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eBook 978 0 7494 8445 3
Typeset by Integra Software Services, Pondicherry Print production
managed by Jellyfish Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd,
Croydon, CR0 4YY

8
CONTENTS

Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Preface
Acknowledgements

01 Understanding HR analytics

Predictive HR analytics defined

Understanding the need (and business case) for mastering and
utilizing predictive HR analytic techniques
Human capital data storage and ‘big (HR) data’ manipulation
Predictors, prediction and predictive modelling
Current state of HR analytic capabilities and professional or
academic training
Business applications of modelling
HR analytics and HR people strategy
Becoming a persuasive HR function
References
Further reading

02 HR information systems and data

Information sources
Analysis software options
Using SPSS
Preparing the data

9
 Big data
References

03 Analysis strategies

From descriptive reports to predictive analytics

Statistical significance
Examples of key HR analytic metrics/measures often used by
analytics teams
Data integrity
Types of data
Categorical variable types
Continuous variable types
Using group/team-level or individual-level data
Dependent variables and independent variables
Your toolkit: types of statistical tests
Statistical tests for categorical data (binary, nominal, ordinal)
Statistical tests for continuous/interval-level data
Factor analysis and reliability analysis
What you will need
Summary
References

04 Case study 1: Diversity analytics

Equality, diversity and inclusion

Approaches to measuring and managing D&I
Example 1: gender and job grade analysis using frequency
tables and chi square
Example 2a: exploring ethnic diversity across teams using
descriptive statistics
Example 2b: comparing ethnicity and gender across two
functions in an organization using the independent samples
t-test
Example 3: using multiple linear regression to model and

10
 predict ethnic diversity variation across teams
Testing the impact of diversity: interacting diversity
categories in predictive modelling
A final note
References

05 Case study 2: Employee attitude surveys – engagement and

workforce perceptions

What is employee engagement?

How do we measure employee engagement?
Interrogating the measures
Conceptual explanation of factor analysis
Example 1: two constructs – exploratory factor analysis
Reliability analysis
Example 2: reliability analysis on a four-item engagement
scale
Example 3: reliability and factor testing with group-level
engagement data
Analysis and outcomes
Example 4: using the independent samples t-test to determine
differences in engagement levels
Example 5: using multiple regression to predict team-level
engagement
Actions and business context
References

06 Case study 3: Predicting employee turnover

Employee turnover and why it is such an important part of

HR management information
Descriptive turnover analysis as a day-to-day activity
Measuring turnover at individual or team level
Exploring differences in both individual and team-level
turnover

11
 Example 1a: using frequency tables to explore regional
differences in staff turnover
Example 1b: using chi-square analysis to explore regional
differences in individual staff turnover
Example 2: using one-way ANOVA to analyse team-level
turnover by country
Example 3: predicting individual turnover
Example 4: comparing expected length of service for men vs
women using the Kaplan-Meier survival analysis technique
Example 5: predicting team turnover
Modelling the costs of turnover and the business case for
action
Summary
References

07 Case study 4: Predicting employee performance

What can we measure to indicate performance?

What methods might we use?
Practical examples using multiple linear regression to predict
performance
Example 1a: using multiple linear regression to predict
customer loyalty in a financial services organization
Example 1b: using multiple linear regression to predict
customer reinvestment in a financial services organization
Example 2: using multiple linear regression to predict
customer loyalty
Example 3: using multiple linear regression to predict
individual performance
Example 4: using stepwise multiple linear regression to
model performance
Example 5: using stepwise multiple linear regression to
model change in performance over time
Example 6: using multiple regression to predict sickness

12
 absence
Example 7: exploring patterns in performance linked to
employee profile data
Example 8: exploring patterns in supermarket checkout scan
rates linked to employee demographic data
Example 9: determining the presence or otherwise of high-
performing age groups
Ethical considerations caveat in performance data analysis
Considering the possible range of performance analytic
models
References

08 Case study 5: Recruitment and selection analytics

Reliability and validity of selection methods

Human bias in recruitment selection
Example 1: consistency of gender and BAME proportions in
the applicant pool
Example 2: investigating the influence of gender and BAME
on shortlisting and offers made
Validating selection techniques as predictors of performance
Example 3: predicting performance from selection data using
multiple linear regression
Example 4: predicting turnover from selection data –
validating selection techniques by predicting turnover
Further considerations
Reference

09 Case study 6: Monitoring the impact of interventions

Tracking the impact of interventions

Example 1: stress before and after intervention
Example 2: stress before and after intervention by gender
Example 3: value-change initiative
Example 4: value-change initiative by department

13
 Example 5: supermarket checkout training intervention
Example 6: supermarket checkout training course – Redux
Evidence-based practice and responsible investment
Reference

10 Business applications: Scenario modelling and business cases

Predictive modelling scenarios

Example 1: customer reinvestment
Example 2: modelling the potential impact of a training
programme
Obtaining individual values for the outcomes of our
predictive models
Example 3: predicting the likelihood of leaving
Making graduate selection decisions with evidence obtained
from previous performance data
Example 4: constructing the business case for investment in
an induction day
Example 5: using predictive models to help make a selection
decision in graduate recruitment
Example 6: which candidate might be a ‘flight risk’?
Further consideration on the use of evidence-based
recommendations in selection
References

11 More advanced HR analytic techniques

Mediation processes
Moderation and interaction analysis
Multi-level linear modelling
Curvilinear relationships
Structural equation models
Growth models
Latent class analysis
Response surface methodology and polynomial regression

14
 analysis
The SPSS syntax interface
Machine learning
References

12 Reflection on HR analytics: Usage, ethics and limitations

HR analytics as a scientific discipline

The metric becomes the behaviour driver: Institutionalized
Metric-Oriented Behaviour (IMOB)
Balanced scorecard of metrics
What is the analytic sample?
The missing group
The missing factor
Carving time and space to be rigorous and thorough
Be sceptical and interrogate the results
The importance of quality data and measures
Taking ethical considerations seriously
Ethical standards for the HR analytics team
The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
The metric and the data are linked to human beings
References

Appendix R
Index
Backcover

15
Supporting resources to accompany this book are available at the following URL.

www.koganpage.com/PHRA2

16
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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1.1 Plot of internet search interest of HR analytics subject

words from 2004–18 (graph produced by Paul Van der Laken,
2018, p 18)

FIGURE 2.1

FIGURE 2.2

FIGURE 2.3

FIGURE 2.4

FIGURE 2.5

FIGURE 2.6

FIGURE 2.7

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FIGURE 2.14

FIGURE 2.15

FIGURE 2.16

17
FIGURE 2.17

FIGURE 2.18

FIGURE 2.19

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FIGURE 2.23

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18
FIGURE 2.37

FIGURE 2.38

FIGURE 2.39

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FIGURE 2.50

FIGURE 2.51

FIGURE 2.52

FIGURE 2.53

FIGURE 2.54

FIGURE 3.1 Running the chi-square in SPSS

FIGURE 3.2 Running a binary logistic regression analysis in SPSS

19
FIGURE 3.3 Survival data for Hazardcorp showing censored cases

FIGURE 3.4 Running survival analysis in SPSS

FIGURE 3.5 Selecting the independent samples t-test in SPSS

FIGURE 3.6 Selecting the paired samples t-test in SPSS

FIGURE 3.7 Selecting a one-way ANOVA

FIGURE 3.8

FIGURE 3.9

FIGURE 3.10

FIGURE 3.11

FIGURE 3.12

FIGURE 3.13

FIGURE 3.14 Selecting a correlation option in the SPSS menu

FIGURE 3.15 Selecting variables to correlate

FIGURE 3.16 Simple linear algebra

FIGURE 3.17 Selecting linear regressions in SPSS

FIGURE 3.18 Selecting factor analysis in SPSS

FIGURE 3.19 Selecting reliability analysis in SPSS

FIGURE 4.1 Graphical representation (description) of % of the

male/female groups across the eight grades within the organization

FIGURE 4.2 Graphical representation (description) of the male/female

% within each grade

20
FIGURE 4.3 SPSS output for our chi-square analysis of our data
gender and grade description

FIGURE 4.4 Running the chi square

FIGURE 4.5 Getting SPSS to run a chi square

FIGURE 4.6 Selecting what to display in the Crosstabs output table

FIGURE 4.7

FIGURE 4.8

FIGURE 4.9

FIGURE 4.10

FIGURE 4.11

FIGURE 4.12

FIGURE 4.13

FIGURE 4.14

FIGURE 4.15

FIGURE 4.16

FIGURE 4.17 Percentage of BAME individuals in the UK workforce

FIGURE 5.1 The engagement construct

FIGURE 5.2 Two-‘sub-factor’ engagement structure

FIGURE 5.3 Two-factor structure: engagement and manager support

FIGURE 5.4

FIGURE 5.5 Selecting the variables

21
FIGURE 5.6 Rotation

FIGURE 5.7 Factor analysis total variance explained

FIGURE 5.8 Rotated component matrix

FIGURE 5.9 Two-factor structure: engagement and perceived

organizational support

FIGURE 5.10 Reliability analysis in SPSS

FIGURE 5.11

FIGURE 5.12 Reliability analysis statistics

FIGURE 5.13 Reliability analysis output

FIGURE 5.14 Selecting variables for factor analysis in SPSS

FIGURE 5.15 Total variance explained in team-level engagement data

FIGURE 5.16 Rotated component matrix in team-level engagement

data

FIGURE 5.17 A very stylish 3D graph

FIGURE 5.18 Independent samples t-test

FIGURE 5.19 Setting up our independent t-tests

FIGURE 5.20 First t-test result: engagement comparing inner London

versus non-London teams

FIGURE 5.21 Second t-test result: engagement comparing Sales versus

Professional Service teams

FIGURE 5.22 Conducting a multiple regression analysis predicting

team-level engagement

22
FIGURE 5.23 Setting up the model predicting team engagement

FIGURE 5.24 Analysis output for our model predicting team

engagement

FIGURE 6.1

FIGURE 6.2

FIGURE 6.3

FIGURE 6.4

FIGURE 6.5A

FIGURE 6.6

FIGURE 6.5B

FIGURE 6.7

FIGURE 6.8

FIGURE 6.9

FIGURE 6.10

FIGURE 6.11

FIGURE 6.12

FIGURE 6.13

FIGURE 6.14

FIGURE 6.15

FIGURE 6.16

FIGURE 6.17

23
FIGURE 6.18 Post-hoc testing for team engagement

FIGURE 6.19 Post-hoc testing for team turnover

FIGURE 6.20 Mean levels of ‘Team Turnover 2014’

FIGURE 6.21 Binary logistic regression in SPSS

FIGURE 6.22 Logistic regression for individual leavers

FIGURE 6.23

FIGURE 6.24

FIGURE 6.25

FIGURE 6.26 Kaplan-Meier survival analysis for individual leavers

FIGURE 6.27 Defining the event in the status variable in the Kaplan-
Meier survival analysis

FIGURE 6.28 Comparing factor levels in the Kaplan-Meier survival

analysis

FIGURE 6.29

FIGURE 6.30 Case processing summary

FIGURE 6.31A Survival table

FIGURE 6.31B

FIGURE 6.31C

FIGURE 6.31D

FIGURE 6.32 Means and medians for survival time

FIGURE 6.33 Overall comparisons

24
FIGURE 6.34 Survival functions

FIGURE 6.35

FIGURE 6.36

FIGURE 6.37

FIGURE 6.38

FIGURE 6.39

FIGURE 6.40

FIGURE 6.41

FIGURE 7.1 Conducting a multiple regression analysis predicting

customer loyalty

FIGURE 7.2

FIGURE 7.3

FIGURE 7.4 Conducting a multiple regression analysis predicting

customer reinvestment

FIGURE 7.5

FIGURE 7.6

FIGURE 7.7 Conducting a multiple regression analysis predicting

customer loyalty

FIGURE 7.8

FIGURE 7.9

FIGURE 7.10

25
Other documents randomly have
different content
The Four Fasts.

There are four days kept as fast-days in commemoration of events

connected with the fall of Jerusalem. They are called in the Bible
(Zech. viii. 19) “the fast of the fourth month and the fast of the fifth,
and the fast of the seventh and the fast of the tenth.” These days
are the anniversaries of the commencement of the siege of
Jerusalem (10th of Tebeth), of the breach made in the wall (17th of
Tammuz), of the destruction of the Temple (9th of Ab), and of the
murder of Gedaliah (3rd of Tishri). The 9th of Ab is kept as a day of
fasting and mourning for the destruction of the Temple. According to
Tradition, both the first and the second Temple were destroyed on
the same day.

The Lesson from the Pentateuch read in the Morning and in the
Afternoon Services on the fast-days is Exod. xxxii. 11–14 and xxxiv.
1–10. On the 9th of Ab this section is read in the afternoon only; the
Morning Lesson being Deut. iv. 25–40 and Jer. viii. 13 to ix. 23; in
the Afternoon Service on all fasts Isa. lv. 6 to lvi. 8 is read as
haphtarah.

Note 1.—These fasts begin with daybreak, except the fast of the 9th of Ab, which
commences with the previous evening and lasts twenty-four hours, and is in all
respects like that of the [413]Day of Atonement. During the day the Lamentations
of Jeremiah, various elegies called ‫‏קינות‬‎, “Lamentations,” and the Book of Job are
read. On the Fast of Ab, as a sign of mourning, talith and tefillin are not worn
during the Morning Service. They are, however, put on for the Afternoon Service.

2. The Sabbath preceding the Fast of Ab is called ‫‏שבת חזון‬‎, and the Sabbath
following, ‫‏שבת נחמו‬‎because the Haphtaroth on these Sabbaths (ch. i. and ch. xl.
of Isaiah) begin respectively with the words ‫‏חזון‬‎and ‫‏נחמו‬‎; the one containing
rebukes and threats, the other a message of comfort.

Besides these historical fasts, there are voluntary fasts observed by

some as an expression of deep-felt piety; e.g., the three fasts of ‫‏שני‬
‫חמישי ושני‬‎of Monday, Thursday, and Monday, kept after the festive
seasons of Passover and Tabernacles, in imitation of Job, who after
the days of feasting sanctified his sons, and brought special
sacrifices (Job i.). To this class of fasts may be reckoned the day
before New-moon, called ‫‏יום כפור קטן‬‎on which in some
congregations the Afternoon Service is enlarged by propitiatory
prayers.
[Contents]

V. Divine Worship, ‫‏עבודה‬‎.

In the Midrash the following legend is related: When, at the

conclusion of the seventh day, the sun had set and darkness had
spread over the earth, Adam was afraid that the world was now
coming to an end. But the Almighty caused him to find two stones,
by means of which he produced light. On seeing this Adam was full
of joy, and although he had himself produced the spark, he felt that
it was to his Creator and Master that thanks were due, and gave
expression to his feelings in the words, “Blessed art Thou, O
[414]Lord, our God, King of the Universe, who createst the light of
the fire.”

Thus the legend traces the beginning of Divine Worship to the first
man; and, in fact, the desire to commune with the Creator and to
give outward expression to the inner feeling of reverence and
allegiance is so general that it seems to be part of man’s nature.

In a different way this feeling was expressed by the sons of Adam,

by Cain and Abel. They brought presents to the Lord, probably
accompanied by words of praise and prayer. No essential difference
is noticed by us in the offerings of the two brothers; each of them
brought what seemed best in his eyes. And yet the offering of Cain
was rejected, whilst that of Abel was received favourably. An
important lesson it is that Scripture teaches here at the very
threshold of the history of sacrifices. It is this: The value of an
offering does not lie in its outward appearance, in that which is open
to man’s judgment, but in something that is known to the
Omniscient alone, in the heart of him who approaches his Creator
with a gift, in the motives which prompt him to do so, and in the
feelings which accompany that act. From these beginnings the two
forms of Divine Worship, Sacrifice and Prayer, gradually developed.

Sacrifice (‫‏מנחה‬‎, ‫‏קרבן‬‎).

What was the main idea that prompted man to bring an offering to
the Almighty? He felt, as it were, the existence of a higher Being,
the Creator and Ruler of all things; he was conscious that his own
life [415]and welfare depended on the Will of the Being to whom in
reality everything belongs that man believes himself to possess and
to enjoy. In order to give expression to this feeling of allegiance man
brought the first and best of what he had acquired to the true
Owner, and thus introduced 110 himself by such gifts as a faithful
subject who is anxious to merit the favour of his Master. That which
was at first introduced by man voluntarily, was afterwards
sanctioned and regulated by Divine command.

There were two kinds of sacrifices: bloodless sacrifices, minchah and

nesech, “flour-offering” and “drink-offering,” and blood sacrifices:
animal-offerings. But no difference is discernible between these two
kinds with regard to their importance, sanctity, and efficiency. As a
rule, the animal-offering was supplemented by minchah and nesech.
The treatment of sacrifices varied according as they were intended
to express the feeling of reverence, rejoicing, gratitude, or
repentance, and special rules had to be observed in each case, the
various kinds of sacrifice being ‫‏עולה‬‎“burnt-offering,” or ‫‏שלמים‬‎
“peace-offering,” or ‫‏תודה‬‎“thanksgiving,” or ‫‏חטאת‬‎“sin-offering,” or
‫‏אשם‬‎“guilt-offering.” The Law further fixed the place, the time, and
the method of sacrificing, and appointed also the persons who alone
were allowed to attend to this function, so that no strange element,
no [416]idolatrous or superstitious customs, could be introduced into
the sacrificial service ordained by the Law.

Great stress is laid on the sprinkling of the blood of the sacrifice

upon the altar. “The blood,” the Law says, “is the soul of all flesh;
and I have given it to you upon the altar to make an atonement for
the soul” (Lev. xvii. 11). We are thus reminded that, in so far as the
animal life is concerned, “the pre-eminence of man over the beast is
nought,” and yet the Creator gave us the right to shed the blood of
animals in order to save our life. Why? Because man has a higher
mission to fulfil; he has been created in the image of God.

These and similar reflections were suggested by the different

elements constituting the sacrificial rite. With the destruction of the
Temple sacrifices ceased; with the Restoration of Israel and the
Rebuilding of the Temple the Sacrificial Service will likewise be
resumed. (Comp. Mal. iii. 4). There are persons who believe that the
Sacrificial Service, implying much of anthropomorphism, could not
have been intended to be permanent, and that it was only a
concession made to the fashion and the low degree of culture of the
age. Those who reject sacrifices on this account must also reject
prayer, which is likewise based on a certain degree of
anthropomorphism, though less strikingly than sacrifice. If the law
concerning offerings were only intended for a certain age, such
limitation would have been indicated in the Law. In the absence of
such indication we have no right to criticise the Word of God, and to
think that we are too advanced in culture to obey the Divine
commands, It has been further argued that, [417]according to
Maimonides and his followers, the laws concerning sacrifices only
served as a means of counteracting the idolatrous tendencies of the
age. But Maimonides never went so far as to contend that these
laws have served their purpose, and are now null and void. Even
those laws which have been enacted by human authority remain in
force till they are repealed in a regular and legal manner. But what
human being can claim a right to abolish laws given by the
Almighty? Whether any of the laws of the Torah will ever be
abrogated we do not know, but we are sure that, in case of such
abrogation taking place, it will be done by a revelation as convincing
as that on Mount Sinai.

On the other hand, the revival of the Sacrificial Service must likewise
be sanctioned by the divine voice of a prophet. The mere acquisition
of the Temple Mount or of all Palestine by Jews, by war, or political
combinations, or purchase, would not justify the revival. It is only
the return of the Jews to Palestine, and the rebuilding of the Temple
by Divine command and by Divine intervention, that will be followed
by the restoration of the Sacrificial Service. And however contrary
the slaughter of animals, the sprinkling of their blood, and the
burning of their flesh be to our taste, we ought to look forward with
eagerness and pleasure for the revival of the full Temple Service as
an event that will enable us to do the Will of the Almighty revealed
in the Torah. Instead of modelling the Divine laws according to our
liking, we ought rather to regulate the latter according to the
teaching of Scripture, and suppress it when contrary to the express
Will of God. We therefore give [418]expression to our hope “for the
restoration of the Temple with its ancient Service” in frequent and
fervent prayers, and in accordance with the exhortation of Hosea
(xiv. 2) we read each day during the Service Scriptural passages
referring to the sacrifice of the day.

“Sacrifices have been condemned by prophets and psalmists”! But in

the passages which seem antagonistic to sacrifices only those
sacrifices are referred to which are brought in a wrong spirit or from
bad motives. (Comp. 1 Sam. xv. 22; Isa. i. 11–13, xliii. 24, lxvi. 2;
Jer. vii. 21; Hosea vi. 6; Amos v. 25; Ps. l. 8.)

Prayers, ‫‏תפלה‬‎111

Prayer is the general name for that form of Divine Worship which is
expressed in words; it has a wider scope than sacrifices, for it is not
limited to a special place, or to a certain time, or to one privileged
family. It is accessible to all, in all places and at all times. All alike
are addressed by the Psalmist, “Let everything that hath breath
praise the Lord. Praise ye the Lord” (Ps. cl. 6).

There is no direct commandment in the Torah concerning prayer; it

is rather assumed as a matter of course, and as inseparable from
our belief in God. According to Tradition (Sifre on Deut. xi. 13), the
exhortation to serve God with all the heart implies the duty of
prayer. “What duty depends on the heart? It is the duty of prayer.”
(Comp. Maim. Mishneh-torah, [419]Hilchoth Tefillah i. 1.) The
following are a few of the general rules laid down by our Sages with
regard to Prayer:—

“Better little with devotion (‫‏כונה‬‎) than much without devotion”

(Shulchan-aruch, Orach Chayyim i. 4).

“During prayer bear in mind before whom you stand” (Babyl. T.,
Berachoth 28b).

“The value of the words uttered with the lips is determined by the
devotion of the heart” (Babyl. T., Berachoth 15b).

What is devotion? The concentration of all our attention upon the

words we utter, the banishment of all foreign thoughts from the
mind, and the consciousness that we stand in the presence of the
Almighty, whom it is our duty to love, fear, and obey. A prayer
uttered in this frame of mind is called “a prayer without lips of
deceit” (Ps. xvii. 1). Comp. Maim., l. c., iv. 15.

It is a matter of course that indecorous conduct, unbecoming

attitudes, and the like cannot harmonise with true devotion. With
regard to language, form, time, and place of prayer nothing was
fixed originally; all was regulated by the momentary impulse of the
heart of the worshipper. But people who considered themselves
incapable of giving adequate expression to their devotional feelings
borrowed the words of those more capable than themselves and
followed their leading. Such a course was also necessary for
common and united devotion. When a certain prayer or a certain
order of Service was frequently repeated at the same season and in
the same place, the form, the time, and the place of prayer became
to a certain degree fixed by custom—[420]minhag—and that which
had in the beginning been voluntary (‫‏רשות‬‎) was subsequently made
law or duty (‫‏מצוה‬‎or ‫‏חובה‬‎). 112

The minhag is a most important element in Jewish religious life.

What one has been accustomed to do for a long time, or even from
his earliest youth, is deeply impressed on the heart, and is not
readily surrendered. Such customs are sometimes more cherished
and more firmly adhered to than express precepts. 113 It is the
outcome of this respect for custom that in all countries the Jews
pray in Hebrew. But nevertheless the general principle remains in
force that it is not the language that determines the value of prayer
but “the devotion of the heart,” and those who do not understand
Hebrew may give expression to “the devotion of their heart” in the
language they understand and speak. Women, who as a rule were
not expected to be Hebrew scholars, used to read translations of the
Hebrew prayers in the vernacular instead of, or in addition to, the
original; they had also prayers composed for them in the vernacular
(‫‏תחנות‬‎). And in more ancient times, when the Jews of Babylon had
adopted the Aramean dialect spoken in that country, and retained it
also after their return to Palestine, many prayers were composed in
the more familiar [421]language, although Hebrew was retained for
the principal prayers. Hebrew has a special claim to privilege and
distinction among the Jews. It is our national language, which our
forefathers once spoke; it is the language in which the Almighty
addressed the prophets, and through them the Israelites; the
language in which God revealed His Will to the Israelites on Mount
Sinai; the language in which the holy Psalmist sang the praises of
the Creator, the priests blessed the people, and worshippers prayed
in the Temple at Jerusalem. It must be the pride of every Jew to be
enabled to pray at home, and especially in the Synagogues, in that
same language, and if Hebrew be not the language of his every-day
life, he should seek to perfect his knowledge of it to such an extent
that he shall be able to understand the prayers and to pray with his
whole heart. Those who seek the abolition of Hebrew in our Services
aim, consciously or unconsciously, at the destruction of our
nationality as the people of the Lord, by breaking asunder one
important link which connects us with the wonderful past of our
nation.

Equally indifferent with regard to the value of prayer are its length
and its form. The Bible offers examples for all kinds and lengths of
prayer. If one wishes to pray in a few words, he need only follow the
example of Moses, who in the moment of anguish uttered nothing
beyond the words, “O God, heal her now” (Num. xii. 13). If one
prefers a long prayer, he may also take Moses as a guide, who
prayed forty days for the forgiveness of the Israelites after they had
made the golden calf (Deut. ix. 18, 25). Both prayers [422]were
equally efficacious. Miriam was healed, and the Israelites obtained
pardon. With regard to the form, we have in the Bible prayers in
prose and in poetry; some uttered in simple speech, others in song;
some with musical accompaniment, some without it. All of them
seem to have been at first the response to a momentary impulse,
but were afterwards repeated on similar occasions in the original or
in a modified form.

Among the various motives that impel us to seek communion with

our Father, is the desire for certain things which we have not, and
the conviction that it is solely in His hand to fulfil our wishes. 114 A
genuine prayer of this kind—for the fulfilment of certain wishes of
ours—is impossible without the belief in the efficacy of prayer. We
cannot with certainty expect that our petition will be granted, but we
hope that it will; we submit our wishes to the Will of the Almighty.
The Hebrew name for prayer ‫‏תפלה‬‎implied the idea of judgment, as
if we judged whether the concession of our petition might fairly be
anticipated. Such judgment, however, is not to be considered as
decisive; and if our request is to be granted, it will be as an act of
mercy and grace (‫‏רחמים ותחנונים‬‎), and not because it is a claim
fully proved (‫‏קבע‬‎). 115 We hope that our prayer will be granted, but
never lose sight of the condition “if it please God.” There are a few
exceptional cases. Prophets like Moses (Exod. viii. 6), Samuel (1
Sam. [423]xii. 17), Elijah (1 Kings xviii.), Elisha (2 Kings iv. 33 sqq.),
and others, men inspired by the Almighty, were, on certain
occasions, sure of the effect of their prayer. In the Mishnah (Taanith
iii. 8) the case of Choni (‫‏חוני המעגל‬‎) is mentioned, who spoke with
certainty of the result of his prayer. It must, however, in the latter
case be added that the head of the Sanhedrin, Shimeon ben
Shatach, blamed him for his conduct.

This we know for certain, that whenever and wherever we respond

to an inner impulse by the utterance of a prayer, God is near us, for
“He is nigh unto all them that call upon him, to all that call upon him
in truth” (Ps. cxlv. 18); that we and the place on which we stand are
hallowed by the Divine Presence. Places once hallowed by such
devotion, whether of our own or of our fellow-men, we like to visit
again and again for the same purpose. The spot of Jacob’s first
communion with God thus became “the house of God;” and even
during the period when there was one central Sanctuary for the
Sacrificial Service in Israel, at Gilgal, Mizpah, Shiloh, and later in
Jerusalem, there were houses of God throughout the country for
devotion unaccompanied by sacrifices. These were “the meeting-
places of God” (Ps. lxxiv. 8), in which the Israelites assembled to
meet their Creator. Such houses of God were established wherever
Jews settled; their main purpose was united devotion; but they
served also many other purposes—in fact, every holy, good, and
noble cause. The house of God was the Assembly-house, Synagogue
(‫‏בית הכנסת‬‎), in which the affairs of the community (‫‏צרכי צבור‬‎)
were settled; [424]the young had there their school, adults came
there for religious instruction, and found there opportunity for the
study of the Law, and the poor and stranger received there support
and hospitality.

In a Jewish Synagogue there were two important features, the

platform (‫‏בימה‬‎) and an ark (‫‏תבה‬‎) containing scrolls of the Law.
From the platform in the middle of the Synagogue, the lessons from
the Pentateuch and the Prophets were recited, and everything else
that was directly or indirectly addressed to the congregants. But
prayers addressed to the Most High were offered up from a lower
place near the Holy Ark, 116 in accordance with the words of the
Psalmist (cxxx. 1), “Out of the depth have I cried unto thee, O Lord.”

The Ark, or Holy Ark (‫‏ארון‬‎or ‫‏ארון הקדש‬‎), in almost all modern
Synagogues—in places west of Jerusalem—occupies the middle of
the east side of the Synagogue. In the time of the Talmud the
Synagogues were to some extent made to resemble the Tabernacle
which the Israelites built in the wilderness or the Temple in
Jerusalem. The entrance was from the east, and the Ark, which was
to represent the Most Holy, was in the west. The Ark was, like the
original one, movable. It was called tebhah, lit. “box,” in order to
distinguish it from the original. The recess in which it was kept was
the Hechal or Kodesh, “The Holy.” The tebhah seems to have served
both as a [425]receptacle for the scrolls of the Law, and as a desk on
which these were put whenever they were required for the reading
of the Torah. On certain extraordinary occasions, when, on account
of the absence of rain, a general fast was ordered, the tebhah, with
a Sefer-torah on it, was carried into the street, 117 where a special
service was held.

The reason why the entrance to the Sanctuary and to the

Synagogues was from the east, and the worshippers consequently
stood during prayer with their face toward the west, may, according
to the Mishnah (Succah v. 4), be explained thus: The principal prayer
of the day being that in the morning, the Jews, as a protest against
the sun-worship of the idolaters, who at that hour were accustomed
to greet the sun with their prayer, turned away from the east and
offered up their prayer to the Almighty in the opposite direction.
When sun-worship had ceased, probably after the destruction of the
second Temple, the national grief and hope found expression in the
custom of praying toward the Sanctuary in Jerusalem. Hence the
Jews who live west of Jerusalem stand during prayer with the face
toward the east, while those east of Jerusalem turn westward. This
custom is, besides, supported by the following passage from the
prayer of King Solomon: “And they pray unto thee toward their land,
which thou gavest unto their fathers, the [426]city which thou hast
chosen, and the house which I have built for thy name” (1 Kings viii.
48). 118

In most Synagogues there is a continual lamp (‫‏נר תמיד‬‎) burning. It

is a Biblical institution, but only designed for the Sanctuary; its
presence in the Synagogue is of comparatively modern date. The ner
tamid of the Sanctuary, however, is explained to be a lamp burning
“from evening to morning” (Exod. xxvii. 21). A golden candlestick
standing in the Sanctuary against the south side, with its seven
branches arranged from east to west, served this purpose. According
to Tradition it was the second branch, counting from east to west,
which really burnt continually; but this was not considered as implied
in the term ner tamid, which only meant “a continual lamp” in the
sense of a lamp that burns regularly every night.

The ner tamid in the Synagogue, which burns continually day and
night, is not mentioned by any of the earlier Rabbinical authors. It
has been introduced as a symbol representing our conviction that
from the Synagogue shall continually come forth the light of
instruction, the light of comfort and blessing, and the light of love
and peace.

In the Synagogue women are separated from men. There was also
in the Temple an ‫‏עזרת נשים‬‎“court of the women,” distinguished
from the ‫‏עזרת אנשים‬‎“court of the men,” to which women had no
access. During the Feast of Tabernacles, when the great rejoicings in
the Temple attracted a large assembly, special care was taken (‫‏תקון‬
‫גדול היה שם‬‎) that the separation of the sexes should be maintained
(Mishnah, Succah v. 2; and [427]Talm. B., Succah 51b). This
precedent has been followed in the Synagogue, and has been
accepted as law up to this day.

Reservedness and modesty (‫‏צניעות‬‎) have always been the pride and
ornament of Jewish women, both in their homes and in the
Synagogue; hence also their taking a silent part in the public
devotion is an honour to them, and by no means derogatory.

In addition to the above-mentioned points, a Synagogue ought to be

distinguished by the greatest possible simplicity, by the absence of
all kinds of images, portraits, or statues representing living beings,
whether real or imaginary. The Jewish religion is void of every visible
symbol; and the so-called magen-david (the double triangle) is
probably not of Jewish origin, and has no connection with our holy
religion. It is not a symbol of this kind, but some inscription of a
passage from the Scriptures that in most houses of worship reminds
us of the sacredness of the place. We enter it with due reverence,
manifesting it outwardly, in our peculiar traditional manner, by
keeping the head covered. It is our ancient custom to cover the
head when engaged in prayers, in reading the Bible or Talmud and
their commentaries. This outward sign serves to remind us that not
only our Service but even our literature is something holy, and its
study a religious act (‫‏מצוה‬‎). 119

Before we proceed to describe the details of our [428]ritual, we

mention one important point in which the present Synagogal Service
differs from the ancient Service in the Temple. From what we are
told in the Scriptures and in the Talmud, we learn that instrumental
music was an essential element in the Service, and that King David
and his successors paid great attention to it, whilst, with a few
exceptions, it is almost entirely absent from our Synagogues. The
principal reason why instrumental music is excluded from the
Synagogue is its prohibition on Sabbaths and Holy-days by
Rabbinical law (Babyl. T., Erubin 104a). This prohibition, like many
other enactments, did not apply to the Temple Service; for the
sacrificial laws had to be obeyed, irrespective of the fact that they
involved acts which, if performed apart from the Temple Service,
would constitute a breach of the Sabbath laws. Apart from the
Temple Service the Sabbath laws remained in full force for the
priests as well as for the general public.

There were also other considerations that helped to keep

instrumental music out of the Synagogue Service. Its absence,
though not directly a sign of mourning, served to preserve the
memory of the destruction of the Temple, and to strengthen our
longing for its restoration. It is also urged that the introduction of
instrumental music into the Service would not satisfy any real want
of Jewish worshippers, but would merely be a concession to the
desire to assimilate our Divine Service to that of our non-Jewish
neighbours, contrary to the prohibition of chukkoth haggoyim
contained in the words, “Ye shall not walk in their statutes” (Lev.
xviii. 3), i.e., in the statutes of the Gentiles. But, on [429]the other
hand, it has been argued that the feeling once expressed by the
nation in the words “This is my God, and I will worship him in a
beautiful manner” (Exod. xv. 2), still animates us. It is said that it is
our duty to make our Service as beautiful and as attractive as
possible. This argument deserves consideration, and might even
outweigh some of the above-mentioned arguments against the
introduction of music into our Service, if we were sure of the result
of such introduction. But this is by no means the case, for the
experiment, where tried, has not been successful if judged by the
most practical test. The number of worshippers has not been
increased, and discontent has not been removed. Whether the
devotion of the worshippers has been improved, refined, or
intensified by music is a question that cannot be answered with
certainty. Even if the answer were satisfactory, it could only apply to
the introduction of instrumental music into our Service on week-
days, on Friday evening before the commencement of Sabbath, but
not on Sabbaths and Holy-days.

The Ritual.

In the Bible there is no indication of a fixed ritual; there are,

however, a few instances of forms of prayer prescribed for certain
occasions. There is the priests’ blessing (Num. vi. 24–26); the
thanksgiving on bringing the first-fruit offering to the Temple (Deut.
xxvi. 3–10); prayer on distributing the tithes which accumulated in
three years (ibid. 13–15). David (Ps. lv. 18) says, “Evening, and
morning, and at [430]noonday do I pray;” Daniel “kneeled upon his
knees three times a day and prayed, and gave thanks before his
God, as he did aforetime” (Dan. vi. 11); but nothing is said about
the form and the contents of these prayers. The Mishnah first speaks
of certain fixed forms of prayer: the “Eighteen” (‫‏שמונה עשרה‬‎), the
reading of Shema (‫‏קריאת שמע‬‎), and Benedictions (‫‏ברכות‬‎). The
composition of the tefillah, “Prayer” par excellence, is attributed to
the Men of the Great Synagogue (‫‏אנשי כנסת הגדולה‬‎), but only in
its outlines. The number of the paragraphs, the theme of each
paragraph, and the formula by which it is concluded may then have
been fixed, the rest being left to be filled up by each supplicant
according to his capacity. It was but natural that prayers uttered
repeatedly by men eminent for their piety should be eagerly copied
by others, and gradually become, to some extent at least, fixed
forms of prayer. The tefillah, however, in the time of the Mishnah
was by no means identical with the tefillah of the Men of the Great
Synagogue. The destruction of the Temple necessitated several
changes; e.g., the prayers for the welfare of Jerusalem, for the
prosperity of Israel and of the Holy Land, and for the acceptance of
the Service in the Temple were altered in accordance with the new
state of affairs.

The Mishnah speaks of the tefillah as a well-known existing

institution; it seems that it was the regular prayer in the Synagogue
Service, and the discussion whether the tefillah should be repeated
every day in extenso or in an abbreviated form (Mishnah, Berachoth
iv. 3) refers probably to the prayer recited privatim (‫‏תפלת יחיד‬‎), and
not to the Service in the Synagogue. [431]The prescribed “Eighteen
Blessings” were the framework, into which each man was expected
to fit in his peculiar, individual supplications; whilst in the public
Service the tefillah remained uniform. In the days of Rabban Gamliel
of Jamnia, and with his sanction, an important addition was made by
Samuel: a prayer for the discomfiture of those who by slander,
denunciation, or other wicked means attempt to undermine the
existence of the Jewish religion and community (‫‏ברכת הצדוקים‬‎or
‫‏ברכת המינים‬‎). 120 In some congregations two other paragraphs (‫‏את‬
‫צמח‬‎and ‫‏ולירושלם‬‎) were at the same time combined into one, in
order to keep to the traditional “Eighteen Blessings.” 121

The reading of shema in the evening and in the morning, the three
sections constituting the shema, and the order of these sections, are
assumed in the Mishnah as fully established by law and usage. Only
a few regulations are discussed concerning the time and the mode
of the reading. There was this difference between the custom of the
Babylonian Jews and that of their brethren in Palestine, that the
latter omitted in the evening the passage referring to tsitsith. Later
on, however, the Palestine Jews conformed to the Babylonian
custom. Suggestions have been made [432]to substitute other Biblical
passages for shema, but they have been rejected. Several attempts
have been made to introduce, as an addition to the three sections of
shema, the reading of the Decalogue; the addition was disallowed,
lest people should be misled to think that the Ten Commandments
alone were to be observed, and that the other laws were not binding
(Babyl. T., Berachoth 12a). 122

The Benedictions which precede and follow the reading of shema

were fixed in the time of the Mishnah as regards number, order, and
form; but the contents were left unsettled for some time (Mishnah,
Berachoth i. 4); in the Gemara their wording is still a subject for
discussion. The same can be said with regard to the relative order of
shema and tefillah. For the Evening Service the tefillah seems to
have generally been considered as optional. As to Benedictions in
general, their obligatory character is assumed in the Mishnah as
admitted by all, and only their form seems to have been fixed by the
regulations mentioned in Berachoth vi.–ix.

The Mishnah (Megillah iii. 4–iv. 10) includes a number of regulations

concerning the reading of the Law, the Prophets, and the Book of
Esther. Detailed rules were laid down for the reader and the
translator (methurgeman), pointing out which passages should be
omitted in the translation, and which should be omitted [433]even in
the original. It seems that there was a regular, consecutive reading,
which was interrupted on extraordinary days by the reading of
passages referring to these days.

The ritual which was adopted for the priests in the Temple was an
abridged form of the ritual then in general use. It was as follows:
They commenced with a benediction—the first of those which
precede the shema (‫‏יוצר אור‬‎); then they read the Decalogue, shema
(the three paragraphs), and three further benedictions, ‫‏אמת ויציב‬‎,
‫‏עבודה‬‎(corresponding to ‫‏רצה‬‎in our prayer), and the blessing of the
priests (Mishnah, Tamid v. 1).

A special ritual is also mentioned in the Talmud (Mishnah, Taanith iv.

2) for the Maamadoth and the Fast-days. 123 There were four Services
daily, as on the Day of Atonement. The principal feature in the
Service of the Maamadoth was the reading of the first chapter of
Genesis.

At the conclusion of the Talmud (about 500 c.e.) the essential parts
of our present ritual were already in a settled state; the shema with
the benedictions preceding and following, the tefillah with its
variations for New-moon, Sabbath, and Holy-days, the reading from
the Law and the prophets, and Hallel. The Seder evening Service
was complete in its main parts. [434]Of the Benedictions (Berachoth)
on various occasions both form and contents were fixed, and the
rule was laid down by Rabbi Meir (Berachoth 40a) that he who
uttered a berachah in a form different from that fixed by our Sages
has not fulfilled his duty (or, according to Maimonides, Hilchoth
Berachoth i. 5, is in error). Notwithstanding this rule, however,
changes were made; new benedictions were introduced and old
ones discontinued. 124—Kaddish and Kedushah seem to have formed
part of the Service; of the latter the Talmud mentions the name, of
the former the response: “May his great Name be praised” ‫‏יהא שמו‬
‫הגדול מבורך‬‎or ‫‏יהא שמיה רבא מ׳‬‎(Comp. Babyl. Talm., Berachoth
3a).

In the next period, that of the Geonim, we meet with the complete
Siddur, “Arrangement” or “Order” of Service for ordinary days, for
Sabbaths and Festivals, Benedictions for all occasions, and Piyyutim
as optional additions. Such a Siddur was arranged by the Gaon
Rabbenu Saadiah (892–942), and another by the Gaon Rabbenu
Amram (about 880). Henceforth the principal prayers underwent
only insignificant alterations. Of the next period the most important
Siddurim are those included in the Mishneh-torah, at the end of the
second book, and that contained in the Machzor Vitry. 125

The additional prayers and piyyutim, being optional, varied according

to the taste of each congregation and [435]its leaders; in course of
time these variations became permanent; the same was the case
with minor changes, especially in the less essential elements of the
Service, and thus the various Minhagim (Rites) of the various
congregations came into existence. The principal Minhagim of
importance for us are: the Polish, the Sephardic, the German, and
the Italian Rites. 126 In the following description of the Ritual only the
two rites adopted in the principal Synagogues of the Anglo-Jewish
congregations in England will be noted.

Prayers at Fixed Times.

Although we constantly enjoy the blessings of God, the very breath
we breathe being the gift of our Heavenly Father, yet certain seasons
of the day, of the week, of the month, and of the year have been
selected as especially fit for reminding us of God’s kindness, and
predisposing our heart to devotion. Thus in the day, morning, noon
and evening have been fixed for prayer; in the week, Sabbath; in the
month, New-moon; in the year, the Festivals.

We have three daily Services: Maaribh, “Evening prayer;” Shacharith,

“Morning prayer,” 127 and Minchah, “Afternoon prayer.” On Sabbath,
New-moon, and Festivals an “Additional prayer,” Musaf, is inserted
[436]between the Morning and the Afternoon Services, and on the
Day of Atonement, Neïlah, “Concluding Service,” is added after
Minchah.

The two most essential elements in these Services are: (1) the
Reading of Shema (‫‏קריאת שמע‬‎), in the Maaribh and the Shacharith;
(2) the Tefillah or Amidah, common to all the Services.

1. The Reading of Shema.

In obedience to the precept, “Thou shalt speak of them,” i.e., of “the

words which I command thee this day—when thou liest down and
when thou risest up,” three sections of the Law are read daily in the
morning and in the evening, viz., (1) Deut. vi. 4–9, beginning ‫‏שמע‬‎
“Hear;” (2) Ibid. xi. 13–21, beginning ‫‏והיה אם שמע תשמעו‬‎“And it
shall be if ye will diligently hearken;” (3) Num. xv. 37–41, beginning
‫‏ויאמר יי‬‎“And the Lord said.” The first section teaches the Unity of
God, and our duty to love this One God with all our heart, to make
His Word the subject of our constant meditation, and to instil it into
the heart of the young.—The second section contains the lesson of
reward and punishment: that our success depends on our obedience
to the Will of God. This important truth must constantly be kept
before our eyes and before the eyes of our children.—The third
section contains the commandment of tsitsith, the object of which is
to remind us of God’s precepts: “Ye shall see it and remember all the
commandments of the Lord and do them, and that ye seek not after
your own heart and your own eyes, after which ye use to go astray,
that [437]you remember and do all my commandments, and be holy
unto your God.”

The reading of the shema is preceded by two berachoth: (1) ‫‏יוצר‬

‫אור‬‎Praise of the Creator for the regular sequence of day and night,
light and darkness; (2) ‫‏אהבה רבה‬‎or ‫‏אהבת עולם‬‎Praise of His
goodness in giving us the Torah, and prayer for His assistance in the
study of the Torah. The shema is followed by a berachah on the
Redemption of Israel; it contains a reflection on the last words of
shema, “I am the Lord your God,” an expression of our faith in the
truth of these words, which strengthen our belief in the future
Redemption of Israel. 128 In the Evening Service a second berachah
follows, beginning ‫‏השכיבנו‬‎, and containing a prayer for protection
during the night. 129

2. The Tefillah or Amidah.

The Tefillah, “Prayer” par excellence, is called Amidah (lit.,

“standing”), because the worshipper stands during the time he
offers it up. It is also called Shemoneh-esreh, “Eighteen,” because it
contains on most occasions eighteen (or nineteen, comp. p. 431)
paragraphs, each concluding with a benediction. [438]

The first three paragraphs contain praise of God’s goodness to us,

the descendants of the pious patriarchs (1), His omnipotence (2),
and His holiness (3).

The next thirteen paragraphs are petitions for our individual and
national well-being. For our individual well-being (4–9), namely, for
reason and wisdom (4), assistance in our endeavour to return to
God (5), forgiveness of our sins (6), deliverance from trouble (7),
from illness (8), and from want (9).—For our national well-being
(10–15), namely, for the gathering of those who are scattered (10),
under good leaders (11), protected from the evil designs of our foes
(12), for the support of the faithful (13), the rebuilding of Jerusalem
(14), and the advent of Messiah (15). The sixteenth paragraph is a
prayer that our petition may be accepted.—The last three paragraphs
include a petition for the re-establishment of Divine Service in the
Temple of Jerusalem (17), thanksgiving (18), and prayer for peace
and prosperity (19). When the prayer is finished we express the wish
that our lips, from which prayer to God has come forth, may not be
defiled by unworthy language.

On Sabbaths, Holy-days, and in every Musaph the thirteen middle

paragraphs are replaced by one in which reference is made to the
characteristic feature of the day; in the Musaph of New-year three
berachoth (p. 404) are substituted for the thirteen middle berachoth
of the ordinary tefillah. The thirteen paragraphs have been
eliminated in order that we should not be reminded on Sabbath and
Holy-days of our failings, wants, and troubles; that those seasons
should be [439]marked by a happier and more cheerful mood than
ordinary days (supra, p. 354).

There are two shorter forms of the tefillah for urgent occasions: the
one is a substitute for the “Eighteen,” in which the middle thirteen
paragraphs are contracted into one; it is called ‫‏הביננו‬‎(the first word
of this middle section), or ‫‏מעין שמונה עשרה‬‎“abstract of the
‘Eighteen.’ ” The other is a contraction of the Friday evening tefillah,
and is called ‫‏מעין שבע‬‎“abstract of the ‘Seven’ ” (scil., paragraphs
forming the tefillah), originally intended for those who were too late
for the full Service. 130
Each of the above Services ends with a prayer called after its initial
word alenu, “It is our duty.” In this prayer we thank God that we
have the privilege of proclaiming His Unity, and express our hope to
see the worship of the One God adopted by all mankind. It is
omitted between two Services following closely the one upon the
other.

In addition to the above, the Service contains the following parts:—

(1.) ‫‏ברכות השחר‬‎“Blessings of the Morning,” forming the first part

of the Morning Service. It contains benedictions, reflections, and
prayers suggested by the change from night to day, from sleep to
wakefulness, from rest to activity.

(2.) Psalms.—Our Service contains various groups of psalms: chief

among them the mizmorim or pesuke dezimrah (“songs” or “verses
of song”), and shir shel yom (“song of the day”), in the Morning
Service. The former include Ps. cxlv. to cl., some other psalms, and
[440]the song of Moses (Exod. xv.). The latter correspond to the
songs of the Levites in the Temple, and consist of Ps. xxiv. (for
Sunday), xlviii. (for Monday), lxxxii. (for Tuesday), xciv. (for
Wednesday), lxxxi. (for Thursday), xciii. (for Friday), and xcii. (for
Saturday).—The repetition of Ps. cxlv. three times a day, twice during
Shacharith and once during Minchah, is an old minhag (Babyl. Talm.,
Berachoth, p. 4b).

(3.) Supplications (‫‏תחנונים‬‎) added in the Morning and the Afternoon

Services after the tefillah.

(4.) Readings from the Bible and Post-Biblical Sacred Literature, such
as Num. vi. 22 sqq. (priests’ blessing); Gen. xxii. (binding of Isaac);
Exod. xvi. (manna); Mishnah, Peah i. 1, and Babyl. T., Shabbath
127a, in the earlier part of the Morning Service; and words of
comfort (beginning ‫‏ובא לציון‬‎) from the Prophets after the
“Supplications.” Originally an exposition of the Written and the Oral
Law followed the “Supplications,” and concluded with Messianic
prophecies, recited in Hebrew and in the Chaldee Version.

(5.) Biblical and Post-Biblical passages referring to the Sacrificial

Service, in the Morning and the Afternoon Services.

In addition to the above Services, read either in the Synagogue or

privately at home, there is a special prayer read by us before retiring
to rest. The chief element in it is the first section of shema; hence
the name ‫‏קריאת שמע שעל המטה‬‎“Reading of shema before going
to bed.” Some psalms and supplications are generally added. [441]

Public Service, ‫‏תפלה בצבור‬‎. 131

The following points mark off the Public Service from the various
forms of private prayer:—

(1.) Kaddish, “Sanctification,” a prayer for the universal sanctification

of God’s name, which will distinguish the age of Messiah. In the
second part of the Kaddish we pray for the Messianic peace, and in
the last sentence express our hope that it may soon be granted.

Formerly the Kaddish concluded the Service; at present it is recited

at the end of the Service in its full form (‫‏קדיש שלם‬‎“the whole
Kaddish”); the first half (‫‏חצי קדיש‬‎“half-Kaddish”) has its place at
the end of a section of the Service—e.g., after the ‫‏פסוקי דזמרה‬‎in
the Morning Service; a third form is recited by mourners after ‫‏עלינו‬‎
and after special hymns or psalms; it is the whole Kaddish with the
omission of the sentence beginning ‫‏תתקבל‬‎. It is called ‫‏קדיש יתום‬‎
“Kaddish of the orphan,” and is intended to express the mourner’s
faith in God and his resignation to His Will.—Sometimes a special
Kaddish, called Kaddish dirabbanan, is recited after the reading of
some Talmudic or Midrashic passages. It is the same as Kaddish
shalem, except that the sentence beginning ‫‏תתקבל‬is replaced by a
prayer for the welfare of the scholars, the Rabbis, and their pupils.
[442]

(2.) Repetition of the tefillah by the Reader, with the addition of

Kedushah before the third paragraph, and the Priests’ Blessing
before the last paragraph, of the tefillah. The Kedushah,
“Proclamation of the Holiness of God,” is based on the visions of Isa.
vi. and of Ezek. iii., with citation of three verses, Isa. vi. 3, Ezek. iii.
12, and Ps. cxlvi. 10, in which the Holiness, Glory, and Kingdom of
God are proclaimed.

The Priests’ Blessing, originally spoken by priests, descendants of

Aaron, is now in most Synagogues included by the Reader in the
tefillah by way of quotation; only on Holy-days it is pronounced by
the priests.

(3.) ‫‏קריאת התורה‬‎“the Reading of the Law,” and the “Lessons from
the Prophets” (‫‏הפטרה‬‎), with the benedictions preceding and
following (supra, p. 348).

Occasional Prayers—Benedictions, ‫‏ברכות‬‎.

The feeling of our dependence on the goodness of God must

constantly be present to our mind. Whatever we enjoy, be it in the
form of eating or drinking, or some pleasing or remarkable sight, an
agreeable smell, a festivity on a joyful event, or the performance of
a Divine commandment (‫‏מצוה‬‎); whatever befall us, whether it be
pleasant or unpleasant—all this we consider as sent to us by the Will
of the Almighty, and we express our conviction by a suitable
berachah. The general rule is thus laid down by our Sages: It is
unlawful for man to enjoy anything on earth without previously
acknowledging by a berachah that God is the source whence the
enjoyment is derived. For [443]different cases different forms of
“blessings” have been fixed by our Sages. In some cases the
enjoyment is also followed by a prayer of thanksgiving, the most
important being the prayer after meals, called ‫‏ברכת המזון‬‎
“Benediction for food or Grace.” 132 In the Mishnah it is called “Three
Blessings” (‫‏שלש ברכות‬‎), because it consisted originally of three
paragraphs, each ending with a benediction. The three paragraphs
are the following: (1) ‫‏ברכת הזן‬‎(“Benediction commencing ‫‏הזן‬‎”), in
which we praise God’s providential care of all creatures. (2) ‫‏הודאה‬‎
“Thanksgiving,” or ‫‏ברכת הארץ‬‎(Benediction referring to Palestine).
In this paragraph we offer thanks for our individual sustenance, as
well as for our national gifts: Palestine, the Covenant, and the Law.
(3) Prayer for the restoration of Zion and the rebuilding of the
Temple (‫‏בנין ירושלם‬‎).—Subsequently a fourth paragraph was added
(‫‏הטוב והמטיב‬‎“who is good and causes His creatures to be good”)
in commemoration of the relief given to the Jews after the close of
the war with Hadrian. 133—On certain occasions, e.g., at a wedding
repast, suitable additions are made. Besides these, various
supplications have been added in later times.

There are various short forms of this ‫‏ברכת המזון‬‎; the shortest is
that for children, “Blessed be the Merciful, the Giver of this bread.” 134
—When three grown-up male persons or more have their meal
together, [444]a special introductory form is used, called ‫‏זמון‬‎
“summons to prayer,” one of the company acting as Reader, and the
rest forming the congregation.

Another form of thanksgiving is the “Abstract of the Three Blessings”

(‫‏מעין שלש‬‎), consisting of one paragraph which contains the whole
of the Grace in a contracted form, and is used after cake, wine, and
the like.

No restriction is enforced upon us if we desire on our part to give

expression to our feeling of gratitude and reverence toward the
Almighty in our own words on occasions not provided for in the
ancient forms of benedictions and prayers. In order, however, to
make a distinction between the forms of obligatory berachoth fixed
by our Sages and the optional ones introduced by ourselves, we do
not employ the words, “O Lord, our God, King of the Universe,”
which are essential in the former.
[Contents]

Notes.

1. On Page 424 sqq.

Among the different minhagim observed in the Synagogue the

following are noteworthy:—The head is kept covered, the hands
uncovered; gloves are generally taken off before the beginning of
the Service. It was customary to spread forth the hands during
prayer, and the phrase “spreading forth the hands” is used in the
Bible in the sense of “praying.” The priests still raise their hands
when pronouncing the blessing. Isaiah, rebuking those who prayed
to God without seeking purification from evil deeds, says, “And when
you spread forth your hands I will hide mine eyes from you; yea,
when ye make many prayers I will not hear; your hands are full of
blood” (Isa. i. 15). Following the example of the Psalmist, “I will
wash my hands in innocency, so will I compass thine altar” (Ps. xxvi.
6), we wash our hands [445]before prayer, as a symbol of the duty of
purifying our conscience from guilt before approaching the Almighty
with our petitions. We thus uncover our hands as if to say, “The
reproach of Isaiah does not apply to us; we have tried to free our
heart and our hands from guilt.”

A custom frequently animadverted upon is the habit which many

Jews have adopted of swinging their bodies forward and backward
during prayer. We consider it a more decent way to stand or sit still
when communing with the Supreme Being. Both ways find support
in the Talmud (Babyl. T., Berachoth 31a, and Shabbath 10a); whilst
the one stands like “a servant in the presence of his master,” the
other gives way to his emotions and excitement. The Magen
Abraham, on chap. xlviii. 4, says: “He who follows the one example
is right, and he who follows the other is likewise right: all depends
on the devotion of the heart.” Rabbi Jehudah ha-Levi in his Cuzari
(Book II. chap. xli.) mentions and explains the custom of shaking
during prayer. The habit of accompanying the emotions of our heart
by corresponding motions of our body has produced the custom of
raising the whole body upwards when uttering the word “holy” in the
kedushah.

During tefillah we remain standing in the same place; at the end,

when we have finished our petition, we retire slowly a few steps
backward; the same is done by the Reader during the last paragraph
of the kaddish. It is as if, our petition ended, we reverently withdrew
from the heavenly King who has given us audience during the
prayer.

We bend the knee, incline our head, and bow down on certain
occasions during the Service, but we do not kneel during prayer.—It
has perhaps been avoided as an idolatrous practice, with reference
to Judges vii. 5.

When the Ark is opened and the Sefer is taken out or put back, we
stand and show our respect for the Word of God in various ways.
Some bow the head; others, considering this as worship, kiss the
Sefer, or otherwise express their reverence.

The traditional way in which the kohanim proceed to bless the

people is this: they remove their shoes, as the priests did who
ministered in the Temple; water is then poured over their hands by
the Levites, the ablutions of the ancient priests being thus imitated
to some extent (see Exod. xxx. 20). It is a holy act, and is done in
the Synagogue generally in front of the Ark. [446]The priests ascend
the steps of the hechal and wait till called upon by the Reader to
pronounce the blessing. They turn toward the congregation, spread
forth their hands in the traditional manner, and cover head and face
with the talith, in order not to be disturbed in their devotion by the
sight of the congregation before them; the Reader dictates the
words of the benediction to them to guard against any mistakes
being made by them. The congregation, giving special importance to
each word, add Biblical quotations and special supplications during
the interval between one word and the other. Of greater importance,
however, is respectful listening to the words uttered by the priests,
and chanted by them in a peculiar traditional tune. The priests turn
to all directions while pronouncing the blessing, expressing thereby
that they would have no one excluded from the blessing.

Some kohanim refuse to perform this duty, pretending or believing

that they are unworthy to bless the congregation. This is a mistake.
Those who feel that they are unworthy must try by improved
conduct to render themselves worthy, but disobedience to the direct
commandment of the Divine Law is certainly not the beginning of
improvement. Others object to the singing, in which they are unable
to join; others to taking off their boots. The excuses are certainly
insufficient. But as these two elements are less essential, they
might, if necessary, be dispensed with if the fulfilment of the
commandment is secured thereby.

2. On Page 439.

There are various parts in our Service which originally seem to have
formed a substitute, under certain circumstances, for a section of
the Service or for the whole of it, but were subsequently, when the
circumstances altered, embodied as an integral part of the Service in
addition to the sections which they had replaced.
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