VOICE PEDAGOGY

Reframing Bel Canto in the Twenty-

First Century: Dovetailing Tradition
with Science-Informed Pedagogy
Matthew Hoch

Author Matthew Hoch explores the meaning, context, and viability of the term “bel canto” in the
third decade of the twenty-first century, using James Stark’s seminal 1999 book Bel Canto:
A History of Vocal Pedagogy as a starting point for reflection. Amplifying Stark’s desire to find
common ground among various schools of historical pedagogy as well as the nexus between
the master–pupil tradition and science-informed modern era, Hoch contemplates shifts that
have occurred in the past quarter century while also highlighting some of bel canto’s timeless
principles. Hoch suggests an expansion of Stark’s definition of bel canto adapted to the needs
of the modern voice pedagogue.

I
Matthew Hoch n a recent column I reflected on the ever-shifting nature of terminol-
ogy in the field of voice pedagogy.1 One of the most ubiquitous terms
in our profession is also one that is multifaceted and perhaps the most
difficult to define. The term “bel canto” means different—and sometimes
many—things to different people, and there is no shortage of primary sources
from various eras that use the term indiscriminately, often to describe seem-
ingly conflicting concepts across a wide variety of contexts. Richard Miller
acknowledged this lack of cohesion when he remarked that “there is no specific
codified system of bel canto” and called the bel canto school of pedagogy “a
modern-day shibboleth, with opposing methodologies staking out highly
suspect claims for its possession.”2 For those who ascribe their teaching to
a specific school of bel canto pedagogy, there are also rival factions, such as
those ardently devoted to the teachings of Manuel García II pitted against
others who revere the maxims of Giovanni Battista Lamperti.3 Of the many
books devoted to the teaching of bel canto principles, most adhere to one
interpretation or another; there are comparatively few volumes that attempt
to weave the disparate strands of bel canto into a cohesive whole.4
One such book, however, that acknowledges the complexities of bel canto
and seeks to provide a comprehensive overview is the late James Stark’s Bel
Canto: The History of Vocal Pedagogy.5 Published in 1999, Bel Canto turns a
quarter of a century old this year. As much has changed in the world of voice
pedagogy over the past twenty-five years, I thought it would be interesting
Journal of Singing, March/April 2024 and perhaps fruitful to reread Bel Canto through a 2024 lens of wisdom. I
Volume 80, No. 4, pp. 417–428 was curious to see which observations of Stark’s still ring true today as well as
https://doi.org/10.53830/sing.00024
Copyright © 2024
contemplate which need to be reconsidered. What impact have the past two
National Association of Teachers of Singing decades of science-informed voice pedagogy had on our understanding of bel

March/April 2024 417

Matthew Hoch

canto as Stark defined it? Perhaps most important, are article, however, will explore the second option. Can
any of the core principles of bel canto helpful and relevant elements of bel canto pedagogy be adapted to meet the
to singing teachers who teach styles that fall outside of the musical demands of 2024 and beyond?
classical canon? This article will consider these questions. This article is written in the same spirit as Stark’s
One of the most-cited passages in Stark’s book occurs book, dissecting the elements of bel canto and discerning
in the final chapter, which he titled “Bel Canto: Context which are relevant to the current milieu in which sing-
and Controversy.” Building upon his explorations of ing teachers find themselves. After a discussion Stark’s
various concepts and schools of bel canto in the previ- methodology, the author of this article will provide an
ous chapters, he attempted a comprehensive definition: overview of the content, objectives, and conclusions of
Bel Canto, both explicit and implicit. Attempts will be
Bel canto is a concept that takes into account two separate
made to separate “the wheat from the chaff,” discern-
but related matters. First, it is a highly refined method of
using the singing voice in which the glottal source, the ing which concepts of bel canto have weathered less
vocal tract, and the respiratory system interact in such well over time as opposed to which are still relevant.
a way as to create the qualities of chiaroscuro, appoggio, The article will conclude with a proposed expansion of
register equalization, malleability of pitch and intensity, Stark’s definition of bel canto, one that is perhaps bet-
and a pleasing vibrato. The idiomatic use of this voice ter suited to the professional needs of the twenty-first
includes various forms of vocal onset, legato, portamento, century singing teacher.
glottal articulation, crescendo, decrescendo, messa di
voce, mezza voce, floridity and trills, and tempo rubato. BEL CANTO: A BRIEF OVERVIEW
Second, bel canto refers to any style of music that employs
this kind of singing in a tasteful and expressive way. Before proceeding to the central arguments of this essay,
Historically, composers and singers have created cat- it is necessary to provide a brief overview of Stark’s trea-
egories of recitative, song, and aria that took advantage tise with particular attention paid to his methodology. I
of these techniques, and that lent themselves to various will not provide a point by point summary of his book
types of vocal expression. Bel canto has demonstrated here—for that, the reader is urged to read Bel Canto in
its power to astonish, to charm, to amuse, and especially
its entirety. I will however, discuss Stark’s major themes
to move the listener. As musical epochs and styles have
changed, the elements of bel canto adapted to meet new
and objectives and discuss how his method of inquiry in
musical demands, thereby ensuring the continuation this work can provide a blueprint for the exploration of
of bel canto in our own time.6 bel canto in the third decade of the twenty-first century.

When Stark wrote these words in the final sentence, Methodology and Organization of Content
“in our own time,” he was referring to the last decade In addition to front matter and an extensive (and
of the twentieth century. To say that much has changed invaluable) bibliography, Stark organized his book into
in the past twenty-five years—in both our profession seven chapters and an appendix. The first five chap-
and society at large—is a harrowing understatement. ters are each devoted to a different aspect of bel canto
Eurocentric classical voice pedagogy, while still very pedagogy: the coup de la glotte, chiaroscuro, registers,
much alive (especially in conservatories and within the appoggio, and what he called “vocal tremulousness” (an
academy) has expanded to a more science-informed, inclusive category that gave the author the opportunity
functional approach and is less based on the classical to discuss vibrato alongside trills and glottal ornamen-
repertoire and style in which previous generations, tations).7 Although Stark made every effort to tease
including my own, were trained. The question, then, is out these disparate strands of vocal technique, much
whether bel canto pedagogy has adapted to these trends overlap occurred—an unavoidable consequence he fully
(as Stark asserted) and thus has ensured its continuation acknowledged. For instance, the discussion of messa
and viability. In response to this, we have two choices: di voce is stationed in the chapter on appoggio but also
The first is to reject Stark’s position and limit the use touched on registration, chiaroscuro, and expression.
of the term “bel canto” to a specific style and epoch; To cite another example, Stark inserted his principal
I believe that angle could be successfully argued. This discussion of legato into chapter 6 (which is devoted to

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 Voice Pedagogy

expression) even though this aspect of singing intersects Stark’s exploration of bel canto principles in chapters
with the coup de la glotte and (especially) breath manage- one through five are the writings of García, Francesco
ment.8 These overlappings highlight the untidiness of bel and Giovanni Battista Lamperti, Giambattista Mancini,
canto as a subject of study and reveal the monumental Alexis de Garaudé, Mathilde Marchesi, Hermann Klein,
challenge of writing a work that attempts to embrace the Julius Stockhausen, and William Shakespeare, as well as
term fully and with all of its complexities. It also perhaps a plethora of minor figures, some of whom wrote more
explains why even camps that thought they opposed specifically—often on only one aspect of bel canto.13
each other found themselves occasionally occupying While Stark was able to generate a relatively compre-
common ground, such as when a disciple of Lamperti hensive discussion of vocal technique via these historical
found himself in agreement with García on certain resources, this approach also reveals certain gaps; there
aspects of vocal technique.9 A final chapter in Stark’s is, for example, little discussion of the falsetto voice,
book endeavored to tie everything together through a since, according to Stark, falsetto was both “discouraged
proposed comprehensive definition of bel canto and a and disparaged” by pre–twentieth-century pedagogues.14
historical overview of how its concepts were integrated
distinctly and idiomatically into vocal performance Examining Bel Canto Principles from
and pedagogy over the course of many generations, in a Scientific Perspective
languages other than Italian, and in disparate regions In his preface to Bel Canto, Stark quoted the musicolo-
of Europe and beyond.10 gist Carl Dahlhaus, who defined history as “memory
made scientific.”15 In each of his first five chapters, Stark
A Compendium of Primary Sources followed a standard format; after his exploration of a
One of Stark’s major achievements was his meticulous particular aspect of vocal technique via quotations from
gathering of early writings in voice pedagogy. These primary sources, he then shifted to examining the same
span from the sixteenth through the early twentieth technique—scientifically—through the lens of more
centuries and numerous quotations (helpfully translated recent studies. In this respect, he reaffirmed his loyalty
into English for the reader if they are from foreign- to the García school of voice pedagogy, noting that sci-
language sources) appear in every chapter of Bel Canto. entific inquiry into the nature and function of the voice
García was placed at the center of his discussion, with began with García’s invention of the first laryngoscope
the author noting not only the nineteenth-century in 1855.16 The scientific studies he cited, however, were
pedagogue’s technical writings about the voice but not necessarily recent in 1999. The nineteenth-century
also his success—in Stark’s unwavering opinion—as observations of Hermann von Helmholtz, for example,
the preeminent singing teacher of the nineteenth cen- figured prominently in Stark’s discussion of resonance
tury.11 In addition to his obvious respect and reverence and registration.17 The writings of Janwillem Van den
for García’s teachings, Stark also viewed García as the Berg, conducted in the 1950s and 60s were also favorites
origin point for a new kind of voice pedagogy, one that of his.18 In his discussion of vibrato, Stark cited Carl E.
sought answers to the mysteries of singing through Seashore’s textbooks, which date back even further—to
anatomical explanation and observation as opposed to the 1930s and 40s.19 Other scholars who are cited with
imagery or idiosyncratic maxims that were often unsup- frequency include William Vennard, Johan Sundberg,
ported by evidence. The author cited notable writings and Ingo Titze. 20 Consistent with our profession’s
on singing that occurred before García—such as those increasing desire for science-informed pedagogic
by Lodovico Zacconi, Giulio Caccini, Johann Andreas instruction, Stark had little time for obtuse imagery as a
Herbst, and Pier Francesco Tosi—but acknowledged substitute for anatomical descriptions of vocal phenom-
that what survives from this earlier time deals more with ena.21 In an appendix to Bel Canto (titled “The Gronigen
performance practice, style, and expression than vocal Protocols”) Stark included measurements of his own
technique itself.12 In addition, many of the great singing voice executing various aspects of bel canto technique,
teachers prior to García (notably Niccolò Porpora) left but acknowledged that a single-subject study can only
no writings for future generations to study. Central to tell part of the story and that significantly more research

March/April 2024 419

Matthew Hoch

is necessary to draw satisfactory conclusions. 22 He hierarchy to the reader and serves as a lighthouse as
lamented the absence of professional singers’ involve- one oars through a vast sea of primary resources; Stark
ment with the scientific community and stated that many routinely made judgment calls regarding which sources
of our questions about the science of the singing voice he felt were most valuable and which, superfluous. For
“will be resolved only when opera singers are used more example, he disregarded Isaac Nathan’s theory of reg-
widely as subjects in laboratory experiments.”23 isters and called his 1836 book, Musurgia Vocalis, “the
work of a dilettante.”29 Additionally, he called Edgar
Grappling with Terminology Herbert-Caesari’s concept of the “focus ball” “even closer
Reconciling terminology in voice pedagogy has always to the twilight zone.”30 Stark frequently reaffirmed his
been one of the central challenges within our profes- reverence for García and did not shy away from superla-
sion, which lacks a universally adhered-to lexicon.24 The tives when referencing him, calling his description of the
study of bel canto via its primary sources reveals that the coup de la glotte, for example, “arguably the single most
central challenge of dealing with terminology is not a important concept in the history of singing.”31
recent dilemma but rather one that goes back centuries.
The fact that pedagogic works were written in various Practical Application of Concepts
languages and often disseminated through translation One of the most important values that Stark espoused
further complicates this issue.25 is that technique only exists to serve the execution and
In addition, sometimes various sources discuss expression of music. In this respect, he shares the same
similar phenomena without coalescing around the same philosophy as many of the historical masters of bel canto:
terminology. García, for example, never used the term
Treatises by Caccini, Tosi, Garaudé, Garcia, and others
“chiaroscuro,” but Stark noted that “his vocal ideal was
have linked vocal techniques to the musical styles of the
nevertheless consistent with the definitions of chiar- day and discussed how the singing voice could be made
oscuro found in manuals by Mancini, G.B. Lamperti, expressive. . . . Vocal technique was considered to be
and other advocates of the old Italian school of sing- inseparable from matters of musical style.32
ing.”26 What we now call vocal fry or “pulse” was called
Strohbass by Germans in the nineteenth-century, and The application of bel canto principles to artistic
García referred to it as the contre-bass register.27 One singing is an overarching theme of both Bel Canto and
of the most contentious issues was the labeling of what this article. It will be discussed to a greater extent below.
many pedagogues refer to as “covering”:
BEL CANTO’S TWENTIETH-
Covered singing has taken a on a number of labels CENTURY RELICS
since Diday and Pétriquin first called it voix sombrée
ou couverte. The Italians widely refer to it today as voce Reading Bel Canto again twenty-five years later was
piena in testa (full head voice), while the Germans call an enlightening experience. Much of its content is still
it Volton der Kopfstimme (full tone of the head voice). invaluable, but other portions of the book have inevi-
Richard Miller calls it the “legitimate head voice.” It has tably become dated. Writing from the vantage point
also been called the “male operatic head register.” Despite of 1999 or before, many of Stark’s observations about
this proliferation of names, the term “covering” seems to
“the present day” no longer hold. 33 Before affirming
prevail in the parlance of most singers.28
Bel Canto’s more timeless traits, the following are three
While things have improved somewhat in our time, areas that need to be reassessed as bel canto enters the
reconciling terminology continues, and will continue mid–twenty-first century.
to be a central issue for singing teachers and scholars
of voice pedagogy. Twenty-Five Years of Scientific Studies
In the spirit of García, one of Stark’s primary goals was
Pedagogic Opinion an attempt to reconcile historical writings with modern
Throughout Bel Canto, Stark did not shy away from voice science. This presents a problem for the modern
expressing his opinion. This approach articulates a reader for the simple reason that Bel Canto was pub-

420 Journal of Singing

 Voice Pedagogy

lished in 1999; over the past twenty-five years there has that it was), that statement is unequivocally less than
been an explosion of research published in the realm truthful in 2024.38 Finally, García’s paradigm of only
of voice science and its application to the pedagogy of five forms of vocalization heralded by Stark —legato,
singing. Many of these more recent studies have revealed marcato, portamento, staccato, and aspirato—might
new insights into breath management, messa di voce, and not be an ideal rubric for a contemporary commercial
vibrato and would surely have been cited if Bel Canto singer.39 If we are to adapt bel canto, in Stark’s words
were to be revisited and republished as a second edi- “to meet new musical demands, thereby ensuring [its]
tion today.34 The number of resources Stark had at his continuation . . . into our own time,” we must awkwardly
disposal was also a limiting factor; the first edition was confront these obstacles that the author unwittingly
based on a relatively small amount of studies and Stark placed in our path.40
would have had much more to work with if he had used
the same methodology today. Technology has also made The Master–Apprentice Model
great strides forward, resulting in numerous advances One major shift that has occurred in recent decades is the
for the instrumentation utilized in outcome-based voice departure from a master–apprentice model toward one
studies. Stark therefore found himself facing some of that is more community based and student centered. In
the same dilemmas as García (i.e., the lack of scientific a previous article, I noted that there has been shift away
wisdom to which future generations would have access), from the era when a recognized “guru” dispenses “truths”
albeit stationed further down the road. Science aside, from a higher pedestal, to a more enlightened approach
this datedness also applies to musicological resources as in which a community collectively seeks knowledge from
well; for instance, Stark referenced Manfred Bukofzer’s each other, coalescing around the shared value that “all
Music in the Baroque Era, a 1947 Norton textbook that of us are smarter than any one of us.”41 Research in the
has twice been replaced by the publisher.35 voice pedagogy world also has become increasingly peer
reviewed, marking a departure from previous decades
Stylistic Bias
when authorities in our field made claims without the
One of the greatest hurdles in assessing bel canto’s rel- modern expectation of basing those assertions on cred-
evance to today’s pedagogic world is the fact that it is ible evidence.42 It is the responsibility of every generation
almost inextricably tied to a certain style and time—i.e., to question and reassess what we think is true. While Bel
opera (and usually Italian opera) spanning from the Canto spills much ink over the generations-long rivalry
seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. It is fruitless to between the disciples of García and the Lampertis, I hope
accuse García and the Lampertis of bias toward classi- that we as a profession are past the point where we feel the
cal styles because the musical theatre and commercial need to “pick sides” between two opposing views of voice
industries as we know them today did not yet exist. More pedagogy. It is along these lines that science-informed
concerning are the biases of Stark that creep in here and pedagogy can be the great mediator. There has also been
there—usually around the edges and between the lines— a pedagogic shift away from the master–apprentice model
and often through his choice of quotations to affirm his
to a more student-centered one that considers evidence-
numerous assertions. For example, Stark seemed to agree
based theories of teaching and learning, culturally
with Mathilde Marchesi (a student of García) when she
sensitive instructional environments, critical thinking,
wrote that “[t]he García family were the founders of the
autonomy, and student–teacher rapport. Research into
singing school in which knowledge of the physiology of
these pedagogic reforms is still emerging.
the voice goes hand in hand with all the great traditions
of style.”36 And jazz and Renaissance choral singers
BEL CANTO’S ENDURING THEMES
may feel left out in the cold when he reminded us that
Seashore “found that ‘the vibrato was present in the Despite the shortcomings enumerated above, Stark’s
voices of all great artists.’”37 While Mancini’s declaration book nevertheless retains considerable value. The fol-
that portamento is necessary “in every style of singing” lowing themes in particular serve as timeless reminders
may have been true in 1774 (although I am skeptical for our profession.

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Matthew Hoch

Dialogue between Tradition and Voice Science Not Losing Sight of Practical Application
Central to Stark’s thesis is the idea that singing teachers After introducing what he considered to be the most
must be relentless in their quest to learn more about essential concepts of bel canto in chapters 1 through
the science behind the singing voice. This hunger for 5, Stark devoted an entire chapter to the application
inquiry is the primary reason why Stark viewed García of these principles to expressive singing.44 In some of
(as the “inventor of the laryngoscope”) as the first his most engaging and convincing writing, the author
modern singing teacher. García was shackled by the offered two contrasting perspectives of Christoph
scientific limitations of the nineteenth century; how- Willibald Gluck’s aria “Che farò senza Euridice” from
ever, his spirit is the same as those of us who continue the 1762 opera Orfeo ed Euridice.45 The first was from
to actively study voice pedagogy in the hopes of further a cohort of musicologists and critics, all of whom were
unraveling the remaining mysteries and wonders of the resoundingly negative in their critique of the aria and
singing voice. If García were alive today, I suspect he vehemently critical regarding Gluck’s choice of a major
would be regularly attending NATS conferences and the key and upbeat tempo at such a tragic moment in the
Voice Foundation’s annual symposium; I likewise muse opera (when Orfeo has lost his beloved Euridice for-
that he would be thrilled by the pedagogic advances that ever); to these scholars, Gluck’s aria represented a failure
have occurred in recent decades and will likely occur to depict the text with dramatic realism and is thus an
for many decades to come. abject failure as a piece of music.46 Stark then made an
important observation about these commentaries:
The Complexity of Terminology
The common element in the criticisms of Hanslick,
Over the course of the 2021–2022 academic year, Cooke, Einstein, Kivy, Donington, and Kerman is the
I cochaired (with Ken Bozeman) one of the NATS absence of any mention of the singer’s role in projecting
working groups that prepared the science-informed the sentiments of this aria. If, as Hanslick maintained,
voice pedagogy resources unveiled at the 2022 NATS “thousands were moved to tears by this aria,” then the
National Conference in Chicago.43 The task of our expression of grief and despair was indeed communicated
focus group was to develop a core list of essential by singers who knew how to overcome the apparent
terms for singing teachers, all of which were decided weaknesses of the music by expressive use of the voice.47
upon by committee and through discussion. Finding Stark then pointed to the audiences’ reception of
consensus was difficult despite the fact that we were the aria upon attending live performances of Orfeo et
all NATS members who shared the common goal of Euridice in various eras. One of the most adulatory
developing a lexicon of science-informed terminology. assessments was written by Hector Berlioz, who heard
Even though we were more similar than different in Pauline Viardot sing the role of Orpheus.
our pedagogic opinions, many compromises had to be
made. Rereading Bel Canto in preparation for writing To speak, now, of Madame Viardot is to approach what
this article reminded me that these kinds of conversa- forms a study in itself. Her talent is so complete and var-
tions have been taking place for hundreds of years and ied; it touches so many points of art; and is united to so
much science, and to such entrancing spontaneity, that it
will likely continue for many decades to come. Even if
produces, at one and the same time, both astonishment
we as an organization come to a consensus—as we did
and emotion; the result being that it strikes, yet appeals
in 2022—and affirm a standard terminology, there are to the heart; it overawes, and yet persuades.48
many other stakeholders in our larger ecology, such as
our fellow voice professionals in the musical theatre It is therefore ultimately the singer who, through their
and commercial industry (to name only two of the most technique, is empowered to artistically express the drama
prominent cohorts). The more we strive toward speak- and passion of the text. More important, it is the trained
ing the same pedagogic language, the more productive singer who has the greatest power to move the listener.
our collaborative relationships are likely to be across Perhaps Stark communicated this best when he wrote
the profession. the following passage:

422 Journal of Singing

 Voice Pedagogy

There is an expressive power in the trained singing voice various operatic styles. The phenomenon of “cross-over”
that I like to refer to as the “vocal aesthetic.” This is the singing, in which classically trained singers perform in
power of the singer to astonish, charm, or move an audi- vernacular styles (most crossover singers move from
ence in a way no other instrument can. . . . Despite the classical to popular music, not vice-versa) is another
best vocal training and the best understanding of musical aspect of this plurality. But amidst a plethora of vocal
styles, truly expressive singing is ultimately a matter of styles, whenever a singer sings with chiaroscuro, with
the heart, and in this lies its mystery and its beauty.49 appoggio, with equalized registers, with flexibility and
a pleasing vibrato, we immediately identify this with bel
CONCLUSION: REFRAMING BEL CANTO canto training.52

Toward the conclusion of Bel Canto, Stark wrote the We therefore return to where we began, contem-
following: plating bel canto’s applications to what Stark referred
to as our “new plurality.” Reframing bel canto within
There is one further aspect to the question of the pres-
this contest, I thus propose the following expansion to
ervation of bel canto which should be mentioned here.
With the establishment of a “great repertoire” in the late
Stark’s definition, an addition that I have indicated in
nineteenth and the twentieth centuries, in which musi- bold, below.
cal works from earlier periods found a permanent place Bel canto is a concept that takes into account two separate
in the operatic repertoire alongside newly composed but related matters. First, it is a highly refined method of
works, singers were faced with a new problem: how to using the singing voice in which the glottal source, the
deal with a wide range of musical and vocal styles, both vocal tract, and the respiratory system interact in such
old and new. Whereas previous generations of singers a way as to create the qualities of chiaroscuro, appoggio,
had largely sung the music of their own day, in their own register equalization, malleability of pitch and intensity,
language, singers were now required to seek a technique and a pleasing vibrato. The idiomatic use of this voice
that would serve equally the several historical styles in includes various forms of vocal onset, legato, portamento,
which they might sing.50 glottal articulation, crescendo, decrescendo, messa di
voce, mezza voce, floridity and trills, and tempo rubato.
In this passage, Stark was primarily referencing the
Second, bel canto refers to any style of music that employs
stylistic shifts that were occurring in opera, away from
this kind of singing in a tasteful and expressive way.
the lighter, more lyric singing of Wolfgang Amadeus Historically, composers and singers have created cat-
Mozart and Gioacchino Rossini and toward the more egories of recitative, song, and aria that took advantage
robust and full-throttle singing of the mid-nineteenth of these techniques, and that lent themselves to various
century, most readily exemplified by the works of types of vocal expression. Bel canto has demonstrated
Giuseppe Verdi. This in part explains the García/ its power to astonish, to charm, to amuse, and especially
Lamperti divide—with García seeking to preserve the to move the listener. As musical epochs and styles have
changed, the elements of bel canto adapted to meet new
past and the Lampertis favoring the newer style. As Stark
musical demands, thereby ensuring the continuation of
observed, “It is important to remember that García lived
bel canto in our own time.53
at a time when operatic styles were gradually turning
away from vocal agility in favour of vocal strength.”51 While the modern voice pedagogue recognizes that
But then he continued: the specific techniques and terminology traditionally
associated with bel canto are directly tied to a specific
The problem has now become further exacerbated. historical style, certain core principles—such as the
Today’s aspiring singers must decide whether to pursue quest for a more science-informed approach to sing-
“classical” singing (which requires long, rigorous, and ing, a continually refined lexicon of terminology, and
expensive training) or seek the rewards of vernacular the overarching value that technique is only useful if it
styles of singing. At the end of the twentieth century, a serves to facilitate expressive singing—are timeless and
new plurality exists in the world of singing. Some singers empower the singing teacher to meet the ever-expand-
specialize in the opera of just one era, or just one style ing needs of the twenty-first century student of singing.
or even just one composer. Some cultivate floridity over
strength, or vice versa. Some are versatile enough to be The bel canto tradition is ever-evolving; it meant
considered “all-purpose” singers who can perform in something different in 1600, 1762, 1855, and 1999. It

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Matthew Hoch

deserves reconsideration again now that we are in the 8. Stark’s rationale for addressing legato under “expression” is
year 2024. Bel canto’s malleable definition will continue so that he can simultaneously discuss portamento. Through-
to morph and evolve as the art of singing continues to out the text the author makes some surprising choices but
be informed by science and the modern world in which always discloses the logic behind his organizational deci-
sions. It is surprising (to the author of this article) that the
we live and will continue to live, mindfully keeping one
concept of legato does not occupy a more central place in
eye fixed firmly on the future. As a profession, may we
Stark’s exploration of bel canto and is not written about more
always strive toward our shared goal: beautiful singing.
extensively; as Francesco Lamperti famously said, “Without
legato there is no singing” (chi non lega non canta). Ibid.,
NOTES 164–65. Stark’s general preference for García’s teaching may
1. Matthew Hoch, “Singing Redefined,” Journal of Singing 80, partially explain his weighting of the various aspects of bel
no. 1 (September/October 2023): 43–50. canto throughout his book.
2. Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing (New York: Schirmer 9. Stark notes that one of Francesco Lamperti’s most famous
Books, 1986), xx–xxi. students, William Shakespeare, made “statements on the
3. Unless otherwise noted, “García” in this article will always messa di voce [that] seemed to follow Garcia more than
refer to the baritone and pedagogue Manuel García II (fils), Lamperti,” despite Shakespeare’s claims to be espousing the
not his father, the celebrated tenor Manuel García (père). I Lamperti method. Ibid., 105.
will, however, use the full names of Francesco Lamperti and 10. One of Stark’s major themes in this chapter is the tendency
his son, Giovanni Battista Lamperti to distinguish between for voice pedagogues to look backwards to a “golden age”—
the two pedagogues. i.e., there seems to be pervasive opinion across centuries
4. Selected examples include Daniela Bloem-Hubatka, The Old that the art of singing has gone downhill and there is a pro-
Italian School of Singing: A Theoretical and Practical Guide verbial attitude that “things were always better in the past.”
(Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2012); Philip A. Stark argues that it has always been this way, recounting at
Duey, Bel Canto in Its Golden Age: A Study of Its Teaching least four “golden ages” of singing: the first was established
Concepts (New York: King’s Crown Press, 1951); David L. between 1720 and 1740 with the Neapolitan (associated with
Jones, A Modern Guide to Old World Singing: Concepts of Niccolò Porpora) and Bologna (Antonio Bernacchi) schools
the Swedish-Italian and Italian Singing Schools (New York:
of singing; the second occurred between 1770 and 1790 and
David L. Jones, 2017); William Earl Brown, Vocal Wisdom:
comprised the Milan (Luigi Marchesi) and Venetian (Gas-
Maxims of Giovanni Battista Lamperti, enlarged ed. (Marl-
pare Pacchierotti) schools; the third spanned from 1825 and
boro, NJ: Taplinger Publishing, 1957); Lucie Manén, Bel
1840 after the decline of the castrati and included Manual
Canto: The Teaching of the Classical Italian Song-Schools,
García (père), his daughters Maria Malibran and Pauline
Its Decline and Restoration (New York: Oxford University
Viardot, and the “three” tenors of the 1830s: Giovanni Bat-
Press, 1987); Cornelius L. Reid, Bel Canto: Principles and
Practices (New York: Joseph Patelson Music House, 1972); tista Rubini, Adolphe Nourrit, and Gilbert Duprez; and
and Robert Toft, Bel Canto: A Performer’s Guide (New York: the fourth and last “golden age” stretched from 1880 until
Oxford University Press, 2013). the First World War and is represented by the singers Vic-
tor Maurel, Francesco Tamagno, Jean de Reszke, Lillian
5. James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Toronto:
Nordica, Nellie Melba, Marcella Sembrich, Emma Eames,
University of Toronto Press, 1999). Throughout this essay
(and to avoid confusion), the author will endeavor to use and Ernestine Schumann-Heink, with Enrico Caruso, Luisa
lowercase and standard formatting when referring to “bel Tetrazzini, Amelita Galli-Curci, and Rosa Ponsel comprising
canto” as a concept and capitalization and italics when refer- “an Italian afterglow.” Ibid., 205–6. Stark credits the scholars
ring to Stark’s book. Henry Pleasants and Franz Häbock in his establishment of
6. Ibid., 189. Italicization reprinted as originally published. this timeline.
Bold text is by the author of this article for emphasis. 11. Stark notes that “[García’s] pupils included (in addition to
7. The author of this article acknowledges Merriam-Webster’s his sisters Maria Malibran and Pauline Viardot) Mathilde
and others authors’ (such as Vennard’s) preference for “coup Marchesi, Charles Battaille, Julius Stockhausen, Sir Charles
de glotte.” However, coup de la glotte is not only favored by Santley, Henrietta Nissen-Saloman, Antoinette Sterling,
Stark but also seems to be more prevalent in the primary Johanna Wagner (Richard Wagner’s niece), Catherine Hayes,
sources; thus this version of the term is retained throughout and the most famous of them all, the ‘Swedish Nightingale’
the present article. Jenny Lind.” Ibid., 6.

424 Journal of Singing

 Voice Pedagogy

12. Early writings on singing by these figures include the follow- 20. William D. Vennard, Singing: The Mechanism and the Tech-
ing: Lodovico Zacconi, Prattica musica utile et necessario si al nic, revised ed., greatly enlarged (New York: Carl Fischer,
compositore (1592); Giulio Caccini, Le nuove musiche (1602) 1967); Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice
and Nuove musiche e nuova maniera di scriverle (1604); (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois Press, 1987); Johan Sund-
Johann Andreas Herbst, Musica practica sive instructio pro berg, The Science of Musical Sounds (San Diego: Academic
symphoniacis (1642); and Pier Francesco Tosi, Opinioni de’ Press, 1991); Ingo R. Titze, Principles of Voice Production
cantori antichi e moderni o sieno osservazioni sopra in canto (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994).
figurato (1723) and Observations on the Florid Song (1743). 21. Stark recounts a humorous anecdote from the annals of
13. Writings by these figures referenced by Stark include the fol- nineteenth-century voice instruction: “Among the many
lowing: Giambattista Mancini, Practical Reflections on Florid examples of colourful and highly imaginative accounts of
Singing (1774/77); Alexis de Garaudé, Méthode complète de resonance imagery in the pedagogic literature there is one
chant (ca. 1830); Manuel García II, Traité complet de l’art du in particular that bears repeating here. It is Blanche Mar-
chant (1847), “Observations on the Human Voice” (1855), chesi’s most delightful story about the composer Charleses
and Hints on Singing (1894); Francesco Lamperti, Guida Gounod, who apparently dabbled in voice instruction. ‘He
teorica-practica-elementare per lo studio del canto (1864) never taught singing, but was often approached to do so.
and The Art of Singing according to Ancient Tradition and His only daughter one day implored him to give lessons to
Personal Experience (1884); Giovanni Battista Lamperti, The a young girl friend of hers . . . Gounod put the girl in front of
Technics of Bel Canto (1905); Hermann Klein, Thirty Years him, looked straight in her eyes and said: “Place your bow,
of Musical Life in London, 1870–1900 (1903), The Bel Canto, let the urn of your voice pour out its contents, and give me
with a Particular Reference to the Singing of Mozart (1923), a mauve sound, in which I may was my hands.”’ Marchesi
and Great Women-Singers of My Time (1931); Mathilde called this a ‘poetical, but wholly unpractical, way of asking
Marchesi, Méthode de chant théorique et pratique (1877); a pupil to make a sound.’” Ibid., 55. The story itself derives
Julius Stockhausen, A Method of Singing (1884); and William from Blanche Marchesi’s Singer’s Pilgrimage (Boston: Small,
Shakespeare, The Art of Singing, Based on the Principles of the Maynard & Company, 1923), 287.
Old Italian Singing Masters (1899) and The Art of Singing . . . 22. These studies were carried out in the Gronigen Voice
Entirely Rewritten (1910). Research Lab in the Netherlands under the supervision of
14. Stark, Bel Canto, 36. Harm K. Schutte (director of the laboratory) and Donald
15. Ibid., xi. G. Miller. The precise dates of the individual studies are not
provided by the author.
16. Ibid., 5. On this page, Stark acknowledges a caveat regarding
23. Ibid., 28.
this date: “While it is widely believed that García invented
the laryngoscope in 1885, research Peek Woo maintains that 24. See Matthew Hoch and Mary J. Sandage, “Working toward
Bozzini and M. Gagniard de la Tour had used dental mirrors a Common Vocabulary: Reconciling the Terminology of
to view the larynx in 1807 and 1829, respectively, and that in Teachers of Singing, Voice Scientists, and Speech-Language
1844 Mr Avery of London added a semispherical forehead Pathologists.” Journal of Voice 31, no. 6 (November 2017):
reflector with a hole in the center. Woo concedes that García 647–48; Hoch, “Singing Redefined.”
may have been the first to use autolaryngoscopy.” 25. To cite one important example, coup de la glotte has been
17. Hermann von Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone as a variously translated as “stroke of the glottis” and “shock
Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music, translated, revised, of the glottis,” connotating different interpretations of the
and corrected by Alexander J. Ellis (New York: Dover Pub- technique and perhaps reflecting the bias of the translators.
lications, 1954). Originally published in German in 1862. The terminology alone has fueled much debate about Gar-
cía’s intentions behind this term and his beliefs about glottal
18. Janwillem Van den Berg’s numerous articles are listed in the
onset. Stark, Bel Canto, 12–24.
bibliography of Bel Canto. Ibid., 296.
26. Ibid., 40.
19. Carl E. Seashore’s books cited by Stark are The Vibrato (Iowa
City: University of Iowa Press, 1932); Psychology of the 27. Ibid., 89.
Vibrato in Voice and Instrument (Iowa City: University of 28. Ibid., 85. Stark’s references in this passage include Y. R.
Iowa Press, 1936); Psychology of Music (New York: McGraw Diday and Pétriquin, “Mémoire sur une nouvelle espèce de
Hill, 1938); and In Search of Beauty in Music: A Scientific voix chantée,” Gazette Médicale de Paris 8 (1840): 307–14;
Approach to Musical Esthetics (New York, Roland Press, Richard Luchsinger and Godfrey E. Arnold, Voice-Speech
1947). Language, trans. Godfrey E. Arnold and Evelyn Rose Fink-

March/April 2024 425

Matthew Hoch

beiner (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1965), 95; the Baroque (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2011).
Richard Miller, English, French, German, and Italian Tech- Stark’s reference to Buzkofer occurs in Bel Canto, 176–77.
niques of Singing (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1977), 36. Stark, Bel Canto, 266.
113; Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and
37. Ibid., 146.
Art in Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books, 1986),
118; and John Large, Shigenoba Iwata, and Hans von Leden, 38. Ibid., 165.
“The Primary Female Register Transition in Singing,” Folia 39. Ibid., 166. Interestingly, Lamperti described only four—
Phoniatrica 22: 385–96. legato, portamento, picchettato and martellato—with legato
29. Stark, Bel Canto, 66. Musurgia Vocalis was an expansion of considered to be the most important.
an earlier book of Nathan’s titled Essay on the History and 40. Ibid., 189.
Theory of Music (1823). 41. Matthew Hoch, “Silent upon a Peak in Darien,” Journal of
30. Ibid., 54. Singing 79, no. 1 (September/October 2022): 43–47.
31. Ibid., 32. 42. In his chapter on registers, Stark shares the following anec-
32. Ibid., 154. dote: “Richard Miller, who visited numerous Italian voice
studios, describes male voices as having a primo passaggio
33. To cite one of numerous inconsequential examples, I am not
and a secondo passaggio, with a zona di passaggio in between
sure that Marjory Kennedy-Fraser’s Songs of the Hebrides are
them. However, he cites no published literature regarding
“still perennial favorites of recitalists.” Ibid., 43
this theory, and most written sources discuss only one
34. Some of the more recent studies directly relating to prin- passaggio in male voices (between the chest and falsetto
ciples of bel canto that were not available to Stark include registers) and two passaggi in female voices (one between
the following: Ingo R. Titze, Russel Long, George I. Shirley, the chest and middle, and one between [the] middle and
Elaine Stathopoulos, Lorraine O. Ramig, Linda M. Carroll, head registers.” Ibid., 83. Stark references Richard Miller,
and William D. Riley, “Messa di voce: An Investigation of the English, French, German, and Italian Techniques of Singing,
Symmetry of Crescendo and Decrescendo in a Singing Exer- 104, 117, 123.
cise,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 105 (1999):
43. The “Science-Informed Voice Pedagogy Resources” are all
2933–40; Christian T. Herbst, “A Review of Singing Voice
available to NATS members at www.nats.org.
Subsystem Interactions—Toward an Extended Physiological
Model of ‘Support,’” Journal of Voice 31, no. 2 (March 2017): 44. Stark, Bel Canto, 153–88. Stark titles chapter 6, “Idiom and
249.e13–249.e19; Kate Emerich Gordon and Ona Reed, “The Expression: The Soul of Singing.”
Role of the Pelvic Floor in Respiration: A Multidisciplinary 45. Ibid., 183–88.
Literature Review,” Journal of Voice 34, no. 2 (March 2020): 46. Ibid., 185. The individuals whose writings Stark references
243–49; Louisa Traser, Fabian Burk, Ali Caglar Özen, include Eduard Hanslick (nineteenth-century Austrian
Michael Burdumy, Michael Bock, Daniela Blaser, Bernhard music critic), Deryk Cooke (musicologist), Alfred Einstein
Richter, and Mathias Echternach, “Respiratory Kinematics (musicologist), Peter Kivy (musicologist), Robert Donington
and the Regulation of Subglottic Pressure for Phonation of (musicologist), and Joseph Kerman (musicologist and critic).
Pitch Jumps—A Dynamic MRI Study,” Plos One 15, no. 12 47. Ibid. Italics are by the author of this article for emphasis.
(2020): e0244539; André Almeida, Emery Schubert, and Joe The Hanslick quotation is taken from Eduard Hanslick, The
Wolfe, “Timbre Vibrato Perception and Description,” Music Beautiful in Music, trans. Gustave Cohen (Indianapolis and
Perception 38, no. 3 (2021): 282–92; Joshua D. Glasner and New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957), 32.
John Nix, “Perception of Vibrato Rate by Professional Singing
48. Ibid., 186; Hector Berlioz, Gluck and His Operas, with an
Voice Teachers,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
Account of Their Relation to Musical Art, trans. Edward Evans
152 (2022): A54; and Yvonne Gonzales Redman, Joshua D.
and from Berlioz’s À travers chant (London: W. M. Reaves,
Glasner, Dario D’Orazio, and Pasquale Bottolico, “Singing in
1914), 14.
Different Performance Spaces: The Effect of Room Acoustics
on Singers’ Perception,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of 49. Ibid., 188.
America 154 (2023): 2256–64 50. Ibid., 224. Italicization reprinted as originally published.
35. Manfred Buzkofer, Music in the Baroque Era (New York: W. 51. Ibid., 168. Stark also writes the following supporting state-
W. Norton & Company, 1947); John Walter Hill, Baroque ment in the final chapter of his book. “As has often been
Music: Music in Western Europe, 1580–1750 (New York: noted, the strongest force in the world is inertia, and this is
W. W. Norton & Company, 2005); Wendy Heller, Music in certainly true in singing. Many of the comments regarding

426 Journal of Singing

 Voice Pedagogy

the decline of good singing are related to a time lag between the Vann Vocal Institute, and others. He has appeared as a soloist with
a stylistic change brought about by composers and the abil- the Oregon Bach Festival, the Santa Fe Desert Chorale, the Vox Consort,
ity of singers and singing teachers to adjust to that change.” Harmonie Universelle, the Hartford, Rome, and Nashua symphony
Ibid., 216. orchestras, the Atlanta Baroque Orchestra, and the United States Coast
52. Ibid., 224–25. Italicization reprinted as originally published. Guard Chamber Players. Hoch is the 2016 winner of the Van L. Lawrence
Fellowship, awarded jointly by the Voice Foundation and NATS. He is the
53. Ibid. 189.
author, coauthor, editor, or coeditor of nine books and his articles have
appeared in numerous academic and professional journals. In addition
Matthew Hoch is professor of voice at Auburn University. Prior to this to his role as associate editor of the of the voice pedagogy column in the
appointment, he spent six years as assistant professor of voice at Shorter Journal of Singing, Hoch currently serves as chair of the NATS/Rowman
College/University. Hoch’s students have gone on to successful careers & Littlefield editorial board. In 2018, he presented performances and
in both classical and musical theatre genres and have won awards from master classes in the United Arab Emirates as was awarded the Auburn
the Metropolitan Opera National Council (MONC), NATS, MTNA, ACTF, University College of Liberal Arts Teaching Excellence Award.

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