucleus of cell ·

mainly occurs in Cytoplasm of cell.

·
DNA contains cytosine and thymine as ·
RNA contains cytosine and uracil
pyrimidine bases and
, guanine and aspurimidine bases guanine and ,

adenine as purine bases admine as purine popes .

·
DWA controls the hereditary effect. RNA controls the synthesis of proteins.
·
DNA has the unique property of replication ·
RNA usually does not replicate.

·
DNA molecules are very large ·
RN.A molecules are much smaller .
(mol. cut vary from 6 million to 16 million) (mol cot
ranging from 20 , 000 to Good

Pentose Sugar
B-D-ribose B-D-2-deoxy ribose

non
, ona
nons on
oa
14
out
n1
on 4
14

Nucleoside : 3
HOH,
Sugar + Base
O Base

inan is

Nucleotide :

Phosphate + Nucleoside · -on 3

O Base
Or

inan
phosphate + Sugartbase
is