Basic Modern Physics

3. Wave Properties of Particles

Outline
De Broglie waves
Waves of What?
Describing a wave
Phase and group velocities
Particle diffraction
Particle in a box
Uncertainty principle
Applying the Uncertainty principle
 Introduction
Symmetry of Nature
<Particle Properties of Wave> <Wave Properties of Particle>

symmetry

Suggested in 1924
Discovered in 1905
Demonstrated in 1927

Photoelectric Effect – Albert Einstein De Broglie Waves – Louis De Broglie

Compton Effect – Arthur Compton Particle diffraction – Clinton Davisson
and Lester Germer

Louis De Broglie

‐ Although he started from history major, eventually he

followed his older brother Maurice in career physics.

‐ Part of de Broglie’s inspiration came from Bohr’s theory

of the hydrogen atom, in which the electron is supposed
to follow only certain orbits around the nucleus.

‐ Erwin Schrodinger(year) used the concept of de Broglie waves to develop a

general theory that he and others applied to explain a wide variety of atomic
phenomena.
 De Broglie’s Suggestion

De Broglie proposed that moving objects have wave as well as particle

characteristics.

The existence of de Broglie waves was experimentally demonstrated by

Davisson/Germer in 1927, and the duality represent provided the
starting point for Schrodinger’s successful development of quantum
mechanics.

De Broglie Waves
A Moving Body also Has a Wave Nature
Light (Photon – Massless body) General body

Generalization

<Photon Wavelength> <De Broglie Wavelength>

h h
 
p m
hv h
* derived from ( p   ) * derived from ( p  m )
c 

‐ Even though the body has both wave and particle aspects,
they can never be observed at the same time.
 De Broglie Wavelength
Connection to Bohr’s Hydrogen Atom Model (1913)

The orbit of the electron in a hydrogen atom corresponds

to a complete electron de Broglie wave joined on itself.

De Broglie was able to show (1924) that it accounted in a natural

way for the energy quantization.(Ch. 4.9.)

Waves of What?
What is Waves of Matter?
<Varying Quantity>

Water Sound
: height : pressure

Light Wave Matter

: E.field, M.field ?
 Wave Function
Waves of Matter – Wave Function
What is waves of matter?
‐ Wave function(Ψ) : The quantity whose variations make up matter waves

Probability of event
‐ Proportional to the value of |Ψ|2 at the point x, y, z at the time t

The place that an Past

event itself particle was observed
Observations

Probability |Ψ|2
Density
Function Future
event probability
Predictions
position
0  

2
 dx  1


Describing a Wave
A General Formula for Waves

At fixed time, Amplitude depends on position At fixed position, Amplitude depends on time

Two factors of a wave : position x, time t

‐ Original wave formula : y  A cos 2vt

x
t  (t  )
p

x
Wave formula : y  A cos 2v(t  )
p
 Describing a Wave
Strange Result of De Broglie Phase Velocity
‐ De Broglie wave velocity :  p  v
h
‐ De Broglie wavelength :  
m
‐ Photon Energy : E  hv  mc 2  v 
mc 2
h
mc 2 h c2
De Broglie phase wave velocity :  p  v  ( )( )
h rm 

* The particle velocity : υ<c * The De Broglie wave velocity: υp>c (???)

Is it possible for anything to be

Only in theory
faster than speed of light?
→ Concept of group velocity are needed(Next section)

Wave Formula
Change Notation with Angular Frequency and Wave Number
x
Wave formula : y  Acos2v(t  )
p
Angular
Wave Number
Frequency
‐ A scalar measure of ‐ The number of wavelengths
rotation rate per unit distance

2 2 2v 
  2v k  
T  v  p

* Unit distance : 2π

Wave formula : y  A cos(t  kx)

 Phase and Group Velocities
Two Different Concepts of Velocity

Red spot : phase velocity / Green spot : group velocity

Phase Velocity Group Velocity

The velocity with which

The rate at which
the overall shape of
the phase of the wave
the wave’s amplitudes
propagates in space
through space

Derivation of Phase and Group Velocity

The Producing of Beats

Beats are produced by the superposition of two waves of different frequencies

cos A  cos B
wave 1 y1  A cos(t  kx)  2 cos(
A B
) cos(
A B
)
2 2
wave 2 y2  A cos[(   )t  (k  k ) x]

 k
Beat y1  y2  2 A cos(t  kx) cos( t x)
2 2

*Dispersion : Waves of different wavelength(or frequency) travel at

different speed.
Derivation of Phase and Group Velocity
The Velocity of Group Wave
Beats in Group Wave

 k
2 A cos(t  kx) cos( t x)
2 2
phase velocity
group velocity

1. Phase velocity 2. Group velocity

 k
t  kx  const. t x  const.
2 2
 dt  k dx  0  k
dt  dx  0
2 2
dx  dx 
p   g  
dt k dt k

Derivation from Definition of ω and k

Reverse Derivation of Group and Phase Velocities
2mc 2 2mc 2
‐ Angular frequency of de Broglie waves :   2v  
h h 1 2 / c2
2 2m 2m
‐ Angular number of de Broglie waves : k   
 h h 1  2 / c2
2m
d d / d h(1   2 / c 2 ) 3 / 2
De Broglie group velocity :  g    
dk dk / d 2m speed of
h(1   2 / c 2 ) 3 / 2 particle

De Broglie phase velocity :  p  
c2
h
k  
m

Speed of particle can be represented by De Broglie group velocity.

 Application on the Particle

• The motion of moving body

= the motion of group of many matter waves
(Not the motion of individual waves)

• The sum of many diverse matter waves almost always converges to

average.

• The De Broglie phase velocity does not have physical significance in the
motion of moving body

Particle Diffraction
An Experiment That Confirms the Existence of de Broglie Waves
Experiment of Davisson and Germer

No pattern

amorphous nickel

crystalized nickel Result : distinct maxima and minima

were observed
 Applying Bragg’s Law on Both Cases
The Wave Nature of Moving Bodies Was Proven
<X‐ray diffraction Experiment – Wave Case>
n  2d sin 

d  0.091nm,   65, n  1
50°   2d sin   (2)(0.091nm)(sin 65)  0.165nm
65°
Electron can be interpreted
as a group of de Broglie waves!
<Davisson‐German Experiment – Particle Case>
me  9.109 10 31 kg , KEe  54eV
m  2mKE
 (2)(9.109 10 31 kg )(54eV )(1.6 10 19 J / ev)
50°
65°  4.0 10  24 kg  m / s
h 6.63 10 34 J  s
De Broglie Wavelength :     0.166nm
m 4.0 10 24 kg  m / s

Electron Diffraction
 Comparison of X-ray and Electron
De Broglie’s Hypothesis
De Broglie’s suggestion :
- Electron waves will be diffracted by the
planes of atoms in a crystal as the x-ray
→ It is possible for the particle case to apply
Bragg’s Law!

Electron microscope constructed by Ernst

Ruska in 1933

Recent demonstration

Recently in 2004, half-a-dozen experiments have been designed to

determine the boundary between the classical and quantum world. One
experiment shown in Figure 12-03g fires C70 (70 carbon atoms in the soccer
ball-like crystal of about 1 nm across) fullerene balls at 190 m/sec toward
two diffraction gratings. The first grating creates the matter wave from the
fullerenes. The wave is then diffracted by the second grating and the
interference pattern is formed on the detecting screen demonstrating
 “Matter” wave

Quantum Corrals observed using STM, IBM, Almaden

Particle in a Box
Why the Energy of a Trapped Particle Is Quantized?

< A particle in a box of width L>

restriction of restriction of
possible possible
wavelengths energies

2L
De Broglie wavelengths of trapped particle : n  (n  1,2,3...)
n
n2h2
Energy of Particle in a box : En 
8mL2
Kinetic Energy : KE  1 m 2  (m )  h 2
2 2

2 2m 2m
 Three General Conclusion from the
Energy of Particle in a Box
Why Are Not We Aware of Energy Quantization?
The integer : Quantum number

n2h2
Energy of Particle in a box : En  (n  1,2,3...)
8mL2
Each permitted Energy : Energy Level

1. A trapped particle cannot have an arbitrary energy

as a free particle can.(It has only a certain discrete energy)

2. A trapped particle cannot have zero energy

as a minimum energy.
(Zero energy means infinite wavelength → impossible!)

3. Because Planck’s constant is so small (6.6310-34Js),

we are not aware of energy quantization.

Uncertainty Principle
Do Not Think You Can Recognize Present Perfectly

What We See What Actually Happens

Moving particle A group of matter waves

1. There is a limit to the extent in the accuracy of measuring

properties such as position, momentum.
2. We cannot know the future because we do not even know the present
 Werner Heisenberg
‐ He was an enthusiastic skier and mountaineer.

‐ He developed an abstract approach using matrix

algebra into a consistent theory of quantum mechanics.

‐ Schrodinger’s wave formulation of quantum mechanics

was much more successful.

‐ Schrodinger and others soon showed that the wave

and matrix version of quantum mechanics were
mathematically equivalent.

‐ Heisenberg was one of the very few distinguished scientists to remain in

Germany during Nazi period.

Trade Off Relationship

Trade Off Between The Accuracy of Position and Momentum
Narrow Wave Group Wide Wave Group

Narrow Wave Wide Wave Group

Group
Position More precise Less precise
Momentum Less Precise More Precise

‐ It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact

momentum of an object at the same time.
 Representation of a Wave

Width of Wave Group and Involved Wavelengths

less precise more precise
position frequency

Narrow Range
Wide
of wavelengths
Wave Group
involved

Narrow Wide Range

Wave Group of wavelengths
involved

more precise less precise

position frequency

Fourier Transform of Wave Group

The Nature of Fourier Transform
‐ The wave group can be represented by the Fourier integral

 ( x)   g (k ) cos kxdk
0

Wave
Function

Fourier
Transform

A pulse A wave group A wave train A Gaussian

Distribution
* Width in Wave function(position)  1/Width of Its Fourier transform(frequency)

“Hearing The Uncertainty Principle” http://scienceblogs.com/builtonfacts/2010/03/hearing_the_uncertainty_princi.php#

 The Distance and the Wave Number
Derivation of Uncertainty Nature
‐ The relationship between the distance Δx and the wave spread Δk :
1
x k  (Δx Δk is minimum when the wave is Gaussian function)
2
‐ The corresponding wave number :
2 2p h
k  (By de Broglie Wavelengths :   )
 h p
‐ The particle’s momentum :
hk h k
p p 
2 2
h h h
Uncertainty principle : xp   (h   1.054  10 34 J  s )
4 2 2

* These uncertainties are due to the

imprecise character in nature of the quantum involved.

The Dispersion of Wave Packet

The Wave Spreads As Time Passes By

Original wave packet

a narrow span of waves
Flow of Time

a wide span of waves

The phase velocities of the individual waves vary with their wavelength.
→ The wave packet spreads out in space as it propagates.
 Gaussian Function
The Most Frequent Result of Experiments with Random Errors

‐ The form of Gaussian function :

( x  x0 ) 2
1 
f ( x)  e 2 2

 2

‐ Standard deviation of Gaussian function :

A measure of the spread of x values about
the mean of x0
N
1

N
 (xi 1
1  x0 ) 2

‐ The Probability  The area inside a certain range of x values :

x2
Px1 x2   f ( x ) dx
x1

x 0  x0  2
* Px   x  f ( x)dx  0.683
0
0
Px0   
x0  2
f ( x ) dx  0.954

Uncertainty Principle
We Must Touch the Object to Bring the Information Back to Us
<A Process of Measurement>
1. 2. 3.

The measurement process itself

interfere the object in some way.

ex) An electron cannot be observed

without changing its momentum
 The Limit in Observability of Photon
: The Nature of Photon
What Is Bringing the Information to Our Eyes? : Photon

Viewer
Light for short long
incident photon observation wavelength wavelength
wavelength: λ
frequency high low
photon high low
energy
position
electron high low
accuracy
momentum
momentum
by collision with photon low high
accuracy

Light is a wave phenomenon as well as particle phenomenon.

→ We cannot determine the location and momentum of the object with
perfect accuracy.(regardless of what instrument we use)

A Particle Approach of Uncertainty

Principle
Derivation of Uncertainty Principle from A Particle Approach
The Photon for Observing
Viewer
The wavelength of photon for measurement : λ
incident photon h
wavelength: λ The momentum of each photon : p 

The Observed Electron
h
The exact amount of the momentum change : p 
electron 
The minimum uncertainty in the measurement : x  
momentum
by collision with photon
Uncertainty Principle : xp  h
h
(The result is consistent with Eq. in Ch 3.7 : xp  )
2

* Planck’s constant h is so small that the limitations imposed by the

uncertainty principles are significant only in the realm of the atom.
 Applying the Uncertainty Principle
Two Sets of Uncertainty Principle ∆t ∆t

Another Set of Uncertainty Principle : Time and Energy

1
The uncertainty in frequency measurement : v 
t

∆v
h
The corresponding energy uncertainty : E  (E  hv)
t

Uncertainties in energy and time : Et  h

2
<Uncertainty Sets>
Position and Momentum : xp  ħ/2

Energy and Time : Et  ħ/2