Neurons and Synapses

PSY 208

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What is Biopsychology?
Biopsychology
The study of physiological, evolutionary, and developmental
mechanisms of behavior and experience.

Biological Explanation of Behavior

- Physiological
- Ontogenetic
- Evolutionary
- Functional
 Summation

Neurons EPSP/IPSP

Discovery of Neurotransmitters
Glial Cells
Contents Types of Neurotransmitters

Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) Neurotransmission

Ionotropic/Metabotropic
Action Potential
Hormones

Tan (2021)
Neurons
2 Types of Cells:

• Neurons
• Glial Cells

Image: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Fig-1-Functional-Units-of-Brain-A-
schematic-representation-of-different-glial-cells_fig1_286129997
 Structure of
a Cell

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yOOJlbPLnnA
 Major Components of a Neuron

• Dendrites: branch-like structures that

receive messages from other neurons
• Dendritic spines – increase the surface area available
for the synapses

• Soma: the cell body of the neuron,

responsible for maintaining the life of the
cell
Image: https://www.brainfacts.org/brain-anatomy-and-
function/cells-and-circuits/2015/image-of-the-week-spinal-map
Major Components of a Neuron

Image: https://app.biorender.com/biorender-templates/t-
5f5b7e6139954000b2bde860-neuron-anatomy
Glial Cells
Glial Cells
Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)
Blood Brain Barrier

• A mechanism that surrounds the

brain and blocks most chemicals
from entering

• Neuron does not regenerate, vital

to have a protective mechanism
Action Potential
Types of ions
• At rest, the membrane maintains
an electrical gradient (aka.
Polarization) or a difference in the
electrical charge of two locations.

• Negatively charged: Chloride (Cl−)

and organic anions
• Positively charged: Sodium (Na+)
and potassium (K+)
Types of Channels:

• Voltage-gated Sodium Channels

• Voltage-gated Potassium
Channels
• Sodium-Potassium Pump:

Image: ttps://www.quora.com/Why-is-it-said-that-active-transport-goes-against-
the-concentration-gradient-How-is-that-possible
Concentration Gradient
• A concentration gradient
occurs when the
concentration of particles is
higher in one area than
another.
Image: https://makeagif.com/gif/diffusion-water-food-dye-diffusion-
project-Yp8XJl

• Molecules will move from an

area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration
Electrical Gradient

Image:
http://droualb.faculty.mjc.edu/Course%20Materials/Physiology%20101/Chapter%20Notes/Fall%202011/chapter_4_Fall%20201
1.htm
Phases of Action Potential

Image : https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Typical-Phases-in-the-Generation-of-an-Action-Potential-via-Voltage-Gated-Ion-
Channels_fig6_311429104
Resting Potential
• Sodium:
• Electrical gradient pulls in;
• Concentration gradient pushes in

• Potassium:
• Electrical gradient pulls in;
• Concentration gradient tends to drive
it out.

Image: ttps://www.quora.com/Why-is-it-said-that-active-transport-goes-against-
the-concentration-gradient-How-is-that-possible
Phases
• Resting Potential
• Depolarization
• Repolarization
• Hyperpolarization
Tan (2021)
Propagation of Action Potential

Image : Cengage
Tan (2021)
 Myelin Sheaths
• The myelin sheath of axons are interrupted by short
unmyelinated sections called nodes of Ranvier.
• At each node of Ranvier, the action potential is
regenerated by a chain of positively charged ion
pushed along by the previous segment.
• Saltatory conduction
Synapses
Basic Introduction
Concept of Synapse
• Presynaptic neuron –
the neuron that delivers
the synaptic
transmission
• Postsynaptic neuron –
the neuron that receives
the message

Tan (2021)
Summation
Summation
• Temporal Summation:
Repeated stimuli can have a
cumulative effect and can
produce a nerve impulse
when a single stimuli is too
weak.

• Spatial Summation: Synaptic

input from several locations
can have a cumulative effect
and trigger a nerve impulse.

Tan (2021)
EPSP/IPSP
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

• Excitatory postsynaptic potential

(EPSP) is a graded depolarization
that decays over time and space.
• The cumulative effect of EPSPs are
the basis for temporal and spatial
summation.

Tan (2021)
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

• Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

or the temporary
hyperpolarisation of a
membrane.

• Serves as an active “brake”, that

suppresses excitation.

Tan (2021)
Neurons can have
thousands of synapses.
• Both temporal and spatial
summation can occur
within a neuron.
• The likelihood of an
action potential depends
upon the ratio of IPSPs to
EPSPs at a given
moment.

Tan (2021)
Discovery of Neurotransmitters
 Otto Loewi’s
Experiment
• Stimulated vagus nerve  frog’s heart
rate decreased  collected fluid 
transferred to another frog’s heart 
heart rate also decreased.

Tan (2021)
Types of Neurotransmitters
 Neurotransmitters
Amino Acids glutamate, GABA, glycine,
aspartate, maybe others
A Modified Amino Acid acetylcholine
Monoamines (also modified indoleamines: serotonin
from amino acids) catecholamines: dopamine,
norepinephrine, epinephrine
Neuropeptides (chains of amino endorphins, substance P,
acids) neuropeptide Y, many others
Purines ATP, adenosine, maybe others
Gases NO (nitric oxide), maybe others

• Amino acids are organic compounds that contain amino

and carboxyl functional groups, along with a side chain
specific to each amino acid.
• Purine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound that
consists of two rings (pyrimidine and imidazole).

Table: Cengage
Synthesis of Neurotransmitters
• Neurons synthesize nearly all neurotransmitters from amino acids, which the body obtains
from proteins in the diet.
• Note the relationship among epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine—compounds
known as catecholamines, because they contain a catechol group and an amine group, as
shown here:
• Choline: milk, eggs, peanuts
• Phenylalanine, Tyrosine:
present in proteins
• Typtophan: Soy
 Neuropeptides
• Aka neuromodulators, because they have properties that set them apart from other
transmitters .

• Neuropeptides differ from traditional NTs:

• Synthesized in cell soma& transported
• Released in dendrites, cell soma & sides of axons
• Release by repeated stimulation/depolarization
• Primes adjacent cells for release –large amounts
Neurotransmission
• Vesicles are tiny spherical
packets located in the
presynaptic terminal where
neurotransmitters are held
for release.
• MAO (monoamine oxidase) is a
chemical that breaks down
excess levels of some
neurotransmitters (e.g.,
serotonin, dopamine and
norepinephrine).

• Exocytosis refers to the

excretion of the
neurotransmitter from the
presynaptic terminal into the
synaptic cleft.

Tan (2021)
 Synaptic
Transmission
Animation
The major sequence of
events allowing
communication between
neurons across the synapse:
Drugs that bind to the receptors
• Hallucinogenic drugs – LSD, chemically resembles serotonin, attach to
serotonin type receptors and provide stimulation at inappropriate
times or for longer-than-usual durations.

• Nicotine - stimulates a family of acetylcholine receptors, conveniently

known as nicotinic receptors. Smoking.

• Opiate drugs - bind to the same receptors as endorphins, opiates

relieve pain by acting on receptors in the brain as well as in the skin.
Inactivation & Reuptake
• To avoid overstimulation
• Acetylcholinesterase enzyme: breaks down acetylcholine

• Serotonin and cathecholamines reuptake to the presynaptic terminal.

• COMT (catechol-o-methyltransferase) enzyme.

• Cocaine – inhibit the reuptake of dopamine, prolonged

pleasurable effect.
Negative Feedback from Postsynaptic Cell
• Autoreceptors—receptors that respond to the released
transmitter by inhibiting further synthesis and release.

• Postsynaptic neurons releasing chemicals that travel back –

inhibit further release
Ionotropic/Metabotropic

Tan (2021)
Ionotropic Effect
An ionotropic effect refers to when
a neurotransmitter attaches to
receptors and immediately opens
ion channels.
• Channels at synapse are
ligand-gated.
• Quick, short lasting
• E.g. Glutamate, GABA,
acetylcholine (excitatory),
glysine (inhibitory).
• E.g. Vision, Hearing.

Tan (2021)
Metabotropic Effect
Metabotropic effects occur when
neurotransmitters attach to a receptor and
initiates a sequence of slower (30 ms) and
longer lasting (many seconds or minutes)
metabolic reactions.

• E.g. taste, smell, pain…

• Bends – release G protein , “GTP” - activates
second messenger - communicates within cell,
open/close channels.

Tan (2021)
Hormones

Tan (2021)
Hormones
Pineal Melatonin Sleepiness; also role in puberty

Adrenal Aldosterone Reduces release of salt in the

cortex urine
Cortisol Elevated blood sugar and
metabolism
Adrenal Epinephrine, Similar to actions of sympathetic
medulla norepinephri nervous system
ne

Pancreas Insulin Helps glucose enter cells

Glucagon Helps convert stored glycogen

into blood glucose
Ovary Estrogens Female sexual characteristics
and and pregnancy
progesterone

Testis Testosterone Male sexual characteristics and

pubic hair
Kidney Renin Regulates blood pressure,
contributes to hypovolemic thirst
Fat cells Leptin Decreases appetite, increases
activity

Tan (2021)
Hypothalamus
Neurons in the hypothalamus
synthesize the hormones oxytocin and
vasopressin which migrate down
axons to the posterior pituitary.
• Also known as antidiuretic
hormones.
• The hypothalamus secretes releasing
hormones.
• Flow through the blood and
stimulate the anterior pituitary
to release several other
hormones.

Tan (2021)
Pituitary Gland
Organ Hormone Hormone Functions (partial)
Hypothalamus Various releasing Promote/inhibit release of hormones from pituitary
hormones

Anterior Thyroid-stimulating Stimulates thyroid gland

pituitary hormone

Luteinizing hormone Stimulates ovulation

Follicle-stimulating Promotes ovum maturation (female), sperm

hormone production (male)

ACTH Increases steroid hormone production by adrenal

gland

Prolactin Increases milk production

Growth hormone Increases body growth

Posterior Oxytocin Uterine contractions, milk release, sexual pleasure

pituitary

Vasopressin Raises blood pressure, decreases urine volume

Tan (2021)
Negative Feedback
Feedback
Remember to do your
Attendance Quiz @
LMS
Tan (2021)