Atmospheric pressure - Wikipedia 01/01/2025, 00:47

Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure, also known as air pressure or barometric pressure (after the
barometer), is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. The standard atmosphere (symbol:
atm) is a unit of pressure defined as 101,325 Pa (1,013.25 hPa), which is equivalent to 1,013.25
millibars,[1] 760 mm Hg, 29.9212 inches Hg, or 14.696 psi.[2] The atm unit is roughly equivalent
to the mean sea-level atmospheric pressure on Earth; that is, the Earth's atmospheric pressure
at sea level is approximately 1 atm.

In most circumstances, atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic

pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there
is less overlying atmospheric mass, so atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing
elevation. Because the atmosphere is thin relative to the Earth's radius—especially the dense
atmospheric layer at low altitudes—the Earth's gravitational acceleration as a function of
altitude can be approximated as constant and contributes little to this fall-off. Pressure
measures force per unit area, with SI units of pascals (1 pascal = 1 newton per square metre,
1 N/m2). On average, a column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1 square centimetre (cm2),
measured from the mean (average) sea level to the top of Earth's atmosphere, has a mass of
about 1.03 kilogram and exerts a force or "weight" of about 10.1 newtons, resulting in a pressure
of 10.1 N/cm2 or 101 kN/m2 (101 kilopascals, kPa). A column of air with a cross-sectional area of
1 in2 would have a weight of about 14.7 lbf, resulting in a pressure of 14.7 lbf/in2.

Mechanism
Atmospheric pressure is caused by the gravitational attraction of the planet on the atmospheric
gases above the surface and is a function of the mass of the planet, the radius of the surface, and
the amount and composition of the gases and their vertical distribution in the atmosphere.[3][4]
It is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations
due to temperature and variations in composition.[5]

Mean sea-level pressure

The mean sea-level pressure (MSLP) is the atmospheric pressure at mean sea level. This is the
atmospheric pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television, and newspapers or
on the Internet.

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The altimeter setting in

aviation is an
atmospheric pressure
adjustment.

Average sea-level
pressure is 1,013.25 hPa
(29.921 inHg;
760.00 mmHg). In
aviation weather reports
(METAR), QNH is
Map showing atmospheric pressure
transmitted around the
15-year average mean sea-level
in mbar or hPa world in hectopascals or
pressure for June, July, and August
millibars (1 hectopascal (top) and December, January, and
= 1 millibar), except in February (bottom). ERA-15 re-
the United States, Canada, and Japan where it is reported in analysis.
inches of mercury (to two decimal places). The United States
and Canada also report sea-level pressure SLP, which is
adjusted to sea level by a different method, in the remarks
section, not in the internationally transmitted part of the
code, in hectopascals or millibars.[6] However, in Canada's
public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported
in kilopascals.[7]

In the US weather code remarks, three digits are all that are
transmitted; decimal points and the one or two most
significant digits are omitted: 1,013.2 hPa (14.695 psi) is Kollsman-type barometric aircraft
transmitted as 132; 1,000 hPa (100 kPa) is transmitted as altimeter.
000; 998.7 hPa is transmitted as 987; etc. The highest sea-
level pressure on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian
High often attains a sea-level pressure above 1,050 hPa (15.2 psi; 31 inHg), with record highs
close to 1,085 hPa (15.74 psi; 32.0 inHg). The lowest measurable sea-level pressure is found at
the centres of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of 870 hPa (12.6 psi; 26 inHg).
A system transmitting the last three digits transmits the same code (800) for 1080.0 hPa as for
980.0 hPa.

Surface pressure
Surface pressure is the atmospheric pressure at a location on Earth's surface (terrain and
oceans). It is directly proportional to the mass of air over that location.

For numerical reasons, atmospheric models such as general circulation models (GCMs) usually
predict the nondimensional logarithm of surface pressure.

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The average value of surface pressure on Earth is 985 hPa.[8] This is in contrast to mean sea-
level pressure, which involves the extrapolation of pressure to sea level for locations above or
below sea level. The average pressure at mean sea level (MSL) in the International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA) is 1,013.25 hPa, or 1 atmosphere (atm), or 29.92 inches of mercury.

Pressure (P), mass (m), and acceleration due to gravity (g) are related by P = F/A = (m*g)/A,
where A is the surface area. Atmospheric pressure is thus proportional to the weight per unit
area of the atmospheric mass above that location.

Altitude variation

A very local storm above

Snæfellsjökull (Iceland), showing
clouds formed on the mountain by
orographic lift

Pressure on Earth varies with the altitude of the

surface, so air pressure on mountains is usually
Variation in atmospheric pressure with altitude,
lower than air pressure at sea level. Pressure computed for 15 °C and 0% relative humidity.
varies smoothly from the Earth's surface to the
top of the mesosphere. Although the pressure
changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the
conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude
increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. One can
calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude.[9]
Temperature and humidity also affect the atmospheric
pressure. Pressure is proportional to temperature and
This plastic bottle was sealed at
inversely related to humidity, and both of these are approximately 4,300 metres
necessary to compute an accurate figure. The graph on the (14,000 ft) altitude, and was crushed
right was developed for a temperature of 15 °C and a relative by the increase in atmospheric
humidity of 0%. pressure, recorded at 2,700 metres
(9,000 ft) and 300 metres (1,000 ft),
At low altitudes above sea level, the pressure decreases by as it was brought down towards sea
level.
about 1.2 kPa (12 hPa) for every 100 metres. For higher
altitudes within the troposphere, the following equation (the
barometric formula) relates atmospheric pressure p to altitude h:

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The values in these equations are:

Parameter Description Value

h Height above mean sea level m

p0 Sea level standard atmospheric pressure 101,325 Pa

L Temperature lapse rate, = g/cp for dry air ~ 0.00976 K/m

cp Constant-pressure specific heat 1,004.68506 J/(kg·K)

T0 Sea level standard temperature 288.16 K

g Earth-surface gravitational acceleration 9.80665 m/s2

M Molar mass of dry air 0.02896968 kg/mol

R0 Universal gas constant 8.314462618 J/(mol·K)

Local variation
Atmospheric pressure varies widely on Earth, and these
changes are important in studying weather and climate.
Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal
(twice-daily) cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This
effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a
few hectopascals, and almost zero in polar areas. These
variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian (24 h)
cycle, and a semi-circadian (12 h) cycle. Hurricane Wilma on 19 October
2005. The pressure in the eye of the
storm was 882 hPa (12.79 psi) at the
Records time the image was taken.

The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth (above 750
meters) was 1,084.8 hPa (32.03 inHg) measured in Tosontsengel, Mongolia on 19 December
2001.[10] The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded (below 750
meters) was at Agata in Evenk Autonomous Okrug, Russia (66°53' N, 93°28' E, elevation:

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261 m, 856 ft) on 31 December 1968 of 1,083.8 hPa (32.005 inHg).[11] The discrimination is due
to the problematic assumptions (assuming a standard lapse rate) associated with reduction of
sea level from high elevations.[10]

The Dead Sea, the lowest place on Earth at 430 metres (1,410 ft) below sea level, has a
correspondingly high typical atmospheric pressure of 1,065 hPa.[12] A below-sea-level surface
pressure record of 1,081.8 hPa (31.95 inHg) was set on 21 February 1961.[13]

The lowest non-tornadic atmospheric pressure ever measured was 870 hPa (0.858 atm;
25.69 inHg), set on 12 October 1979, during Typhoon Tip in the western Pacific Ocean. The
measurement was based on an instrumental observation made from a reconnaissance
aircraft.[14]

Measurement based on the depth of water

One atmosphere (101.325 kPa or 14.7 psi) is also the pressure caused by the weight of a column
of freshwater of approximately 10.3 m (33.8 ft). Thus, a diver 10.3 m under water experiences a
pressure of about 2 atmospheres (1 atm of air plus 1 atm of water). Conversely, 10.3 m is the
maximum height to which water can be raised using suction under standard atmospheric
conditions.

Low pressures, such as natural gas lines, are sometimes specified in inches of water, typically
written as w.c. (water column) gauge or w.g. (inches water) gauge. A typical gas-using
residential appliance in the US is rated for a maximum of 1⁄2 psi (3.4 kPa; 34 mbar), which is
approximately 14 w.g. Similar metric units with a wide variety of names and notation based on
millimetres, centimetres or metres are now less commonly used.

Boiling point of liquids

Pure water boils at 100 °C (212 °F) at earth's standard atmospheric pressure. The boiling point
is the temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure around the
liquid.[15] Because of this, the boiling point of liquids is lower at lower pressure and higher at
higher pressure. Cooking at high elevations, therefore, requires adjustments to recipes[16] or
pressure cooking. A rough approximation of elevation can be obtained by measuring the
temperature at which water boils; in the mid-19th century, this method was used by
explorers.[17] Conversely, if one wishes to evaporate a liquid at a lower temperature, for example
in distillation, the atmospheric pressure may be lowered by using a vacuum pump, as in a rotary
evaporator.

Measurement and maps

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An important application of the knowledge that atmospheric

pressure varies directly with altitude was in determining the
height of hills and mountains, thanks to reliable pressure
measurement devices. In 1774, Maskelyne was confirming
Newton's theory of gravitation at and on Schiehallion
mountain in Scotland, and he needed to measure elevations
on the mountain's sides accurately. William Roy, using
barometric pressure, was able to confirm Maskelyne's height
determinations; the agreement was within one meter (3.28
feet). This method became and continues to be useful for
survey work and map making.[18] Boiling water

See also
Atmospheric density – Mass per unit volume of the Earth's atmosphere
Atmosphere of Earth
Barometric formula – Formula used to model how air pressure varies with altitude
Barotrauma – Injury caused by external fluid pressure – physical damage to body tissues
caused by a difference in pressure between an air space inside or beside the body and the
surrounding gas or liquid.
Cabin pressurization – Process to maintain internal air pressure in aircraft or spacecraft
Cavitation – Low-pressure voids formed in liquids
Collapsing can – an aluminium can is crushed by the atmospheric pressure surrounding it
Effects of high altitude on humans – Environmental effects on physiology and mental health
High-pressure area – Region with higher atmospheric pressure
International Standard Atmosphere – Atmospheric model, a tabulation of typical variations
of principal thermodynamic variables of the atmosphere (pressure, density, temperature,
etc.) with altitude, at middle latitudes.
Low-pressure area – Area with air pressures lower than adjacent areas
Meteorology – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather
forecasting
NRLMSISE-00, an empirical, global reference atmospheric model of the Earth from ground
to space
Plenum chamber – Chamber containing a fluid under pressure
Pressure – Force distributed over an area
Pressure measurement
Standard atmosphere (unit) – Unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa
Horse latitudes – Latitudes 30–35 degrees north and south of the Equator

References
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External links
Current map of global mean sea-level pressure (https://earth.nullschool.net/#current/wind/su
rface/level/overlay=mean_sea_level_pressure/winkel3)
1976 Standard Atmosphere (https://web.archive.org/web/20060513194709/http://modelweb.
gsfc.nasa.gov/atmos/us_standard.html) from NASA
Source code and equations for the 1976 Standard Atmosphere (http://www.pdas.com/atmos
.html)
A mathematical model of the 1976 U.S. Standard Atmosphere (https://web.archive.org/web/
20070310223946/http://www.atmosculator.com/The%20Standard%20Atmosphere.html)
Calculator using multiple units and properties for the 1976 Standard Atmosphere (http://ww
w.luizmonteiro.com/StdAtm.aspx)
Calculator giving standard air pressure at a specified altitude, or altitude at which a pressure
would be standard (http://www.csgnetwork.com/pressurealtcalc.html)
Calculate pressure from altitude and vice versa (https://www.herramientasingenieria.com/on
linecalc/altitude/altitude.html)

Experiments

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Movies on atmospheric pressure experiments from (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hb

ase/kinetic/patm.html#atm) Georgia State University's HyperPhysics website – requires
QuickTime
Test showing a can being crushed after boiling water inside it, then moving it into a tub of
ice-cold water. (http://www.teachertube.com/viewVideo.php?video_id=62613)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_pressure&oldid=1266374767"

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