Livy - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:15

Livy
Titus Livius (Latin: [ˈtɪtʊs ˈliːwiʊs]; 59 BC – AD
17), known in English as Livy (/ˈlɪvi/ LIV-ee), was Livy
a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental
history of Rome and the Roman people, titled Ab
Urbe Condita, ''From the Founding of the City'',
covering the period from the earliest legends of
Rome before the traditional founding in 753 BC
through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own
lifetime. He was on good terms with members of
the Julio-Claudian dynasty and was a friend of
Augustus,[1] whose young grandnephew, the
future emperor Claudius, he encouraged to take
up the writing of history.[2]

Life
19th-century statue of Livy at the Austrian
Livy was born in Patavium in northern Italy, now
Parliament Building
modern Padua, probably in 59 BC.[ii] At the time
Born Titus Livius[i]
of his birth, his home city of Patavium was the
59 BC
second wealthiest on the Italian peninsula, and
Patavium, Roman Republic
the largest in the province of Cisalpine Gaul
(modern Padua, Italy)
(northern Italy). Cisalpine Gaul was merged in
Italy proper during his lifetime and its inhabitants Died AD 17 (aged 74–75)
were given Roman citizenship by Julius Caesar. In Patavium, Roman Empire
his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection Occupation Historian
and pride for Patavium, and the city was well Years active Golden Age of Latin
known for its conservative values in morality and
politics.[7] Academic background
Influences Polybius · Cicero
Livy's teenage years were during the 40s BC, a Academic work
period of civil wars throughout the Roman world.
Discipline History
The governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time,
Asinius Pollio, tried to sway Patavium into Main History, biography, oratory
supporting Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), the interests

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy Page 1 of 9
Livy - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:15

leader of one of the warring factions during Notable Ab urbe condita

Caesar's Civil War (49-45 BC). The wealthy works
citizens of Patavium refused to contribute money
and arms to Asinius Pollio, and went into hiding. Pollio then attempted to bribe the slaves of
those wealthy citizens to expose the whereabouts of their masters; his bribery did not work, and
the citizens instead pledged their allegiance to the Senate.[8] It is therefore likely that the
Roman civil wars prevented Livy from pursuing a higher education in Rome or going on a tour
of Greece, which was common for adolescent males of the nobility at the time.[9] Many years
later, Asinius Pollio derisively commented on Livy's "patavinity", saying that Livy's Latin
showed certain "provincialisms" frowned on at Rome. Pollio's dig may have been the result of
bad feelings he harboured toward the city of Patavium from his experiences there during the
civil wars.[10]

Livy probably went to Rome in the 30s BC,[11] and it is likely that he spent a large amount of
time in the city after this, although it may not have been his primary home. During his time in
Rome, he was never a senator nor held a government position. His writings contain elementary
mistakes on military matters, indicating that he probably never served in the Roman army.
However, he was educated in philosophy and rhetoric. It seems that Livy had the financial
resources and means to live an independent life, though the origin of that wealth is unknown.
He devoted a large part of his life to his writings, which he was able to do because of his
financial freedom.[12]

Livy was known to give recitations to small audiences, but he was not heard of to engage in
declamation, then a common pastime. He was familiar with the emperor Augustus and the
imperial family. Augustus was considered by later Romans to have been the greatest Roman
emperor, benefiting Livy's reputation long after his death. Suetonius described how Livy
encouraged the future emperor Claudius, who was born in 10 BC,[13] to write historiographical
works during his childhood.[14]

Livy's most famous work was his history of Rome. In it he narrates a complete history of the city
of Rome, from its foundation to the death of Augustus. Because he was writing under the reign
of Augustus, Livy's history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome. He wrote his history with
embellished accounts of Roman heroism in order to promote the new type of government
implemented by Augustus when he became emperor.[15] In Livy's preface to his history, he said
that he did not care whether his personal fame remained in darkness, as long as his work helped
to "preserve the memory of the deeds of the world’s preeminent nation."[16] Because Livy was
mostly writing about events that had occurred hundreds of years earlier, the historical value of
his work was questionable, although many Romans came to believe his account to be true.[17]

Livy was married and had at least one daughter and one son.[12] He also produced other works,
including an essay in the form of a letter to his son, and numerous dialogues, most likely
modelled on similar works by Cicero.[18] One of his sons wrote a book on geography and a
daughter married Lucius Magius, a rhetorician.[19]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy Page 2 of 9
Livy - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:15

Titus Livius died at his home city of Patavium in AD 17. The tombstone of Livy and his wife
might have been found in Padua.[19]

Works
Livy's only surviving work is commonly known as History
of Rome (or Ab Urbe Condita, 'From the Founding of the
City'). Together with Polybius it is considered one of the
main accounts of the Second Punic War.[20]

When he began this work he was already past his youth,

probably 33; presumably, events in his life prior to that
time had led to his intense activity as a historian. He
continued working on it until he left Rome for Padua in
his old age, probably in the reign of Tiberius after the
death of Augustus. Seneca the Younger[21] says he was an
orator and philosopher and had written some historical
treatises in those fields.[iii]

History of Rome also served as the driving force behind

the "northern theory" regarding the Etruscans' origins.
This is because in the book Livy states, "The Greeks also
Ab Urbe condita (printed edition dated
call them the 'Tyrrhene' and the 'Adriatic ... The Alpine 1714)
tribes are undoubtedly of the same kind, especially the
Raetii, who had through the nature of their country
become so uncivilized that they retained no trace of their original condition except their
language, and even this was not free from corruption".[22] Thus, many scholars, like Karl
Otfried Müller, utilized this statement as evidence that the Etruscans or the Tyrrhenians
migrated from the north and were descendants of an Alpine tribe known as the Raeti.[23]

Reception

Imperial era
Livy's History of Rome was in high demand from the time it was published and remained so
during the early years of the empire. Pliny the Younger reported that Livy's celebrity was so
widespread, a man from Cádiz travelled to Rome and back for the sole purpose of meeting
him.[24] Livy's work was a source for the later works of Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, Eutropius,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy Page 3 of 9
Livy - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:15

Festus, Florus, Granius Licinianus and Orosius. Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with
access to Livy, to compose his De Prodigiis, an account of supernatural events in Rome from the
consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius.

Livy wrote during the reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and
consuls claiming to be defending the Roman Republic, such as Pompey. Patavium had been
pro-Pompey. To clarify his status, the victor of the civil war, Octavian Caesar, had wanted to
take the title Romulus (the first king of Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of
Augustus. Rather than abolishing the republic, he adapted it and its institutions to imperial
rule.

The historian Tacitus, writing about a century after Livy's time, described the Emperor
Augustus as his friend. Describing the trial of Cremutius Cordus, Tacitus represents him as
defending himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows:

I am said to have praised Brutus and Cassius, whose careers many have described and
no one mentioned without eulogy. Titus Livius, pre-eminently famous for eloquence
and truthfulness, extolled Cn. Pompeius in such a panegyric that Augustus called him
Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle to their friendship.[25]

Livy's reasons for returning to Padua after the death of Augustus (if he did) are unclear, but the
circumstances of Tiberius's reign certainly allow for speculation.

Later
During the Middle Ages, due to the length of the work, the
literate class was already reading summaries rather than the
work itself, which was tedious to copy, expensive, and
required a lot of storage space. It must have been during this
period, if not before, that manuscripts began to be lost
without replacement. The Renaissance was a time of intense
revival; the population discovered that Livy's work was
being lost and large amounts of money changed hands in the
rush to collect Livian manuscripts. The poet Beccadelli sold
a country home for funding to purchase one manuscript
copied by Poggio.[26] Petrarch and Pope Nicholas V
launched a search for the now missing books. Laurentius
Valla published an amended text initiating the field of Livy
scholarship. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and
Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork
treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli's work on Titus Livius by Andrea Briosco (c.
1567)
republics, the Discourses on Livy, is presented as a
commentary on the History of Rome. Respect for Livy rose

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy Page 4 of 9
Livy - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:15

to lofty heights. Walter Scott reports in Waverley (1814) as an historical fact that a Scotsman
involved in the first Jacobite uprising of 1715 was recaptured (and executed) because, having
escaped, he yet lingered near the place of his captivity in "the hope of recovering his favourite
Titus Livius".[27]

Dates
The authority supplying information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is
Eusebius of Caesarea, a bishop of the early Christian Church. One of his works was a summary
of world history in ancient Greek, termed the Chronikon, dating from the early 4th century AD.
This work was lost except for fragments (mainly excerpts), but not before it had been translated
in whole and in part by various authors such as St. Jerome. The entire work survives in two
separate manuscripts, Armenian and Greek (Christesen and Martirosova-Torlone 2006). St.
Jerome wrote in Latin. Fragments in Syriac exist.[28]

Eusebius' work consists of two books: the Chronographia, a summary of history in annalist
form, and the Chronikoi Kanones, tables of years and events. St. Jerome translated the tables
into Latin as the Chronicon, probably adding some information of his own from unknown
sources. Livy's dates appear in Jerome's Chronicon.

The main problem with the information given in the manuscripts is that, between them, they
often give different dates for the same events or different events, do not include the same
material entirely, and reformat what they do include. A date may be in Ab Urbe Condita or in
Olympiads or in some other form, such as age. These variations may have occurred through
scribal error or scribal license. Some material has been inserted under the aegis of Eusebius.

The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on
Livy seldom care to linger. As a result, standard information in a standard rendition is used,
which gives the impression of a standard set of dates for Livy. There are no such dates. A typical
presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of
the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1 respectively.[29] All sources use the same
first Olympiad, 776/775–773/772 BC by the modern calendar. By a complex formula (made so
by the 0 reference point not falling on the border of an Olympiad), these codes correspond to 59
BC for the birth, 17 AD for the death. In another manuscript the birth is in 180.4, or 57 BC.[30]

Notes
i. Titus is the praenomen (the personal name); Livius is the nomen (the gentile name, i.e.
"belonging to the gens Livia"). Therefore, Titus Livius did not have a cognomen (third name,
i.e. family name), which was not unusual during the Roman Republic. About this, classical
sources agree: Seneca (Ep. 100.9); Tacitus (Ann. IV.34.4); Pliny (Ep. II.3.8); and Suetonius
(Claud. 41.1) call him Titus Livius. Quintilian calls him Titus Livius (Inst. Or. VIII.1.3;

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy Page 5 of 9
Livy - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:15

VIII.2.18; X.1.101) or simply Livius (Inst. Or. I.5.56; X.1.39). In the sepulchral inscription
from Patavium, which most probably concerns Titus, he is named, with the patronymic, T
Livius C f, ''Titus Livius Cai filius'' (CIL V, 2975 (http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p
_belegstelle=CIL+05%2C+02975&r_sortierung=Belegstelle)).
ii. Jerome says Livy was born in 59 BC and died in AD 17. First proposed by G. M. Hirst,
Ronald Syme and others have suggested bringing his birth and death dates back five years
(64 BC – AD 12), but this idea has not gained consensus.[3][4][5][6]
iii. "Livy wrote both dialogues, which should be ranked as history no less than as philosophy,
and works which professedly deal with philosophy" ("scripsit enim et dialogos, quos non
magis philosophiae adnumerare possis quam historiae, et ex professo philosophiam
continentis libros") —Seneca the Younger. Moral Letters to Lucilius. 100.9.

References
1. Tacitus. Annales. IV.34.
2. Suetonius. Claudius. The Twelve Caesars. 41.1.
3. William M. Calder III, ‘’Gertrude Hirst (1869-1962),” The Classical World Vol. 90, No. 2/3, Six
Women Classicists (November 1996 - February 1997), pp. 149-152
4. S.P. Oakley, "Livy and Clodius Licinus", The Classical Quarterly, vol. 42, no. 2 (1992), p.
548
5. T.D. Barnes, "Roman Papers by Ronald Syme, E. Badian", The American Journal of
Philology, vol. 102, no. 4 (1981), p. 464
6. A Companion to Livy, Wiley-Blackwell (2014), p. 25
7. Livy 1998, ix.
8. Cicero Philippics xii. 4.10 (at Loeb Classical Library) (https://www.loebclassics.com/view/ma
rcus%20tullius%20cicero-philippic%2012/2010/pb%20LCL507.197.xml)
9. "Livy | Roman Historian & Author of Ab Urbe Condita | Britannica" (https://www.britannica.co
m/biography/Livy). January 2024.
10. Livy 1998, ix–x.
11. Hazel, John (2001). Who's Who in the Roman World (https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinr
omanwo00john). Who's Who Series. Routledge – via EBSCOhost.
12. Livy 1998, x.
13. Payne, Robert (1962). The Roman Triumph. London: Robert Hale. p. 38.
14. Suetonius. Claudius. The Twelve Caesars. 41.1. "Historiam in adulescentia hortante T. Livio,
Sulpicio vero Flavo etiam adiuvante, scribere adgressus est. ('In his youth he began to write
a history under the encouragement of Titus Livius and with the help of Sulpicius Flavus.')".
15. Dudley, Donald R (1970). The Romans: 850 BC – AD 337. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 19.
16. Feldherr, Andrew (1998). Spectacle and Society in Livy's History. London: University of
California Press. p. ix.
17. Heichelheim, Fritz Moritz (1962). A History of the Roman People. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall. p. 47.
18. Livy 1998, xi.
19. Mineo, Companion to Livy, p. xxxiii.
20. Dillon, Matthew; Garland, Lynda (28 October 2013). Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=rfPWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA174). Routledge. p. 174.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy Page 6 of 9
Livy - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:15

ooks.google.com/books?id=rfPWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA174). Routledge. p. 174.

ISBN 9781136761362.
21. Seneca the Younger. Moral Letters to Lucilius. 100.9.
22. Livy. History of Rome (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.
0026:book=5:chapter=33&highlight=alpine). Translated by Rev. Canon Roberts, E. P. Dutton
and Co., 1912.
23. Pallottino, Massimo (1975). The Etruscans. Translated by Cremona, J. (2nd ed.). Indiana
University Press. p. 65.
24. Pliny. Epistlae. II.3.
25. Tacitus. Annales. IV.34. "Brutum et Cassium laudavisse dicor, quorum res gestas cum
plurimi composuerint nemo sine honore memoravit. Ti. Livius, eloquentiae ac fidei
praeclarus in primis, Cn. Pompeium tantis laudibus tulit, ut Pompeianum eum Augustus
appellaret: neque id amicitiae eorum offecit."
26. Foster 1919, p. 24.
27. Scott, Walter (1897) [1814]. "6". Waverley. London: Adam and Charles Black. p. 570.
28. Fotheringham, John Knight (1905). The Bodleian Manuscript of Jerome's Version of the
Chronicle of Eusebius (https://archive.org/details/bodleianmanuscr00jerogoog). Oxford: The
Clarendon Press. p. 1.
29. "St. Jerome (Hieronymus): Chronological Tables" (http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.h
tml). Attalus. 29 February 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2009.
30. Livius, Titus (1881). Seeley, John Robert (ed.). Livy (https://archive.org/stream/livybooks110
with00livyuoft#page/n13). Vol. 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-86292-296-8.

Bibliography
Livy (1919) [written 27–9 BC]. Livy (https://archive.org/stream/LivyBooks1and2/Livy_Books1
and2). Vol. I. Translated by Foster, B. O. Boston: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-
99256-3.
Livy (1998) [written 27–9 BC]. The Rise of Rome. Vol. Books 1–5. Translated by Luce, T. J.
Oxford: Oxford University Press..

Further reading
Chaplin, Janes D. (2000). Livy's Exemplary History (https://archive.org/details/livysexemplar
yhi00chap/page/n3/mode/2up). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815274-3.
Damon, Cynthia (1997). "From Source to Sermo: Narrative Technique in Livy 34.54.4-8" (htt
ps://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1051&context=classics_papers). The
American Journal of Philology. 118 (2): 251–266. doi:10.1353/ajp.1997.0026 (https://doi.org/
10.1353%2Fajp.1997.0026). S2CID 162297951 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
62297951).
Davies, Jason P. (2004). Rome's Religious History: Livy, Tacitus and Ammianus on their
Gods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dorey, Thomas Allen, ed. (1971). Livy (https://archive.org/details/livy00thom). London:
Routledge. ISBN 9780710068767.
Feldherr, Andrew (1998). Spectacle and Society in Livy's History (https://archive.org/details/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy Page 7 of 9
Livy - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:15

spectaclesociety00feld/mode/2up). Berkeley: University of California Press.

Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (2003). The Oxford Classical Dictionary.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860641-3.
Klindienst, Patricia (1990). " 'Ritual Work on Human Flesh': Livy's Lucretia and the Rape of
the Body Politic". Helios. 17 (1): 51–70.
Kraus, C. S.; Woodman, A. J. (1997). Latin Historians (https://archive.org/details/latinhistoria
ns0000krau). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 51–81 (https://archive.org/details/latinhist
orians0000krau/page/51). ISBN 9780199222933.
Levene, D. S. (2010). Livy on the Hannibalic War. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Linderski, Jerzy. "Roman Religion in Livy". In Wolfgang Schuller (ed.). Livius: Aspekte senes
Werkes. Konstanz: Universitätsverlag Konstanz. pp. 53–70.
Miles, Gary B. (1995). Livy: Reconstructing Early Rome (https://archive.org/details/livyrecon
structi00mile/page/n5/mode/2up). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
ISBN 9780801430602.
Mineo, Bernard (editor) (2015). A Companion to Livy, Chichester, John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-1-118-30128-9
Moore, Timothy J. (1989). Artistry and Ideology: Livy's Vocabulary of Virtue. Frankfurt:
Athenäum.
Ramsay, William (1870). "Livius" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_
Roman_Biography_and_Mythology/Livius). In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. II. pp. 790 (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Dictio
nary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Biography_and_Mythology_(1870)_-
_Volume_2.djvu/804)–796 (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Dictionary_of_Greek_and_R
oman_Biography_and_Mythology_(1870)_-_Volume_2.djvu/810).
Rossi, Andreola (2004). "Parallel Lives: Hannibal and Scipio in Livy's Third Decade".
Transactions of the American Philological Association. 134 (2): 359–381.
doi:10.1353/apa.2004.0017 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fapa.2004.0017). S2CID 154240047
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154240047).
Syme, Ronald (1959). "Livy and Augustus". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 64:
27–78. doi:10.2307/310937 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F310937). JSTOR 310937 (https://w
ww.jstor.org/stable/310937).
Vandiver, Elizabeth (1999). "The Founding Mothers of Livy's Rome: The Sabine Women and
Lucretia". In Titchener, Frances B.; Moorton, Richard F. Jr. (eds.). The Eye Expanded: Life
and the Arts in Greco-Roman Antiquity. Berkeley: University of California Press.
pp. 206–232.
Walsh, Patrick G. (1961). Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods (https://archive.org/details/li
vyhishistorica0000wals). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

External links
Works by Livy at Perseus Digital Library (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresult
s?q=Livy&redirect=true)
Works by Livy (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/3707) at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Livy (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Livy
%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Livy%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Livy%22%20OR
%20title%3A%22Livy%22%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy Page 8 of 9
Livy - Wikipedia 31/12/2024, 23:15

Internet Archive
Works by Livy (https://librivox.org/author/428) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Lendering, Jona (2006–2009). "Livy (1): Life" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171237
/http://www.livius.org/li-ln/livy/livy.htm). Livius Articles on Ancient History. Livius.org.
Archived from the original (https://www.livius.org/li-ln/livy/livy.htm) on 3 March 2016.
Retrieved 13 August 2009.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Livy&oldid=1259045333"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy Page 9 of 9