Geological Structure

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Lecturer: ROTH CHANRAKSMEY (M. ENG)
TELEGRAM: 061411010
Nov 2024
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Geological Structure
-Geological structures refer to any forms or arrangements of rock layers that result from deformational
processes. Understanding geological structures is crucial for civil engineers to ensure the stability and
longevity of structures like buildings, bridges, and tunnels.
-Structural geology is the study of the deformation of rocks (folds and faults) and other structural
features of rocks.
-Folds and Faults are geologic structures formed due to the deformation of rocks

Major Types of Geological Structures

Folds: Form when rocks are deformed
plastically under compressional stress.
Faults: Breaks in the Earth's crust where
significant displacement has occurred.
Joints: Fractures in rocks along which
there has been no significant movement.
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Geological Structure
1. Stress and Strain in Rocks Stress: The force applied per unit area within rocks, which causes
deformation. Types of stress include compressional, tensional, and shear. Strain: The change in shape or
size of rocks as a result of applied stress. Strain can be elastic, plastic, or brittle.

Types of deformation
•Elastic: Temporary change in shape or size that
is recovered when the deforming force is
removed
•Ductile (plastic):Permanent change in shape or
size that is not recovered when the stress is
removed
•Occurs by the deforming material, without loss of
cohesion (folding)
•Brittle(rupture): Loss of cohesion of a body
under the influence of deforming stress (faulting)
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Folds
Folds are types of geological structures that arise due to the curving or bending of Earth’s crust. Folds are
secondary tectonic structures that have formed after the deposition of rocks in response to compressional
stress.

Horizontal layers subjected to compressional

stress, which is indicated by the arrows.
Fold’s structural elements

Link to watch fold simulation of earth‘s fold. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6GSqottRpXo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2_nX_ac3dk
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Folds
Stress and strain to create fold in the earth’s crust.
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Folds
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Folds
Folds can occur in a variety of geological settings, not just in mountainous regions. They are a common feature in areas
where the Earth's crust has been subjected to compressional forces, which cause the rock layers to buckle and fold. Here’s
an overview of where folds typically form and how they manifest in different environments:
Locations and Environments Where Folds Can Occur:
1. Mountain Ranges:
•Formation: Most notably, folds are associated with mountain ranges. Here, the intense compressional stresses resulting
from tectonic plates colliding can fold rock layers extensively.
•Example: The Himalayas, the Andes, and the Rockies all contain numerous examples of folds that were formed during the
orogeny (mountain-building periods) associated with the convergence of tectonic plates.
2. Sedimentary Basins:
•Formation: Folds can also occur in sedimentary basins which are not necessarily mountainous. These basins may
experience subsidence and subsequent compressional forces that result in folding.
•Example: The Appalachian Basin in the United States contains folded sedimentary rocks formed during the Appalachian
orogeny.
3. Continental Interiors:
•Formation: Even within stable continental interiors away from current tectonic activity, ancient folds can be found. These
folds might have formed during earlier orogenic events and are now preserved as part of the geological record.
•Example: The cratonic areas of continents like the shields in Canada and Scandinavia display evidence of very old folds
from events that occurred hundreds of millions to over a billion years ago.
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Folds

4. Oceanic Settings:
•Formation: Folds are not confined to continental settings; they can also occur in oceanic plates, particularly in subduction
zones where oceanic crust is being compressed and folded before it descends into the mantle.
•Example: The accretionary wedges in subduction zones are often characterized by folds formed as sediments are scraped
off the subducting plate and compressed against the overriding plate.
5. Fault Zones:
•Formation: Rock layers near major fault zones can be folded due to localized compressional stresses associated with fault
movements.
•Example: Near the San Andreas Fault, minor folding can be observed in association with the complex stress fields
generated by the movement of the fault.
Understanding Folds:
•Visual Identification: In the field, folds can often be recognized by their characteristic wavy or layered appearance in
exposed rock formations. The layers may bend, twist, or loop due to the deformation.
•Geophysical Studies: Folds that are buried beneath the surface can sometimes be detected using geophysical methods
such as seismic reflection, which can image the subsurface layers and reveal their folded structures.
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Folds

https://www.nagwa.com/en/explainers/924150408952/
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Folds

https://www.nagwa.com/en/explainers/924150408952/
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Folds

https://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/08/is-there-oil-beneath-my-property-first.html
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Why is it important to understand fold phenomena ?
Understanding folds in the Earth’s layers is important for several reasons:
1.Finding Resources: Folds often trap valuable resources like oil, gas, and minerals. Knowing where and how folds
happen helps us locate these resources more easily.
2.Earthquake Safety: Folds are related to movements in the Earth’s crust, which can lead to earthquakes. By studying
folds, scientists can identify areas where earthquakes might happen, helping to keep people safe.
3.Building Safely: When engineers build things like tunnels, dams, or buildings, they need to know if the ground is
stable. Folded rocks can be weaker or more likely to move, so engineers study folds to make sure they build on solid
ground.
4.Learning Earth’s History: Folds tell us about how the Earth’s surface has changed over millions of years. By studying
folds, scientists can learn about past events, like mountain formation or collisions of Earth’s plates.
5.Managing Water Resources: Folds can affect how water flows underground. Some types of folds hold water, while
others block it. This knowledge helps us find and manage water supplies, especially in areas that rely on groundwater.
6.Preventing Landslides: In hilly areas, folds can make slopes more or less stable. Knowing about folds helps us
understand landslide risks and plan better to avoid them.
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Faults
Fault: A fault is a fracture or zone of
fractures in the Earth's crust where
two blocks of rock have moved
relative to each other. This movement
can occur horizontally, vertically, or in
both directions. Faults are typically
caused by tectonic forces and can be
classified by their movement type,
such as normal, reverse, and strike-
slip faults.
Fault Line: A fault line, or fault trace, is
the visible surface expression of a
fault. It’s where the fault intersects
with the Earth's surface. Fault lines
are often where earthquakes are most
likely to occur because they represent
points of weakness in the Earth's crust
where tectonic plates or rock layers
have fractured and moved.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1TCp4bCvEo
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Faults
The World Fault Line Map shows the major fault lines across the globe. The earth is constantly moving
because of which there is a continuous movement of the rocks. This movement of the rocks creates fractures
or discontinuity which is better known as a fault. The tectonic forces at work within the rocks create large
faults resulting in the release of energy that consequently leads to the eruption of volcanoes and earthquakes.
The surface trace of a fault is called a fault line. When a continental/oceanic plate or two continental/oceanic
plates or a continental and an oceanic plate move apart, a fault line is created; while when the plates head-on,
a fold is created. For instance, as shown in the map, when the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate
move apart, a fault line is created that leads to the formation of the Andes mountain range. Similarly, many
mountains and other formations are created owing to the movement of other continental and oceanic plates.

Types of plate boundary

There are three types of plated
boundary:
•divergent: plates moving apart
•convergent: plates coming together
•transform: plates moving past each
other
Boundaries between tectonic plates are
made up of a system of faults.
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• From the Civil engineering point of view, faults are the most
unfavorable and undesirable geological structures at the site
for any given purpose, i.e. for location of reservoir; as
foundations site for construction of dams, importance
bridges or huge buildings, for tunneling; for laying roads,
railways tracks, etc.

• Structurally, faults may be described as fractures along

which relative displacement of adjacent blocks has taken
place.
• If such relative displacement does not take place on either
side of fracture plane, it is called a joint. Thus both joint
and faults are fractures in rocks but with difference in the
kind of displacement. Joints may be described as a set of
aligned parallel cracks or openings in geological
formations.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1TCp4bCvEo
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Faults

Fault Terminology
Hanging Wall: The block of rock
that lies above the fault plane.
Footwall: The block of rock that
lies below the fault plane.
Dip: The angle at which the fault
plane is inclined relative to the
horizontal.
Strike: The direction of the fault
line along the Earth's surface,
typically measured as a compass
bearing.
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Faults
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Faults

https://www.geologyin.com/2024/09/types-of-faults-with-photos.html
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Faults
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Faults
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Faults
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Faults
Thrust fault

https://formontana.net/chief.html
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Faults
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Faults
Horst and Graben

Horst and Graben: this refers to a type

of #topography created when the earth's crust
is pulled apart. This process, called extension,
can stretch the crust up to 100% of its original
size.

As the crust is strained in this way, normal

faults develop and blocks of the crust drop
down to form grabens, or valleys. The end
result of this is a vast landscape of alternating
valleys and ridges.

The western United States is an example of

this, in the physiographic province known as
the Basin and Range.
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Why is it important to understand fault?

•Earthquake Prediction and Safety: Faults are where earthquakes often happen. When there’s movement along
a fault, it can cause the ground to shake. By studying faults, scientists can figure out which areas are more likely
to have earthquakes, helping people prepare and stay safe.
•Building Safe Structures: Engineers need to know where faults are to build safe buildings, bridges, and roads. If
a fault runs through or near a construction site, special designs are needed to make sure the structure can
handle possible ground movements.
•Resource Location: Like folds, faults can trap resources like oil, gas, and minerals. Understanding faults helps us
find these resources more easily, as they often form in specific fault zones.
•Water Management: Faults can also impact the flow of groundwater. In some cases, faults create pathways for
water to move, while in other cases, they block it. Knowing where faults are helps in planning wells and
managing water supplies.
•Understanding Earth’s History: Faults show us how the Earth’s crust has moved over time. Studying faults helps
geologists learn about the history of tectonic plate movements, mountain formation, and other big changes in
the Earth’s surface.
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Thank you for your attention

Faculty of Civil Engineering