Unit 2 – Electric fields in

matter
Capacitor:
• It is a device for storing charge.
• A capacitor is an electrical device consisting of two conductors separated by an insulating
or dielectric medium and carrying equal and opposite charges.
• The conductors are called plates and it may be in any shape.
• It is an arrangements for storing large amount of electrical charge.

conductor
d
If we give charge to capacitor, more energy are stored in the form of electrostatic potential
energy. These electrical energy used in electrical circuits. For our requirements, we design
capacitor in different size and shape.
Normally we design capacitor in cylindrical or spherical.
Principle of capacitor:
Consider a metal plate (A) which is kept in an insulating stand. Let some positive charge
be given to this plate till its potential become maximum.
But to get more charge to this plate, potential should be decrease.
A A B

To decrease potential, place the uncharged metal plate (B) near the charged metal plate
(A).
The negative free charges of plate B are attracted by the metal plate A and they are
induced at the left side of the metal plate B and the positive charges are induced at the
right side of metal plate A.
Magnitude of charges will be same in plate B, so the net charge on the plate B is zero.
 A B A B

grounded
E

Now plate B is grounded, then all the positive charges are move to ground. But negative charges on
plate B continue to attracted by the positive charges on plate A. Because of these charges, an electric
field will be created between them.
The charges on the electric field will have electric potential energy i.e., energy will be stored in the
form of electric potential.
Because of the negative charges on the conductor B, it will have negative potential. When we place
this near to conductor A, this will get a negative potential from conductor B. i.e., the potential of
conductor A decreases, so it stores more charges, simply we can say its capacity increases.
“Hence we conclude that the capacitance of an insulated conductor is increased considerably by
bringing an uncharged earthed conductor near to it.”  This is the principle of conductor.
If the capacitor is charged electrically, energy will be stored in the form of electrostatic potential
energy. We can use this stored energy in any circuits.
Electrical capacitance:
The ability of a conductor to store electric charge is called electrical capacitance.
If we charge the conductor electrically, charge will be increased and its electrostatic potential also
increases.
i.e., electric charge is directly proportional to the electrostatic potential.
Q
QαV
Q = CV Conductor V
Where, C - Electrical capacitance
𝑄
C=
𝑉
For a fixed pair of conductors, the ratio of charge to potential difference will be constant. We call
this constant as the capacitance of the capacitor and denoted by C.
SI unit of capacitance is Farad.
1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
From the eqn, unit of capacitance is Coulomb/volt and is called Farad related by: 1 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
Types of Capacitors according to shape:
The value of C (capacitance) depends on the size and geometry of the
plates i.e., design the capacitors of different geometry.
The more commonly used capacitors are,
1. Parallel plate capacitor
2. Cylindrical capacitor
3. Spherical capacitor
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor:
Consider two identical flat conducting plates arranged parallel to one another, separated by
distance d as shown in figure.
+q -q σ P
+q
Or
P Q d

-q
d Q
Let A be the area of each plate and medium between the plates is air.
A charge +q is given to the plate P, it induces a charge –q on the upper surface of the
earthed plate Q.
The distance between them(d) is small compared with the plate dimensions to enable us to
ignore the fringing effects near the ends.
Thus electric lines of force starting from plate P and ending at the plate Q are parallel to
each other and perpendicular to the plates.
The electric field E is nearly uniform in the region between the plates and is
given by the application of Gauss’s law.
Electric field at a point between the two plates,
σ
𝐸= -----(1)
ε0
Where, σ – surface charge density
Surface charge density(charge per unit area) is given by,
𝑄
σ= -----(2)
𝐴
Eqn (1) becomes,
𝑄 1
𝐸= -----(3)
𝐴 ε0
If ‘V’ is the potential difference between the plates, then
𝑉
𝐸 = -----(1)
𝑑
Eqn (3) becomes,
𝑉 𝑄 1
=
𝑑 𝐴 ε0

𝑄𝑑
𝑉=
𝐴ε0
The capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is
𝑄 𝑄 ε0 𝐴
𝐶= = 𝑄𝑑 =
𝑉 𝑑
𝐴ε0

ε0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
Capacitance of spherical capacitor:
Spherical capacitor is made of two concentric spheres A & B (having same centre) of radii
‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively.

A charge +q is given to the inner sphere A, charges are uniformly distributed. Because of
this, negative charges will be induced in the inner surface of the outer spherical shell. Then,
the outer sphere B is earthed.
Thus electric field lines of force starting from sphere A and ending at sphere B i..e., electric
field exist and it is uniform.
To find electric flux, draw a Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’.
According to Gauss law, electric flux through Gaussian surface
𝑞
ϕ=
ε0
𝑞
ϕ= 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 =
ε0

𝑞
𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ =
ε0

𝑞
𝐸 𝑑𝑠 =
ε0
(θ =00, because area vector and electric field are parallel)
𝑞
𝐸(4π𝑟 2 ) =
ε0

𝑞
𝐸=
4π𝑟 2 ε0
The potential difference between the spheres A and B is given by
𝑏
𝑉= 𝑎
𝐸. 𝑑𝑟
𝑏 𝑞
𝑉= 𝑎 4π𝑟 2 ε0
𝑑𝑟

𝑞 𝑏 1
𝑉= 𝑑𝑟
4πε0 𝑎 𝑟 2

𝑏 𝑏
𝑞 𝑟 −2+1 𝑞 𝑟 −1
𝑉=
4πε0 −2+1 𝑎
= 4πε0 −1 𝑎

𝑞 1 𝑏 𝑞 1 1
V= − = − −
4πε0 𝑟 𝑎 4πε0 𝑏 𝑎

𝑞 1 1
V= −
4πε0 𝑎 𝑏
Capacitance of the spherical capacitor is
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
𝑞 1
𝐶= 𝑞 1 1 = 1 𝑏−𝑎
−
4πε0 𝑎 𝑏 4πε0 𝑎𝑏

𝑎𝑏
C= 4πε0
𝑏−𝑎
Capacitance of cylindrical capacitor:
Consider a cylindrical capacitor formed by two coaxial cylinders A and B of radii ‘a’ and ‘b’
respectively and each length l. Air is the medium between A and B.

If charge +q is given to the inner cylinder A, charges are uniformly distributed. Because of
this, negative charges will be induced on the inner surface of the outer cylinder and positive
charges will be induced on the outer surface of the outer cylinder. Then, the outer cylinder
B is earthed.
Thus electric field lines of force starting from cylinder A and ending at B i.e., electric field
exist and it is uniform. To find electric flux, draw a Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’.
Cylinder has 3 surface : Two plane circular surface and one curved surface
Flux from the top surface,
ϕ1 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
= 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 cos(900 )
ϕ1 = 0
Similarly, flux from the bottom surface,
ϕ2 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
= 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 cos(900 )
ϕ2 = 0
Flux from the curved surface,
ϕ3 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
= 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 cos(00 )
= 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸(2π𝑟𝑙)
ϕ3 = 𝐸(2π𝑟𝑙)
Total flux,
ϕ = ϕ1 + ϕ2 + ϕ3
= 0 + 0 + 𝐸(2π𝑟𝑙)
ϕ = 𝐸(2π𝑟𝑙)
According to Gauss law, electric flux through Gaussian surface
𝑞
ϕ=
ε0
𝑞
𝐸(2π𝑟𝑙) =
ε0

𝑞
𝐸=
2π𝑟𝑙ε0
The potential difference between the spheres A and B is given by
𝑏
𝑉= 𝑎
𝐸. 𝑑𝑟
𝑏 𝑞
𝑉= 𝑎 2π𝑟𝑙ε0
𝑑𝑟

𝑞 𝑏1
𝑉= 𝑎
𝑑𝑟
2π𝑙ε0 𝑟
 𝑞
𝑉= log 𝑒 𝑟 𝑏𝑎
2π𝑙ε0
𝑞
V= [log 𝑒 𝑏 − log 𝑒 𝑎]
2π𝑙ε0
𝑞 𝑏
V= log 𝑒
2π𝑙ε0 𝑎
Capacitance of the spherical capacitor is
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
𝑞 2π𝑙ε0
𝐶= 𝑞 𝑏 = 𝑏
log𝑒 log𝑒
2π𝑙ε0 𝑎 𝑎

2π𝑙ε0
𝐶= 𝑏
log𝑒
𝑎
Energy stored in a capacitor:
The energy of a charged capacitor is the amount of work done in charging it.
Suppose V is the potential difference between the plates of the capacitor of capacitance C.
The charge Q is given by,
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
There is charge +Q on one plate and –Q on the other. Let us increase the charge from Q to Q+dQ by
transferring a positive charge dQ from negative to the positive plate, working against the potential
difference V.
The work that has to be done is given by
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑉𝑑𝑄
𝑄
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑄
Therefore to charge the capacitor starting from the uncharged state to the final charge Q.
𝑄=𝑄 𝑄=𝑄 𝑄
𝑄 1 1 𝑄2
𝑤= 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑄 𝑑𝑄 =
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 2 0
𝑄=0 𝑄=0
 1 1
𝑤= 𝑄2 = 𝐶 2 𝑉 2
2𝐶 2𝐶
1
𝑤= 𝐶𝑉 2
2
This work done is stored up in the form of potential energy and supplies the energy necessary to
drive the current when the capacitor is discharged.
1
U = 𝐶𝑉 2 -----(1)
2
For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is given by
ε0 𝐴 𝑉
𝐶= & w.k,t 𝐸 =
𝑑 𝑑
Substitute in eqn 1,
1 ε0 𝐴
U= (𝐸𝑑)2
2 𝑑
1 ε0 𝐴
U= 𝐸2𝑑2
2 𝑑
1
U= ε0 𝐸 2 A d
2
Where, E – Energy stored in capacitor
Energy stored in a capacitor per unit volume(Energy density),
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑈
Energy density = =
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑑
1
ε0 𝐸 2 A d
U= 2
Ad
1
U= ε0 𝐸 2
2
This expression for energy is same as the general formula for the
energy in an electric field.
Dielectric material:
Dielectric or insulator materials which do not conduct electricity.
A dielectric (or an insulator) is a material in which all the electrons are
tightly bound to the nuclei of the atoms.
Thus there are no free electrons to carry current. Hence the electrical
conductivity of a dielectric is very low. (The conductivity of an ideal
dielectric is zero)
Ex: Glass, plastic, mica, oil etc
Placing a solid dielectric between the plates of a capacitor
serves three functions:
• It solves the mechanical problem of maintaining two large metal
sheets at a very small separation without actual contact.
• Using a dielectric decreases the maximum possible potential
difference between the capacitor plates.
• The capacitance of a capacitor of given dimensions is greater when
there is a dielectric material between the plates than when there is
vacuum.
• Michael Faraday was the one who first investigated and showed that
the charge on capacitor with the dielectric was greater than that on
the other without the dielectric.
• He showed that the capacitance of a capacitor when a dielectric
medium is placed is greater than the capacitance when no medium is
placed between the plates.
• If C0 is the capacitance when there is no medium and C is the
capacitance when there is some medium placed between the plates
of the capacitor then,
𝐶 = 𝑘𝑒 𝐶0
Where, ke – dielectric constant
Dielectric constant:
• It is the fundamental property of the dielectric material.
• It depends upon the material as well as external conditions.
• It is independent of the size and shape of the conductor(plates).
• Dielectric constant ke larger than unity for all materials.
For vacuum, ke = 1, air – 1.00054, silicon – 12, paper – 3.5
Experiment 1:
In this experiment, the battery initially charges the capacitor with charge ‘q’, the battery was then removed from
the capacitor circuit.
A voltmeter is connected across the capacitor to find the potential difference due to the stored charge ‘q’.
Let this potential be V0, so the capacitance of this vacuum capacitor is
𝑞
𝐶0 = -----(1)
𝑉0

Now when the dielectric slab is inserted between the plates of the same capacitor and again the potential
difference across the plates is measured. Let it be ‘V’.
It was found that the potential difference across the plates was less when the dielectric material was present
between the plates.
The total charge was same in both cases, because there was no way of losing the charge. So,
the potential difference between the plates of the capacitor fall by a factor of ke
𝑉0
i.e., V = -----(2)
𝑘𝑒
Due to this decrease in potential, the electric field also decreases by a factor of ke is given by
𝐸0
E= -----(3)
𝑘𝑒
As the charge in both the cases remains the same, the capacitor of the capacitor is
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
𝑞
𝐶= 𝑉0
𝑘𝑒
𝑞
𝐶= 𝑘
𝑉0 𝑒
𝐶 = 𝑘𝑒 𝐶0 -----(3)
Experiment 2:
In this experiment, the battery was not removed from the capacitor..
In the initial conditions, the charge on the two plates is +q0 and –q0 when the medium is
free space and electric potential is V0.
When dielectric is inserted to fill the space between the plates, the charge on the plates
increases by a factor ke.
i.e., 𝑞 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑞0
Since the battery is not removed, the potential difference and the electric field
remains the same.
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉0
𝑘𝑒 𝑞0
𝐶=
𝑉0
𝐶 = 𝑘𝑒 𝐶0 -----(5)
By comparing equation (4) and (5), it is clear that,
Either when battery is disconnected the charge remains the same and potential
decreases.
Or when the battery remains connected then the potential remains constant but
the charge increases.
In both the cases the capacitance increases.
Atomic view of dielectric:
It is clear that when a dielectric is inserted between the plates of a
capacitor, the presence of the dielectric reduces the potential
difference and also the resultant electric field between the plates of the
capacitor. This increases the capacitance of the capacitor.
If the dielectric material is analyzed microscopically, dielectric materials
are classified into two groups.
• Polar dielectric
• Non polar dielectric
Non polar dielectric:
Dielectric materials without permanent dipole moment are called non-polar dielectrics. These
materials consists of molecules which are not permanent dipoles. Or
Centre of gravity of the positive charges coincides with those of negative charges then the
molecules are non-polar molecule. i.e., molecules in which positive and negative charge share the
same centre.
When non-polar molecules are placed in an external electric field, the positive and negative
charges are separated more than normal due to the electric forces. In other words, the molecule
is now stretched but this stretching is limited due to the restoring forces.
The molecules acquire dipole moments and tend to align themselves in the direction of the
external electric field.
Electrically, dielectric still remain neutral although the charges are displaced from their
original positions.
Due to this, an induce charge appears on the two surfaces of the dielectric and they also
produce their own electric field in opposite direction in addition to the original electric field.
The net field is now the vector sum of the two fields and this field is always less than the
original field.
E0 – applied electric field
Edipole – electric field due to dipole
E – net electric field
𝐸 = 𝐸0 + 𝐸 dipole
𝐸 = 𝐸0 − 𝐸𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 (in scalar)
Polar dielectric:
Dielectric materials which have permanent dipole moment are called polar
dielectrics. These materials consists of molecules which are polar molecules.
In the absence of external electric field, the direction of the dipole
moments of polar molecules in a material is randomly directed.
They have dipole but they randomly arranged such that net dipole of the
system is zero.
When the polar materials is placed in the external electric field, a torque is
produced in the dipole and these electric dipoles tend to align themselves in
the direction of the applied electric field.
But due to thermal agitation, these arrangements are not perfectly in the
direction of external electric field. So an average, most of the dipoles are
aligned in the direction of the external electric field. These alignments will
be more directed if the external electric field is much stronger and the
temperature is low.
The alignments of the electric dipoles produces an electric field that is
directed opposite to the applied field and is smaller in magnitude.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸0 + 𝐸 dipole
𝐸 = 𝐸0 − 𝐸𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 (in scalar)
Note:
Both the field produced by polar and non-polar dielectrics act in the
same way i.e., they oppose the applied field.
Thus the effect of both polar and non polar dielectrics is to weaken
any applied field within them.
when the electric field reduces, the potential difference between the
two plates of a capacitor also decreases and hence the capacitance
increases.
Polarization of dielectric / Dielectric polarisation:
A dielectric (whether polar or non-polar) will acquire dipole moment by induction
when placed in an electric field. These elementary dipoles are oriented along the
field direction, the dielectric becomes polarized without affecting the neutrality of
dielectric.
“The phenomenon in which an alignment of positive and negative charges takes
place within the dielectric is called polarization”.
Or
“Production of elementary dipoles in dielectric material under the effect of
external electric field is called polarization”.
Note:
Dielectric becomes polarized without affecting the neutrality of dielectric.
Induced effect is present only when electric field is present.
By induction, the one side gets positive charge while the other side get negative charge. So
the electric field setup by them(E') opposes the external electric field(E0) shows the
induction process.

The induced effect is present only when the electric field is present. The resultant field is
given by 𝐸 = 𝐸0 + 𝐸′
The field 𝐸′ is due to induced charge points opposite to 𝐸0.
Hence the field inside dielectric decreases same as potential.
 𝑉
WKT 𝐸=
𝑑
𝑉0 𝐸0
𝑉= , 𝐸=
𝑘 𝑘
𝑉0 𝐸0
=𝑘, =𝑘
𝑉 𝐸
𝑉0 𝐸0
= =𝑘
𝑉 𝐸
Polarization effect cause the decrease in the net electric field within the
dielectric.
Polarisation 𝑝 is defined as the induced dipole moment per unit volume.
𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑝=
𝑉
Magnitude of polarization directly proportional to effective(net) electric
field E in the polarized dielectric.
𝑝∝𝐸
𝑝 = ε0 χ𝐸
Where,
ε0 – absolute electric permittivity of the free space
χ – electrical susceptibility
χ is dimensionless quantity and depends on the nature of dielectrics
𝑝
𝑝 = ε0 χ𝐸 χ=
ε0 𝐸
𝐶/𝑚2
(Substitute units, 2
𝐶 𝑁 χ = 1)
.
𝑁𝑚2 𝐶
Gauss law in dielectrics:
Consider a parallel plate capacitor with plate area A and vacuum between the two plates,
having +q and –q charges on them.
Let 𝐸0 is the uniform electric field between the plates of capacitor.
Electric field strength can be found with the help of Gauss law.
For that, consider a closed surface i.e., Gaussian surface PQRS.
Electric flux through the Gaussian surface with vacuum as medium between
the plates of the capacitor according to Gauss law,
1
ϕ = 𝐸0 . 𝑑𝑠 = × 𝑞
ε0
𝑞
𝐸0𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠θ =
ε0
𝑞
𝐸0𝑑𝑠 = (θ = 0, E and ds are parallel)
ε0
𝑞
𝐸0 𝑑𝑠 =
ε0
𝑞
𝐸0𝐴 =
ε0
𝑞
𝐸0 = -----(1)
ε0 𝐴
Area of Gaussian surface = area of plate
Now dielectric material is introduced between plates and its having dielectric constant k.
Then induced charges q' appear on the surface of dielectric. (i.e., -q' is induced on one
surface and +q' on the other.
These charges (-q' & +q') on dielectric are called induced charges or bound charges. And -q
and +q charges on capacitor are called free charges.
These induced charges produce their own electric field 𝐸𝑝 in a direction opposite to the
direction of 𝐸0 .
Let 𝐸 be the resultant electric field within the
dielectric i.e., 𝐸 = 𝐸0 + 𝐸𝑝
Now total electric flux through the Gaussian
surface PQRS is given according to Gauss law as,
𝑞−𝑞′
ϕ= 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = -----(2)
ε0
 𝑞−𝑞′
𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ =
ε0
𝑞−𝑞′
𝐸 𝑑𝑠 (1) =
ε0
𝑞−𝑞′
𝐸 𝑑𝑠 =
ε0
𝑞−𝑞′
𝐸𝐴 =
ε0
𝑞−𝑞′
𝐸= -----(3)
ε0 𝐴
Comparing (1) and (3)
E < E0
(electric field decreases when dielectric material is placed between plates)
𝐸0
By definition of dielectric constant, 𝑘 = -----(4) 𝐸0 = 𝐸𝑘
𝐸
Equation (1) becomes
𝑞
𝐸0 =
ε0 𝐴
𝑞
𝐸𝑘 =
ε0 𝐴
𝑞
𝐸= -----(5)
𝑘ε0 𝐴
Substitute (5) in (3)
𝑞 𝑞−𝑞′
=
𝑘ε0 𝐴 ε0 𝐴
𝑞
= 𝑞 − 𝑞′
𝑘
′ 𝑞
𝑞 − 𝑞 = -----(6)
𝑘
Substitute (6) in (2)
𝑞
𝑘
ϕ= 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 =
ε0
𝑞
𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 =
𝑘ε0
1
Thus Gauss’s law in dielectrics states that “electric flux through closed surface is equal to
ε0 𝑘
times net charge enclosed within the surface.”
In other words,
𝑞 ε
𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = (𝑘 = 𝑘ε0 = ε)
ε ε0

ε𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞
𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞 (𝐷 = ε𝐸, where D is electric displacement vector)
“The surface integral of electric displacement vector 𝐷 over the closed surface is equal to
the free charge enclosed within the surface.”
Energy density of an electrostatic field(without dielectric field):
Energy density – energy per unit volume. In a capacitor, electric field is present between the
plates and energy stored in the form of electric field called as electrostatic potential energy.
σ
To find the expression for energy density, consider a parallel plate capacitor.
+q -q
P Q

d
Let A be the area of each plate and medium between the plates is vacuum. The distance
between them(d) is small compared with the plate dimensions to enable us to ignore the
fringing effects near the ends. Thus electric lines of force starting from plate P and ending at
the plate Q are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plates.
Electric field at a point between the two plates,
σ
𝐸= (Where, σ – surface charge density)
ε0
Surface charge density(charge per unit area) is given by,
𝑄
σ=
𝐴
𝑄 1
Electric field becomes, 𝐸= 𝑄 = 𝐸𝐴ε0
𝐴 ε0
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Energy density =
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
1𝑄2
𝑈𝑉 = 2𝐶
----(1)
𝐴×𝑑
1 𝑄2 ε0 𝐴
Energy of a capacitor, 𝑈 = and capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor, 𝐶 =
2 𝐶 𝑑
Substitute energy, capacitance & charge in equation (1), we get
1(𝐸𝐴ε0 )2
2 ε0 𝐴
1 𝐸 2 𝐴2 ε0 2 𝑑 1
𝑈𝑉 = 𝑑
= = ε0 𝐸 2
𝐴𝑑 2 ε0 𝐴2𝑑 2
1
𝑈𝑉 = ε0 𝐸 2 (Where, UV – Energy density in vacuum or air, E – magnitude
2
of the electric field without dielectric, ε0 - permittivity of free space)
Energy density of an electrostatic field(with dielectric field):
When a dielectric material is present, the electric field of the capacitor is reduced
due to the polarization of the material.
The energy density can be written as,
1 2
𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = ε𝐸𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
2
Where,
Udielectric – energy density in the presence of dielectric
ε – permittivity of the dielectric material
Edielectric – magnitude of the electric field strength inside the dielectric
In both the cases, the energy density is calculated as half of the product of the
electric field strength squared and the permittivity.
The presence of a dielectric material changes the electric field within the
material, and this change is reflected in the energy density formula by using
the permittivity of the dielectric material(ε) instead of the permittivity of
free space(ε0) in the case without a dielectric.
The relative permittivity of a dielectric substance is also called a dielectric
constant,
ε
𝑘 = ε𝑟 =
ε0
ε = ε𝑟 ε0
The energy density of an electrostatic field(with dielectric field) is given by
1 2
𝑈𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 = ε𝑟 ε0 𝐸𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
2
Types of Electric polarization:
Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charge particles with
the applied electric field.
The displacement of electric charges results in the formation of
electric dipole moment in atoms, ions or molecules of the
material. There are four different types of polarization, they are
1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientation polarization
4. Space charge polarization
Electronic polarization:
The displacement of the positively charged nucleus and the (negative) electrons of an atom
in opposite directions on the application of an electric field results in electronic polarization.
Figure shows the electronic polarization occurring in an atom due to the applied electric
field. On applying a field, the electron cloud(a system of electrons surrounding the nucleus
of an atom, and each orbital around the nucleus of the atom resembles a cloud-like
structure) around the nucleus shifts towards the positive end of the field. As the nucleus and
the centre of the electron cloud are separated by a certain distance, dipole moment is
created within each atom.
The induced dipole moment(μe) is proportional to the field strength(E).
μ𝑒 𝛼 𝐸
μ𝑒 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸
The constant of proportionality 𝛼𝑒 is the electronic polarisability of the atom. The
electronic polarisability 𝛼𝑒 is proportional to the volume of the atom. It is independent of
temperature.
The dipole moment per unit volume is called electronic polarization.
This polarization is mostly exhibited in manoatomic gases(example: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe etc)
It occurs only at optical frequencies (1015 Hz)
It occurs in vast fast process like 10-15s to 10-16s
Note: to avoid the confusion between induced dipole moment and polarization, dipole
moment is written as μ instead of p.
Calculation of electronic polarizability(𝜶𝒆)
Consider an atom of a dielectric material of atomic number Z. Ze is the nuclear charge. The
electrons of charge(-Ze) are distributed uniformly throughout the sphere of radius R.
When there is no external electric field, the centres of the electron cloud and nucleus of the atom are
same and one. (fig a)

When an electric field E is applied, the nucleus moves towards the field direction and the electron
cloud moves in the opposite direction of the field. The electron cloud centre gets a displacement x
with respect to the centre of the nucleus. The displacement x<<R. we assume that the spherical
shape of the electron cloud is not altered on the application of the electric field.(fig b)
 𝑍𝑒4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 𝐸
The electric dipole moment, p or 𝜇𝑒 = 𝑍𝑒𝑥 =
𝑍𝑒
𝜇𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3 𝐸
𝜇𝑒 𝛼 𝐸
𝜇𝑒 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸
Where 𝛼𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3 is called electronic polarizability.
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑁𝜇𝑒 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸
Where N is the number of atoms/m3
But polarization 𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 − 1 𝐸 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸
𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜀𝑟 −1 𝜀0
𝜀𝑟 − 1 = 𝛼𝑒 =
𝜀0 𝑁
Ionic polarization:
When an electric field is applied to an ionic solid, the positive and negative ions displaced to
their respective polarities creating an electric dipole. This is called as ionic polarization.
i.e., The ionic polarization is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite
directions and occurs in an ionic solid(fig). The displacement of ions is independent of
temperature.

Ionic polarization occurs in ionic solids such as NaCl, KBr and LiBr.
Suppose an electric field is applied in the positive x direction. Then the
+ve ions move to the right by x1 and –ve ions move to the left by x2.
m is the mass of the +ve ion and M is the mass of the –ve ion.
Then the induced dipole moment can be obtained as
𝑒2 1 1
𝜇𝑖 = + E
𝜔02 𝑚 𝑀

WKT , 𝜇𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖 E
𝑒2 1 1
𝛼𝑖 = + is called as ionic polarisability
𝜔02 𝑚 𝑀
Orientational polarization:
It occurs in polar molecule. In methane molecule(CH4), the centre of the negative and
positive charges coincide. It has no permanent dipole moment.
However in CH3Cl, the positive and negative charges do not coincide. Here chlorine attracts
the bonding electrons to itself more strongly than hydrogen. Therefore, even in the absence
of an electric field, this molecule has dipole moment. When an electric field is applied, these
molecules tend to align themselves in the applied field as shown in fig.
Hence the electric dipole moment increases. The polarization due to such alignment is called
orientational polarization.
Orientational polarization can be obtained by theory of
paramagnetism and it is given by
𝑁𝜇2 𝐸
𝑃0 = = 𝑁𝛼0 𝐸
3𝑘𝑇
𝑃0 𝜇2
Orientational polarizability , α0 = =
𝑁𝐸 3𝑘𝑇
Thus the orienational polarizability α0 is inversely proportional to
absolute temperature of the material.
Space-charge polarization:
Space-charge polarization occurs due to the accumulation of charges at the electrodes or at
the interfaces in multiphase dielectrics/materials (materials having lattice vacancies)
It can be defined as the redistribution of charges due to the applied electric field and the
charges accumulate on the surface of the electrodes.
It is found in ferrites and semiconductors. The ions diffuse over appreciable distances in
response to the applied field, giving rise to a redistribution of charges in the dielectric
medium.
It is not significant in most of the dielectric medium.
Total polarization:
Since the value of space-charge polarizability is very small when compared with other types
of polarizabilities, it can be neglected.
The total polarizability of a gas ‘α’ can be written as
𝛼 = 𝛼𝑒 + 𝛼𝑖 +𝛼0
2 2
𝑒 1 1 𝜇
𝛼 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3 + 2 + +
𝜔0 𝑚 𝑀 3𝑘𝑇
The total polarization ‘P’ can be written as
2 2
𝑒 1 1 𝜇
𝑃 = 𝑁α𝐸 = 𝑁𝐸 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 + 2 + +
𝜔0 𝑚 𝑀 3𝑘𝑇
This equation is known as Langevin-Debye equation
Frequency dependence of total polarizability:
On the application of electric field, polarization process occurs as a function of time and it can be
written as
𝑡
𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑃 1 − exp −
𝑡𝑟
Where,
P – Maximum polarization, tr – relaxation time for particular process
Note: relaxation time is a measure of the time scale of polarization process. It is the time taken for a
polarization process to reach 0.63 of the maximum value.
The relaxation time in dielectrics describes how quickly the polarization of the material reaches a
steady-state or equilibrium condition after the electric field is applied or changed.
The relaxation time in dielectrics is closely related to the concept of dielectric polarization. When an
electric field is applied to a dielectric material, the individual electric dipoles (molecules or atoms with
positive and negative charges separated) within the material align themselves with the field. This
alignment process takes time, and the relaxation time is the characteristic time scale for this alignment
to occur.
Frequency dependence of total polarizability:
The net polarizability of a dielectric material results from three main contributions-the
electronic polarizability, ionic polarizability and dipolar or orientational polarizability.
The electronic contribution arises from the displacement of the electron shell relative to a
nucleus. The ionic contribution comes from the displacement of a charged ion with respect
to the other ions. The dipolar polarizability from the molecules with a permanent electric
dipole moment that can change orientation in an applied electric field.
Electronic polarization is extremely rapid. Even when the frequency of the applied voltage is
very high in the optical range(IR, Visible and UV) nearly 1015Hz, electronic polarization
occurs during every cycle of the applied voltage.
• Ionic polarization is due to the displacement of ions over a small distance due
to the applied field. Since ions are heavier than electron cloud, the time taken
for the displacement is larger. The frequency with which ions are displaced is
of the same order as the lattice vibration frequency (≈1013Hz). Hence, at
optical frequencies, there is no ionic polarization. If the frequency of the
applied voltage is less than 1013Hz, the ions respond.
• Orientational polarization is even slower than ionic polarization. The relaxation
time for the orientational polarization in a liquid is less than that in solid. It
occurs when the frequency of the applied voltage is in audio range(1010Hz).
• Space charge polarization is slowest process, as it involves the diffusion of ions
over several interatomic distances. The relaxation time for this process is related
to frequency of ions under the influence of applied field. Space charge
polarization occurs at power frequencies(50-60Hz)
Polarization decreases as the frequency increases.
If polarization decreases, the relative permittivity(dielectric constant) is decreases.
Relationship between dielectric polarization, displacement vector and electric field
intensity:
Consider two plates A and of a capacitor having surface charge density +σ and –σ respectively.
Electric field generated between them is E0 and it is given by
𝜎
𝐸0 =
ε0
If dielectric material is placed between them, charges are induced on the plates and their surface
charge densities are +σ′ and -σ′ respectively. Because of this induced charges, induced electric field
will be produced between them i,.e., Ei and it is given by
σ′
𝐸𝑖 =
ε0
Total electric field is 𝐸 = 𝐸0 − 𝐸𝑖
𝜎 σ′ 𝜎−σ′ 𝜎−σ′
𝐸= − = 𝐸=
ε0 ε0 ε0 ε0
 𝜎−σ′
𝐸=
ε0
ε0 𝐸 = 𝜎 − σ′
ε0 𝐸 = 𝜎 − 𝑃 (σ′ -dielectric polarized vector)
𝜎 = 𝑃 + ε0 𝐸
𝜎
ε𝐸 = 𝑃 + ε0 𝐸 𝐸= , ε-permitivity of medium
ε
ε𝐸 − ε0 𝐸 = 𝑃 ------(1)
ε
ε0 𝑘𝐸 − ε0 𝐸 = 𝑃 𝑘= , ε = ε0 𝑘
ε0
ε0 (𝑘 − 1) 𝐸 = 𝑃
𝑃 = ε0 𝑘 − 1 𝐸
Equation (1) i.e., ε𝐸 − ε0 𝐸 = 𝑃 can also be written as
ε𝐸 = 𝑃 + ε0 𝐸
𝐷 = 𝑃 + ε0 𝐸
Where D – displacement vector
Clausius-Mossotti equation:
It is an equation related to dielectric material. It gives the relationship between dielectric constant
and molecular polarizability.
Consider a dielectric material which is placed between the two plates of capacitor, charges
induced in that.
If E0 is the external electric field and Ei is the induced electric field then resultant electric field is
given by
𝐸 = 𝐸0 − 𝐸𝑖
Now, consider a molecule which is having a dipole moment is Pm.
The electric field working on a particular molecule is given by the
Lorentz field equation
𝑃
𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸 + -----(1)
3ε0
Where, P – polarization vector and ε0 - permitivity of free space
Induced dipole moment of molecule is directly proportional to electric field on that
molecule
𝑃𝑚 α 𝐸𝑚
𝑃𝑚 = α 𝐸𝑚 ------(2)
Where , α – molecular polarizability
If there are ‘N’ number of molecules per unit volume, then dipole moment induced per unit volume
is given by
𝑃 = 𝑁𝑃𝑚
𝑃 = 𝑁α𝐸𝑚
𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑁α 𝐸 + ------(3)
3ε0
But, 𝑃 = ε0 𝑘 − 1 𝐸
Equation (1) becomes
ε0 𝑘−1 𝐸
ε0 𝑘 − 1 𝐸 = 𝑁α 𝐸 +
3ε0
 ε0 𝑘−1 𝐸
ε0 𝑘 − 1 𝐸 = 𝑁α 𝐸 +
3ε0
𝑘−1
ε0 𝑘 − 1 𝐸 = 𝑁α𝐸 1 +
3
3+𝑘−1
ε0 𝑘 − 1 = 𝑁α
3
𝑘+2
ε0 𝑘 − 1 = 𝑁α
3
𝑘−1 𝑁α
=
𝑘+2 3ε0
𝑁α 𝑘−1
=
3ε0 𝑘+2
But , k=ε𝑟
𝑁α ε𝑟 −1
=
3ε0 ε𝑟 +2
Here, , N – Number of atoms per unit volume in dielectrics, α – molecular polarizability, k
or ε𝑟 - dielectric constant (relative permittivity), ε0 - absolute permittivity of free space