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Netter s Illustrated Pharmacology 2 Pap/Psc Edition
Robert B. Raffa Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Robert B. Raffa, Scott M. Rawls, Elena Portyansky Beyzarov
ISBN(s): 9780323220910, 0323220916
Edition: 2 Pap/Psc
File Details: PDF, 182.52 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
Netter’s Illustrated
Pharmacology
UPDATED EDITION
Contributing Illustrators
James A. Perkins, MS, MFA
John A. Craig, MD
Carlos A. G. Machado, MD
Dragonfly Media Group
Elsevier Inc.
1600 John F. Kennedy Boulevard
Suite 1800
Philadelphia, PA 19103-2899
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or an information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
information about the Publisher’s permissions policies, and our arrangements with organizations such
as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual permissions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Permission for Netter Art figures may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Health Science Licensing
Department in Philadelphia, PA: phone 800-523-1649, ext. 3276, or 215-239-3276; or email
[email protected].
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluat-
ing and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the
most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each
product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of
administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own
experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best
treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products lia-
bility, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions,
or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-323-22091-0
Printed in China
Robert B. Raffa
Scott M. Rawls
v
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PREFACE
Nothing enhances the efficient learning of scien- better starting point for this task than the
tific material more than good artwork. Personal renowned work of physician-artist Frank H. Net-
teaching experience has shown us the power of ter, MD, whose illustrations have educated gen-
visual learning in the classroom and the positive erations of students. Having access to the Netter
effect it has on students. A well-done, accurate, collection of illustrations was a rare opportunity
and eye-catching illustration captures one’s to approach the subject of pharmacology visu-
attention and stimulates one’s imagination. Visu- ally. To provide illustrations of more recently
alization of a concept enhances and solidifies discovered concepts, we called upon James A.
one’s understanding and internalization of it, Perkins, MS, MFA, and other talented artists to
and a good illustration becomes the template create dynamic new illustrations of the detailed
upon which future learning can be superim- molecular events that underlie drug action. The
posed. We were thus excited when we were translation by these artists of recent complex
approached with the idea of publishing a visual research findings into clear, precise, and engag-
pharmacology book. That is the intent of this ing artwork was a pleasure to observe and is a
book—to provide high-quality illustrative aids highlight of this book.
that will enhance the learning of the basic prin- Three authors with different but complemen-
ciples of pharmacology and present them in a tary backgrounds and expertise jointly wrote this
manner that is both scientifically rigorous and book. Our collaboration was intended to pro-
enjoyable. It is designed for the visual learner vide the most authoritative and broadest possible
in all of us. coverage of both the basic science and the clini-
But can there be illustrations of pharmacol- cal applications of pharmacology.
ogy? Isn’t the study of pharmacology the memo- We have written this book with medical, phar-
rization of innumerable drugs, their trade names, macy, dental, nursing, and other professional
their doses, and other nonvisual material? students in mind, hoping that it will serve as a
Hardly. Just as all other basic sciences have valuable adjunct to their more comprehensive
their practical side, pharmacology has its appli- textbooks. Each of us has found the illustrations
cation in the use of drugs for treatment of dis- to be useful in our own learning or teaching of
eases and disorders. But in the past couple of the material. However, this book was also
years, there has been a virtual explosion in designed to be a stand-alone, discussing phar-
understanding of the biologic features and macologic principles in a manner that allows a
events that underlie the therapeutic action of a great deal of material to be covered in a concise
drug. It is now possible, with the creative input fashion. It is thus also appropriate for use in an
and insight of an artist’s eye, to visualize the introductory course for undergraduate students
anatomical, physiologic, biochemical, and or even for the interested general reader. We
molecular underpinnings of pharmacology. This sincerely hope that all find the book useful and
exciting new aspect of pharmacology is the the presentation enjoyable.
focus of this book.
We believe that this is the first book to place Robert B. Raffa, PhD
such emphasis on artwork for the explanation of Scott M. Rawls, PhD
pharmacologic principles. There is, of course, no Elena Portyansky Beyzarov, PharmD
vii
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Frank H. Netter, MD, was born in 1906, in New choice among medical and health professions
York City. He studied art at the Art Student’s students the world over.
League and the National Academy of Design The Netter illustrations are appreciated not only
before entering medical school at New York Uni- for their aesthetic qualities, but, more importantly,
versity, where he received his MD degree in for their intellectual content. As Dr. Netter wrote
1931. During his student years, Dr. Netter’s note- in 1949, “. . . clarification of a subject is the aim
book sketches attracted the attention of the medi- and goal of illustration. No matter how beautifully
cal faculty and other physicians, allowing him to painted, how delicately and subtly rendered a
augment his income by illustrating articles and subject may be, it is of little value as a medical
textbooks. He continued illustrating as a sideline illustration if it does not serve to make clear some
after establishing a surgical practice in 1933, but medical point.” Dr. Netter’s planning, concep-
he ultimately opted to give up his practice in tion, point of view, and approach are what inform
favor of a full-time commitment to art. After ser- his paintings and what makes them so intellectu-
vice in the United States Army during World War ally valuable.
II, Dr. Netter began his long collaboration with Frank H. Netter, MD, physician and artist, died
the CIBA Pharmaceutical Company (now Novartis in 1991.
Pharmaceuticals). This 45-year partnership Learn more about the physician-artist whose
resulted in the production of the extraordinary work has inspired the Netter Reference collection:
collection of medical art so familiar to physicians http://www.netterimages.com/artist/netter.htm
and other medical professionals worldwide.
In 2005, Elsevier, Inc. purchased the Netter Carlos Machado, MD, was chosen by Novartis to
Collection and all publications from Icon be Dr. Netter’s successor. He continues to be the
Learning Systems. There are now over 50 main artist who contributes to the Netter collec-
publications featuring the art of Dr. Netter tion of medical illustrations.
available through Elsevier, Inc. (in the US: Self-taught in medical illustration, cardiologist
www.us.elsevierhealth.com/Netter and outside Carlos Machado has contributed meticulous
the US: www.elsevierhealth.com) updates to some of Dr. Netter’s original plates
Dr. Netter’s works are among the finest exam- and has created many paintings of his own in the
ples of the use of illustration in the teaching of style of Netter as an extension of the Netter col-
medical concepts. The 13-book Netter Collection lection. Dr. Machado’s photorealistic expertise
of Medical Illustrations, which includes the and his keen insight into the physician/patient
greater part of the more than 20,000 paintings relationship informs his vivid and unforgettable
created by Dr. Netter, became and remains one visual style. His dedication to researching each
of the most famous medical works ever pub- topic and subject he paints places him among the
lished. The Netter Atlas of Human Anatomy, first premier medical illustrators at work today.
published in 1989, presents the anatomical paint- Learn more about his background and see
ings from the Netter Collection. Now translated more of his art at: http://www.netterimages.com/
into 16 languages, it is the anatomy atlas of artist/machado.htm
ix
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Robert B. Raffa, PhD, is Professor of Pharmacol- Washington College in Maryland, where he was
ogy at Temple University School of Pharmacy the recipient of an undergraduate distinguished
and Research Professor at Temple University teaching award. Dr. Rawls joined the faculty at
School of Medicine in Philadelphia. He has Temple University School of Pharmacy in the
earned bachelor’s degrees in Chemical Engineer- fall of 2004, where he currently teaches in the
ing and Physiological Psychology, master’s Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Anatomy and
degrees in Biomedical Engineering and Toxicol- Physiology courses. Dr. Rawls investigates the
ogy, and a PhD in Pharmacology. Dr. Raffa has effects of cannabinoid, vanilloid, and opioid sys-
published more than 150 research articles in ref- tems on brain neurotransmitter levels in rats and
ereed journals and more than 70 abstracts and the role these interactions play in thermoregula-
symposia presentations. He is an associate editor tion and drug abuse.
of the Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental
Therapeutics and is founder and editor of the Elena Portyansky Beyzarov, PharmD, is a clini-
journal Reviews in Analgesia. Dr. Raffa is a past cal pharmacist at Newark Beth Israel Medical
president of the Mid-Atlantic Pharmacology Center. Dr. Beyzarov received her BS degree in
Society, the recipient of the Hofmann Research pharmacy in 1996 from Arnold and Marie
Award, the Lindback teaching award, and other Schwartz College of Pharmacy and Health Sci-
honors. He maintains an active research effort ences at Long Island University and received her
and teaching load. He is author of Quick-Look PharmD in 1999 from the College of Pharmacy
Review of Pharmacology; coauthor of Principles at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sci-
in General Pharmacology; editor of Antisense ences. Dr. Beyzarov’s career began in medical
Strategies for the Study of Receptor Mechanisms publishing, where she authored hundreds of
and Drug-Receptor Thermodynamics: Introduc- clinical articles for Drug Topics magazine on a
tion and Applications; and is a contributor to broad range of pharmacotherapeutic subjects. In
Pain: Current Understanding, Emerging Thera- 2002, she held an academic appointment as
pies, and Novel Approaches to Drug Discovery, adjunct associate professor of pharmacology in
Molecular Recognition in Protein-Ligand Interac- the Department of Professional Nursing at Feli-
tions, and Remington: the Science and Practice cian College. After deciding to become more
of Pharmacy. involved in clinical practice, Dr. Beyzarov
joined Newark Beth Israel Medical Center in
Scott M. Rawls, PhD, is Assistant Professor of 2003 as a clinical pharmacist. Her major activi-
Pharmacodynamics in the Department of Phar- ties include performing daily clinical interven-
maceutical Sciences at Temple University tions based on review of patient charts and
School of Pharmacy. Dr. Rawls received his PhD physician orders and providing drug information
(1999) from East Carolina University School of to staff pharmacists, physicians, and nurses. She
Medicine in neuroscience. He completed 2 also attends daily medical rounds, conducts drug
years of postdoctoral training in the Department utilization studies, and presents lectures to other
of Pharmacology at Temple University. In 2003, health care professionals on pharmacologic
Dr. Rawls was Assistant Professor of Biology at management of various disease states.
xi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book was a team effort from beginning to He and the other talented artists created illustra-
end. The idea for the book originated at Icon tions that capture not only the visual aspect of
Learning Systems and was developed in a the topic, but also its educational essence. It is
meeting with Paul Kelly, Executive Editor. anticipated that class after class of students will
The access to Netter art made the proposal remember this artwork when they think of phar-
irresistible. macologic principles.
It is fair to say that the project might not have Jennifer Surich, Managing Editor, did a yeo-
been completed without the help of Judith B. man’s job in keeping things going and made
Gandy, who, with skilled questioning and sure that this project was actually accomplished.
patience, transformed our rough early drafts into Thanks also go to Greg Otis, Nicole Zimmer-
what we were truly trying to say. man, and all of the others at Icon who converted
We knew that this book was going to attain its an idea into reality.
goal when we began to work with James A. Per- Thanks also to the staff at Elsevier for provid-
kins, MS, MFA. We had seen his artwork in pre- ing us an opportunity to update the text and add
vious publications, so his artistic talents were Student Consult access.
known, but the pleasant interactions and his
contributions to the subject matter were an Robert B. Raffa, PhD
unexpected bonus. The arrival of each new Scott M. Rawls, PhD
illustration was something looked forward to. Elena Portyansky Beyzarov, PharmD
xii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PHARMACOLOGY
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Major Ways in Which Drugs Work
External and Internal Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Endogenous Chemical Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Modulate Physiologic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Chemical Communication
Chemical Transmission at the Synapse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Synapse Morphology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Pharmacodynamics
Receptors and Signaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Receptor Subtypes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Agonists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Stereochemistry and 3-Dimensional Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Receptor-Effector Coupling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Signal Transduction and Cross Talk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Second-Messenger Pathways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Ligand-Gated Ion Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
G Protein–Coupled Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Trk Receptors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Nuclear Receptors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Up-regulation and Down-regulation of Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Dose-Response Curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Potency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Inverse Agonists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Antagonists: Surmountable (Reversible) and Nonsurmountable (Irreversible). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Pharmacokinetics
Routes of Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
First-Pass Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Membrane Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Metabolism (Biotransformation) of Drugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Cytochrome P-450 (CYP450) Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Metabolic Enzyme Induction and Inhibition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
xiii
Contents
Somatic Nervous System
Interface of the Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems and Organization of .
the Somatic Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Neuromuscular Transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Physiology of the Neuromuscular Junction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Pharmacology of the Neuromuscular Junction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Mechanism of Action of Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Neuromuscular Blocking Agents: Nondepolarizing and Depolarizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Autonomic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System: Schema. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Sympathetic Fight or Flight Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Cholinergic and Adrenergic Synapses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Example of Cholinergic and Adrenergic Drug Treatment: Glaucoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Cholinergic Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Cholinergic Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Example of Cholinergic Drug Treatment: Myasthenia Gravis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Adrenergic Receptors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Adrenergic Drugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Drugs That Act on the Autonomic Nervous System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Drug Side Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
xiv
Contents
Antipsychotic Agents
Psychosis and Dopamine Pathways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Drugs Affecting Movement Disorders and Other Neurodegenerative Disorders
Motor Tracts, Basal Ganglia, and Dopamine Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Parkinsonism: Symptoms and Defect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Parkinsonism: Levodopa, Carbidopa, and Other Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Huntington Disease and Tourette Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Alzheimer Disease: Symptoms, Course, and Pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Alzheimer Disease: Cholinergic Involvement and Drugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Stroke: Symptoms and Drug Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
CNS Skeletal Muscle Relaxants
Motor Neurons and Drugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Analgesics and Anesthetics
Pain Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Local Anesthetics: Spinal Afferents and Local Anesthetic Mechanisms of Action. . . . . . . . . . . . 86
General Anesthetics: Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Opioids: Endogenous Opioid Pathway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Opioids: Receptor-Transduction Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Nonopioids: NSAIDs, Selective Cyclooxygenase-2 Inhibitors, and Acetaminophen. . . . . . . . . . 90
Sumatriptans and Reuptake Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
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Contents
Arrhythmias
Cardiac Arrhythmias: General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Cardiac Arrhythmias: Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Cardiac Arrhythmias: Drug Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Hypertension
Hypertension Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Hypertension: Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Hypertension Treatment: Diuretics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Hypertension Treatment: Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Hypertension Treatment: β and α Blockers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Hypertension Treatment: Minoxidil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Hypertension Treatment: Clonidine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Hypertension in Elderly Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Pheochromocytoma-Induced Hypertension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Hypertension in Cushing Syndrome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Peripheral Vascular Disease
Peripheral Vascular Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
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Diabetes Mellitus
The Pancreas and Insulin Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Insulin Secretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Lack of Insulin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Insulin Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Reactions to Insulin: Hypoglycemia and Adipose Tissue Changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Sulfonylureas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Biguanides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Meglitinides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
α-Glucosidase Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Thiazolidinediones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Thiazolidinediones: Clinical Rationale and Adverse Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
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Contents
Cholelithiasis
Pathologic Features of Gallstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Gallstone Pathogenesis and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Liver Physiology and Pathology
Liver Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Bilirubin Production and Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Cirrhosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Ascites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Nausea and Vomiting
Physiology of Emesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Antiemetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
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Contents
CHAPTER 9. DRUGS USED TO AFFECT RENAL FUNCTION
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Organization and Functions of the Renal System
Macroscopic Anatomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
The Nephron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Blood Vessels Surrounding Nephrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
The Glomerulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Practical Application: Measuring the Glomerular Filtration Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Tubular Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Ion and Water Reabsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Bicarbonate Reabsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Potassium Excretion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Volume Regulation
Antidiuretic Hormone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Diuretics
General Considerations: Volume Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Mercurial Diuretics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Thiazide Diuretics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Potassium-Sparing Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Loop (High-Ceiling) Diuretics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Osmotic Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Summary of Therapeutics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Urinary Incontinence
Urinary Incontinence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Urinary Tract Calculi
Urinary Tract Calculi (Kidney Stones) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Renal Insufficiency and Dialysis
Effect of Renal Insufficiency on Drug Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Effect of Hemodialysis on Drug Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
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Contents
Carbapenems: Imipenem-Cilastatin, Ertapenem, and Meropenem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Monobactams: Aztreonam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Vancomycin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Vancomycin Treatment Difficulties: Resistance and Adverse Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Tetracyclines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Aminoglycosides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Macrolides: Erythromycin, Azithromycin, and Clarithromycin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Clindamycin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Quinolones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
New-Generation Quinolones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Quinupristin/Dalfopristin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Linezolid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Sulfonamides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Fungal Infections: Antifungal Drugs
Nature of Fungal Infections and Therapy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Amphotericin B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Azole Antifungal Agents and Other Antifungal Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Viral Infections and Antiviral Agents
Nature of Viral Infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Herpesviruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Acyclovir and Famciclovir. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Ganciclovir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Influenza and Its Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
HIV Infection: Antiretroviral Agents
HIV Infection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIs) and Non-NRTIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Protease Inhibitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Other Antiretroviral Agents for AIDS: Tenofovir and Enfuvirtide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
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Vitamin-Drug Interactions
Fat-Soluble Vitamin-Drug Interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Water-Soluble Vitamin-Drug Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
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ABBREVIATIONS
5-FU 5-fluorouracil
5-HT 5-hydroxytrypyamine
5-ISMN isosorbide-5-mononitrate
6-MP mercaptopurine
6-TG thioguanine
ACE angiotensin-converting enzyme
ACh acetylcholine
ACTH corticotropin
ADH antidiuretic hormone
ADME absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
AMI acute myocardial infarction
AMP adenosine monophosphate
ANS autonomic nervous system
Asp aspartate
ATP adenosine triphosphate
ATPase adenosine triphosphatase
AV atrioventricular
cAMP cyclic adenosine monophosphate
CCB calcium channel blocker
CCK cholecystokinin
CDC Centers for Disease Control
cGMP cyclic guanosine monophosphate
CHF congestive heart failure
CML chronic myeloid leukemia
CMV cytomegalovirus
CNS central nervous system
CoA coenzyme A
COC combination oral contraceptive
COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
COX cyclooxygenase
CRH corticotropin-releasing hormone
CSF cerebrospinal fluid
CTZ chemoreceptor trigger zone
DM diabetes mellitus
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DRC dose-response curve
DRSP drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae
DUMBELS diarrhea, urination, miosis, bronchoconstriction, excitation (skeletal muscles and
central nervous system), lacrimation, and salivation and sweating
ED50 median effective dose
EDTA ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
EGFR epidermal growth factor receptor
EPI epinephrine
EPSP excitatory postsynaptic potential
xxv
Abbreviations
ER estrogen receptor
ESWL extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FPG fasting plasma glucose
FSH follicle-stimulating hormone
GABA γ-aminobutyric acid
GABAA γ-aminobutyric acid receptor type A
GABAB γ-aminobutyric acid receptor type B
GDP guanosine diphosphate
GERD gastroesophageal reflux disease
GFR glomerular filtration rate
GH growth hormone
GHRH growth hormone–releasing hormone
GI gastrointestinal
Glu glutamate
Gly glycine
GnRH gonadotropin-releasing hormone
GPCR G protein–coupled receptor
GTN glyceryl nitrate
GTP guanosine triphosphate
GTPase guanosine triphosphatase
H2CO3 carbonic acid
Hb hemoglobin
HCO3− bicarbonate
HDL high-density lipoprotein
HER human epidermal growth factor receptor
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
HMG-CoA hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A
HPA hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
HRT hormone replacement therapy
HSV herpes simplex virus
IBS irritable bowel syndrome
Ig immunoglobulin
IGF insulinlike growth factor
IPSP inhibitory postsynaptic potential
IV intravenous
LD50 median lethal dose
LDL low-density lipoprotein
L-DOPA levodopa
LFT liver function test
LH luteinizing hormone
LT leukotriene
mAChR muscarinic cholinergic receptor
MAOI monoamine oxidase inhibitor
MoAb monoclonal antibody
MPA medroxyprogesterone acetate
mRNA messenger ribonucleic acid
xxvi
Abbreviations
MRSA methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
MTX methotrexate
nAChR nicotinic cholinergic receptor
NANC nonadrenergic-noncholinergic
NE norepinephrine
NERD nonerosive esophageal reflux disease
NHL non-Hodgkin lymphoma
NK natural killer
NMDA N-methyl-d-aspartate
NNRTI nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor
NO nitric oxide
NRTI nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor
NSAID nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug
OC oral contraceptive
OCD obsessive-compulsive disorder
PD pharmacodynamic
PDE phosphodiesterase
Ph Philadelphia chromosome
PI protease inhibitor
PK pharmacokinetic
PNS peripheral nervous system
PPAR peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor
PPI proton pump inhibitor
PRL prolactin
PTU propylthiouracil
PUVA psoralen plus ultraviolet A light
RAI radioactive iodine
RNA ribonucleic acid
SA sinoatrial
SAR structure-activity relation
SERM selective estrogen receptor modulator
SNS somatic nervous system
SSRI selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
T3 triiodothyronine
T4 thyroxine
TCA tricyclic antidepressant
TRF thyrotropin-releasing factor
TRH thyrotropin-releasing hormone
TSH thyroid-stimulating hormone
TZD thiazolidinedione
UTI urinary tract infection
UV ultraviolet
VC vomiting center
VZV varicella-zoster virus
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C H A P T E R 1
1
BASIC PRINCIPLES Major Ways in Which Drugs Work
Mechanism of resistance
Capsule Cell wall (lower antibiotic permeability)
Chromosome (spontaneous
Periplasmic space
DNA mutations)
Cytoplasm (antibiotic-
inactivating enzymes)
Inclusion
Plasmid
Mesosome
Flagellum
Pilus
Lamina propria
Virus
2
Major Ways in Which Drugs Work BASIC PRINCIPLES
Secondary Ovarian Carcinoma Characteristic signet ring cells with Prostate Cancer
clear cytoplasm and eccentric nuclei
Carcinoma
5
Scapula
4
Ribs
Grade 3
(cross-section view)
3
Uterus Femur
Grade 4 Grade 5
Carcinoma in uterus
Grade 1 to 5 (1 most differentiated; 5 least differentiated)
assigned to each of 2 largest geographic areas of tumor
involvement; numbers totaled to provide a final score
between 2 and 10; lower score, better prognosis
Bony metastasis
Sites numbered in order of frequency; dots without
numbers indicate less common sites
Urinary
bladder
Carcinoma
Ovarian carcinoma. Secondary
to carcinoma of the uterus
Rectum
Metastatic adenocarcinoma
of the ovary. Secondary
to carcinoma of the
sigmoid colon
H+ pH 1.5
Pepsin
Mucus-bicarbonate
pH 2
barrier
pH 7
Epithelial tight
junctions
HCO3
HCO3 H+
lin
su
In
Amino
acids
Muscle
Glycogen
Glucose Liver
Glucose-P
Glucose
Pyruvate
CO2 Free fatty acids
Keto acids
Insulin
Stimulates
Adipose
tissue
Inhibits
Ganglionic blocking
agents act here. Sympathetic nerves modify tension
in peripheral and visceral vessels.
Pheochromocytoma
may increase Catecholamines from suprarenal
catecholamine medulla affect tone of resistance
output. in vessels as well as heart rate
and output.
Kidney K+
compression Na+
or disease K+ Na+ H2O
elevates Salt intake or
blood Gut
deprivation affects
pressure, blood pressure in Blood volume
probably via hypertensives. affects blood
effect on pressure unless
vessels. countered by
other factors.
Excitatory Inhibitory
Synaptic
vesicles
in synaptic
bouton
Presynaptic
membrane
Transmitter
Na substances
Synaptic cleft
Cl
K Postsynaptic
membrane
When impulse reaches excitatory synaptic bouton, At inhibitory synapse, transmitter substance released
it causes release of a transmitter substance into by an impulse increases permeability of the post-
synaptic cleft. This increases permeability of synaptic membrane to Cl. K moves out of post-
postsynaptic membrane to Na and K. More synaptic cell, but no net flow of Cl occurs at resting
Na moves into postsynaptic cell than K moves membrane potential.
out, due to greater electrochemical
gradient.
Synaptic bouton
Resultant net ionic current flow is in a direction that Resultant ionic current flow is in direction that tends to
tends to depolarize postsynaptic cell. If depolariza- hyperpolarize postsynaptic cell. This makes depolarization by
tion reaches firing threshold, an impulse is excitatory synapses more difficult—more depolarization is
generated in postsynaptic cell. required to reach threshold.
msec
Current 0 4 8 12 16
70
Potential (mV)
Potential (mV)
65 Potential
Potential
75
Current
70
0 4 8 12 16
msec
Current flow and potential change Current flow and potential change
Dendrite
Node Axon
Enlarged section
of bouton
Axon (axoplasm)
Axolemma
Mitochondria
Glial process
Synaptic vesicles
Synaptic cleft
Presynaptic membrane
(densely staining)
Postsynaptic membrane
(densely staining)
Postsynaptic cell
Selected Ligands/Receptors
Acetylcholine
Adenosine
Adrenoceptors
Angiotensin
Bombesin
Bradykinin
Calcitonin
Ca2+ sensing
Cannabinoid
Chemokine
Chemotactic peptide
A signaling molecule in the
Signaling molecule (ligand) Cholecystokinin (CKK)
binding pocket of its receptor
Gastrin
Corticotropin-releasing factor
Dopamine
Endothelin
Ligand-binding pocket GABA
Extracellular domain Galanin
Glutamate
Glycine
Histamine
5-HT
Membrane-spanning Leukotriene
region Melanocortin
Melatonin
Neuropeptide Y
Neurotensin
Intracellular domain Neurotrophin
with enzymatic activity Opioid
Prostanoid
Protease activated
Ryanodine
Somatostatin
SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
Steroid
Second Tachykinin
Cytoskeleton
messengers Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Urotensin
Vanilloid (capsaicin)
Vasoactive intestinal
polypeptide
Vasopressin
Transcription factors
Cellular
effects
Glycosylation
S S Disulfide bond
D1 D2
S S S S
COOH
COOH
D3 D4
S S S S
COOH
COOH
Agonists
Endogenous Drug
ligand Ligand-receptor molecule Drug-receptor
complex (agonist) complex
Receptor
Receptor Receptor
activation activation
EFFECT EFFECT
Endogenous ligand produces a particular cellular effect. Addition of agonist increases the number of ligand-receptor
interactions, increasing the cumulative effect.
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