PX3241: Particle Physics and Special Relativity

Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts

Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts

Course notes and design by Prof. Patrick Sutton

with modifications by Mike Edmunds and Stephen Fairhurst

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Scattering

Subsection 1

Scattering

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Scattering

Scattering
Scattering involves the deflection of an incoming particle by a target (e.g. another
particle).
The total cross section σ for a scattering process is defined as the rate Γ of
collisions per unit luminosity JN of the incoming beam:
Γ
σ≡ . (3.1)
JN
Here J = nv is the flux, where n is the number density of incoming particles and
v is their speed, and N is the number of particles in the target.
The differential cross section dσ/dΩ for scattering into a particular solid angle
dΩ is related to σ by Z  
dσ
σ= dΩ . (3.2)
dΩ
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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Scattering

Scattering Exercise

Exercise 31. A liquid hydrogen target of volume 10−4 m3 and density

71kg m−3 is exposed to a beam of pions (π − ) of flux 107 particles m−2 s−1 and
the reaction π − + p → K 0 + Λ is observed. If the cross section for this reaction
is 0.4mb, what is the rate of production of Λ particles?

Recommended reading: Martin & Shaw, Appendix B1-B4.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Scattering

Fermi Golden Rule

Scattering processes (and also decay rates) can be estimated using the
The Fermi Golden Rule:
2π
Γfi = |Mfi |2 ρ(Ef ) (3.3)
ℏ
Here ρ(Ef ) is the density of final states, and Mfi is the matrix element for the
scattering potential V (⃗r ):
Mfi = ⟨ψf |V̂ |ψi ⟩ . (3.4)

Exercise 32. Look up the derivation of the Fermi Golden Rule from
non-relativistic quantum mechanics.

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Scattering

The Born Approximation

For the case where the incoming (outgoing) particles are free particles of fixed
momentum q ⃗i (⃗
qf ), we obtain the Born Approximation:
dσ m2
= 2 4 |Mfi |2 (3.5)
dΩ 4π ℏ
Here, m is the mass of the incident particle and the matrix element is the
three-dimensional Fourier transform of the potential,
Z
q ) = d 3⃗r V (⃗r ) ei q⃗ ·⃗r /ℏ ,
Mfi (⃗ (3.6)

where q ⃗i − q
⃗=q ⃗f is the momentum transfer.
Exercise 33. Look up the derivation of the Born Approximation using the Fermi
Golden Rule.
Exercise 34. Derive the matrix element (3.6).
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Rutherford Scattering

Subsection 2

Rutherford Scattering

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Rutherford Scattering

Rutherford Scattering: point target

Elastic scattering of a light particle with charge ze, mass m by a heavy target with
charge Ze with Coulomb potential
zZ αℏc e2 1 1
V (⃗r ) = , α≡ ≃ . (3.7)
r 4πϵ0 ℏc 137
The constant α is known as the fine structure constant.
The matrix element for scattering is
4πzZ αℏ3 c
Mpoint (⃗
q) = (3.8)
q2
qi | = |⃗
where for elastic scattering (|⃗ qf |) the momentum transfer is related to the
scattering angle θ by
q 2 = 4mEi (1 − cos θ) . (3.9)
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Rutherford Scattering

Volume element

dV = r 2 sin θdrdθdϕ (3.10)

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Rutherford Scattering

Rutherford Scattering
The differential cross section is then
dσ (zZ αℏc)2
= (3.11)
dΩ point 4Ei2 (1 − cos θ)2

Exercise 35. Consider Rutherford’s experiment scattering α particles off gold foil.
1 Compute the total cross section for scattering to angles greater than 90◦ :
Z  
dσ
σ= dΩ .
θ>π/2 dΩ

Assume the α particles have energy 4.87MeV.

2 Assume an ideal gold foil that is only one atom thick. Estimate (roughly) the
fraction of α particles that are scattered by more than 90◦ .
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Rutherford Scattering

Rutherford Scattering: relativistic corrections

The cross-section result (3.11) is for the non-relativistic case. It can be
generalised to relativistic particles by substituting
1 m → mγ = E in the Born approximation (3.5) and
2 q 2 → 2c −2 (E 2 − m2 c 4 )(1 − cos θ) for the momentum transfer
where E = mγ is the special-relativistic energy of the incident particle.
Exercise 36. Show that with these relativistic corrections the Rutherford
scattering cross section becomes

dσ E2 (zZ αℏc)2
= (3.12)
dΩ point (E 2 − m2 c 4 )2 (1 − cos θ)2

Exercise 37. Show that for v ≪ c equation (3.12) reduces to (3.11).

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Rutherford Scattering

Rutherford Scattering: extended target

Target with charge Ze spread out in a charge density ρ(⃗r ), where
Z
d 3⃗r ρ(⃗r ) = Ze .

The Coulomb potential is

ρ(⃗r ′ )
Z
zαℏc
V (⃗r ) = d 3⃗r ′ . (3.13)
e |⃗r − ⃗r ′ |
The matrix element for scattering is
M(⃗ q ) Mpoint (⃗
q ) = F (⃗ q) (3.14)
where F is the form factor of the target:
Z
1
F (⃗
q) = d 3⃗r ρ(⃗r ) ei q⃗ ·⃗r /ℏ . (3.15)
Ze
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Rutherford Scattering

Rutherford Scattering: extended target

The differential cross section is then
dσ dσ
q )|2
= |F (⃗ (3.16)
dΩ dΩ point

In the point charge limit |F | → 1. If the cross section is not consistent with
F = 1 then the target must have substructure (i.e., it is not a fundamental
particle).
Rule of thumb: Measuring substructure of size R requires qR/ℏ ≳ 2π, or
2πℏ h
q≳ =
R R
I.e., the smallest size we can measure is approximately the de Broglie wavelength
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Rutherford Scattering

Scattering from a Nucleus

Example To probe the distribution of charges in a nucleus we might use e − as

incident particles.

Example To probe the distribution of mass in a nucleus we might use n as incident

particles; the interaction would then be by the strong force instead of EM.

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Rutherford Scattering

Scattering from a Nucleus

Exercise 38. Show that for the special case of a spherically symmetric charge
distribution, ρ(⃗r ) = ρ(r ), the form factor is

4πℏ ∞
Z  qr 
F (⃗
q) = dr ρ(r ) r sin . (3.17)
qZe 0 ℏ

Exercise 39. Show that the form factor for a uniform sphere of radius R and
charge density ρ0 is
 3     
ℏ qR qR qR
F (q) = 3 sin − cos .
qR ℏ ℏ ℏ

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Rutherford Scattering

e− scattering from gold

2
10
Scattering of relativistic electrons
by gold nuclei. The theoretical
1
10 curves are for uniform spheres
of radius 7 fm.
differential cross section (fm2)

0
10

−1 point target
10 126 MeV − prediction (7 fm)
126 MeV − data
−2
10 183 MeV − prediction (7 fm)
183 MeV − data
−3
10 The dips in the theoretical curves
are due to the approximation of
−4 treating the surface of the
10
nucleus as a step function.

40 60 80 100
theta (deg)
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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Natural Units

Subsection 3

Natural Units

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Natural Units

Fundamental Constants

Particle physics is a combination of quantum theory with special relativity. Since this
combines the physics of the very small with the physics of the very fast, it isn’t really
appropriate to use units invented to describe everyday things . . .
Two fundamental constants are relevant:
1 The speed of light, in metres per second:

c = 2.99792458 × 108 m s−1

2 Planck’s constant, in Joules-seconds:

ℏ = 1.05452266 × 10−34 J s

Both of these are unwieldy in SI units!

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Natural Units

Choosing More Convenient Units

Fortunately, there’s no reason that we have to use SI units.
For example, could choose units to make c and ℏ have convenient values.
E.g. define secn , as

1 sn ≡ 1s/(2.99792458 × 108 ) ≃ 3.34ns

Then in these new units the speed of light is

m m
c = 2.99792458 × 108 =1 .
s sn
Similarly, define a new unit of energy, 1Jn = 3.16137940 × 10−26 J. In these new
units ℏ becomes

ℏ = 1.05452266 × 10−34 J s = 3.16137940 × 10−26 J sn = 1 Jn sn

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Natural Units

Natural Units

There are many ways to choose new units such that c = 1 and ℏ = 1. We don’t
need to specify a particular choice
Just assume we’ve chosen some units such that c = 1 and ℏ = 1, and we can
always convert back to SI.
We call this the natural units system, and we’ll use it for the rest of this module.
This has many advantages:
1 The equations simplify enormously.
2 All quantities can be expressed in terms of energy only.
3 Charges appear more simply.

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Natural Units

Natural Units

For example, consider the relativistic energy invariant

E 2 = |⃗
p |2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 .

This becomes
E 2 = |⃗
p |2 + m 2 .
Natural units express the mass-energy equivalence much more clearly, as energy and
mass (and momentum) are in the same units.

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Natural Units

Energy

c allows us to convert lengths to times and vica-versa. e.g., 1s ⇔ 3 × 108 m, and

1m ⇔ 3.3ns.
ℏ allows us to convert energies to times and vice-versa.
Recalling E = mc 2 , means we can also convert masses to energies.
Therefore lengths, times, masses, and energies can all be related to each other in
a unique way.
In particle physics, we express every physical property in terms of energy and
measure it in, e.g. GeV. We find:
Energy: GeV
Mass: GeVc −2
Momentum: GeVc −1
Time: GeV−1 ℏ
Distance: GeV−1 ℏ c
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Natural Units

Charges

The SI unit system has a very strange way of expressing electromagnetic charges, e.g.
the force between two protons is
e2
F =
4πϵ0 r 2
We can simplify this enormously by introducing a dimensionless constant called the
fine-structure constant:
e2 1
α≡ ≃ .
4πϵ0 ℏc 137

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Natural Units

Returning to SI Units

There is a straightforward procedure for converting from natural units back to SI

units: dimensional analysis.
For example, cross sections have the units of area. In natural units length ∝
(energy)−1 so area ∝ (energy)−2 .

Exercise 40. The cross section for Compton scattering (e − + γ → e − + γ) in

natural units is
8πα2
σ= .
3me2
Use dimensional analysis to determine the appropriate powers of ℏ and c.

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Natural Units

An Aside: Adding Gravity

With ℏ and c we can express every physical property in terms of energy.

If we also include gravity, we have a third constant,
G = 6.67430 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 .
With the three constants,
q
ℏ, G and c, we can obtain the Planck Units
Planck length: lP = ℏG
3 = 1.616 × 10−35 m
qc
Planck mass: mP = ℏc = 2.176 × 10−8 kg
q G
−44
c 5 = 5.391 × 10
Planck time: tP = ℏG s

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Natural Units

Exercises

Exercise 41. Show that α ≃ 1/137.

Exercise 42. Show that in natural units 1fm equals (0.2GeV)−1 .

Exercise 43. Show that in natural units 1MeV equals (6.6 × 10−22 s)−1 .

Exercise 44. The “classical electron radius” r0 is given in natural units by

α
r0 =
me
Use dimensional analysis to show that in SI units
αℏ
r0 = ≃ 2.8 × 10−15 m .
me c
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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Accelerators

Subsection 4

Accelerators

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Accelerators

Accelerators

Use EM fields to accelerate stable, charged particles to high energies. Need high
energies to:
probe inner structure of particles (e.g., protons) as in Rutherford scattering
produce high-mass or unstable particles
Two classes of accelerator: linear accelerators and synchrotrons. Either type
can be a fixed-target experiment or a colliding beam experiment.
Recommended reading: Martin & Shaw, Ch. 4 (skim); Griffiths, Ch. 1.
CERN LHC Booklet:
http://cds.cern.ch/record/2255762/files/CERN-Brochure-2017-002-Eng.pdf

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Accelerators

Linear Accelerators
Accelerate by alternating charge along a series of plates:

credit: Sgbeer, wikipedia

Example SLAC (Stanford Linear Collider, California): 3.2 km accelerator, collided

e + e − beams at 40-50 GeV.
Exercise 45. Compute the electric field needed to accelerate an e − to 40 GeV
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Accelerators

SLAC

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Accelerators

Synchrotrons

Use magnets to bend beam along a circular beam

tube. Particles are accelerated along short linear
segments.
Advantage: Particles circulate around the loop
many times, increasing in speed each time.
credit: http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk
Gyroradius formula (eqn 2.65) for a particle of mass m, charge q moving at speed v at
right angles to a magnetic field B:

γmv |⃗
p|
R= = . (3.18)
qB qB

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Accelerators

Synchrotron radiation

Disadvantage: Any charged particle accelerated in a circle emits EM synchrotron

radiation. Energy lost per cycle is (ℏ = 1, c = 1)
4
16π 2 α q 2 v 3

E
∆Esynch = . (3.19)
3R m

Maximum energy is limited by this effect if m is small.

p accelerators: synchrotrons (e.g. LHC).
e − , e + accelerators: linear (e.g. SLAC).

Example LHC (Large Hadron Collider, CERN): R = 4km accelerator, collides two
p beams at 7TeV each.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Accelerators

Synchrotron radiation

Exercise 46. Show that the energy lost by a 7TeV proton due to synchrotron
radiation per cycle around the LHC is approximately 0.06MeV.

Exercise 47. For an e − following the same path, show that

∆Esynch ∼ E for E ∼ 100GeV.

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Accelerators

CERN: LHC

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Accelerators

CERN: LHC

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Accelerators

Centre-of-Mass Frame

The centre-of-mass (CoM) frame (also called the centre-of-momentum P frame) is

the frame in which the sum of spatial momenta of all particles is zero: ⃗i = 0.
ip
It has the special property that, of all possible frames, the CoM frame is the one
in which the total energy is smallest.
Usefulness: The minimum energy required for a given reaction to proceed can be
found by working in the CoM frame and assuming all the particles are produced at
rest. (A particle has its lowest energy in its rest frame; if all the outgoing particles
share a common rest frame then that frame is automatically the CoM frame.)

Exercise 48. Show that, of all possible frames, the CoM frame is the one in
which the total energy is smallest. Work in two dimensions (t, x) for
simplicity.
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Accelerators

Fixed Targets

Earliest accelerators used fixed targets: Advantages: simple design; solid or liquid
target has high density, given high scattering rate.
Exercise 49. Show that for the collision of a beam particle of energy Ei , mass mi
onto a target particle of mass mt the total energy ECM in the centre-of-mass frame
is q p
ECM = mt2 + mi2 + 2mt Ei ≃ 2mt Ei at high Ei (3.20)

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Accelerators

Fixed Targets

Exercise 50. Show that for a 100GeV proton incident on a proton at rest,
ECM = 14GeV. Most of the beam energy goes into CoM momentum and is not
available for making particles.

Exercise 51. Show that the reaction p + p → p + p + p + p̄ requires a minimum

beam energy of Ei = 7mp in a fixed target experiment.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Accelerators

Colliders

Most modern accelerators (e.g. LHC, SLAC) are colliders, in which two beams are
accelerated in opposite directions and collided. This produces higher centre-of-mass
energies ECM for a given beam energy Ei .
Exercise 52. Show that for the head-on collision of two beam particles of energy
Ei , mass mi the total energy in the centre-of-mass frame is

ECM = 2Ei (3.21)

Exercise 53. Show that the reaction p + p → p + p + p + p̄ requires a minimum

beam energy of only Ei = 2mp in a collider experiment.

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Breit-Wigner Formula

Subsection 5

Breit-Wigner Formula

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Breit-Wigner Formula

Resonance

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Breit-Wigner Formula

Breit Wigner Example

The figure shows the cross-section for e + − e − collisions as a function of the total
energy in the centre-of-mass frame.
cross sec/on (arbitrary units)

ECOM (GeV)
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Breit-Wigner Formula

Breit-Wigner formula
The Breit-Wigner formula is used to model resonances (unstable particle states)
in scattering cross sections:

(Γ/2)2
σ(E ) = σmax for Γ ≪ M . (3.22)
(E − M)2 + (Γ/2)2

Here σmax is the maximum value of the cross section, E is the CoM energy, M is
the mass of the resonance (the unstable particle) and Γ is the resonance width
or decay width.
Γ is related to the mean lifetime τ of the unstable particle by τ = ℏ/Γ.

Exercise 54. Show that the form of eqn. (3.22) is motivated by conservation
of momentum and the uncertainty principle for interactions of the form
A + B → X → C + D.
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Breit-Wigner Formula

Breit Wigner Formula

Importance: Breit-Wigner allows us to

detect and measure the mass and lifetime
of particles that are too short-lived to reach
a particle detector.
Example Unstable ∆(1232) baryons
were discovered from peaks in the cross
section of π ± scattering off of protons.
(The other peaks in this plot indicate excited
states of the ∆, p, and n.)

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Breit-Wigner Formula

Breit Wigner Examples

Exercise 55. Show that the ∆(1232) baryons have a mean lifetime of
5.6 × 10−24 s.

Exercise 56. Show that the pion energy required for ECOM = 1232 MeV is
Eπ = 330 MeV.

Exercise 57. Show that at this energy the ∆ would travel approximately 1 fm
in the lab frame before decaying.

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Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: The Klein-Gordon equation

Subsection 6

Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: The Klein-Gordon equation

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Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: The Klein-Gordon equation

Non-relativistic QM: the Schrodinger Equation

Based on non-relativistic (Newtonian) energy-momentum relationship

p |2 /2m. Replacing E → iℏ∂t and p⃗ → −iℏ∇
E = |⃗ ⃗ and letting these operators act
on the wavefunction Ψ gives the free particle Schrodinger equation:

∂Ψ ℏ2 2
iℏ =− ∇ Ψ (3.23)
∂t 2M
Interpretation of wavefunction Ψ(x): The probability of measuring the particle to
be in some volume V is given by the integral of the probability density ρ ≡ |Ψ|2 :
Z Z
3
probability to be in V = ρ d ⃗x = |Ψ|2 d 3 ⃗x . (3.24)
V V

Note that ρ is positive-definite.

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Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: The Klein-Gordon equation

Conservation of Probability
We can define an associated probability current ⃗j:

⃗j = −iℏ Ψ∗ ∇Ψ
 
⃗ ∗
⃗ − Ψ∇Ψ (3.25)
2m

Then ρ, ⃗j obey the continuity equation

∂ρ ⃗ ⃗
+ ∇ · j = 0. (3.26)
∂t
Interpretation: the continuity equation guarantees that the total probability
density over all space is conserved (constant); i.e., the probability of finding the
particle somewhere is always exactly 1.

Exercise 58. Verify equation (3.26).

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Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: The Klein-Gordon equation

The Klein-Gordon Equation

⃗ in
Obtain relativistic quantum mechanics by replacing E → iℏ∂t and p⃗ → −iℏ∇
2
the relativistic energy-momentum relationship E = |⃗ 2 2 2 4
p| c + m c .
This gives the Klein–Gordon Equation:

1 ∂2
  mc 2 
2
−∇ + ϕ = 0, (3.27)
c 2 ∂t 2 ℏ

or (c = 1, ℏ = 1 units)
□ + m2 ϕ = 0 ,
 
(3.28)
⃗ 2 is the d’Alembertian (wave) operator.
where □ ≡ ∂t2 − ∇
Note that for m = 0 (massless particles) the KG equation reduces to the ordinary
wave equation in empty space.
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Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: The Klein-Gordon equation

Klein-Gordon fields as scattering targets

For scattering off of fixed targets we want to consider the static case of the KG
equation (ignoring time derivatives) and add a source term q to compute the potential.
The Klein-Gordon equation for a point charge at the origin is
∂µ ∂ µ + m2 ϕ = q0 δ(⃗r ) .
 
(3.29)

Exercise 59. Show that the solution of (3.29) is

1 q0 e−mr
ϕ(⃗r ) = (3.30)
4π r

For a static source charge distribution q(⃗r ) the KG field solution becomes
′
q(⃗r ′ )e−m|⃗r −⃗r |
Z
1
ϕ(⃗r ) = d 3⃗r ′ . (3.31)
4π |⃗r − ⃗r ′ |
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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: The Klein-Gordon equation

Short-range forces from massive fields

The solutions (3.30), (3.31) show that the interaction is exponentially suppressed at
distances r ≫ 1/m. This defines an effective range R of the interaction:

1 ℏ
R≡ = (factors of ℏ, c restored) (3.32)
m mc

Exercise 60. Show that the effective range of interactions mediated by the W ±
and Z 0 bosons (masses 80GeV/c2 and 91GeV/c2 respectively) is approximately
0.002fm.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: The Klein-Gordon equation

Continuity Equation for KG Field

The conserved density and associated current for the Klein-Gordon field are given
by the 4-vector J α = (ρ, ⃗j) where
 
iℏ 1 ∗ 1 ∗
ρ = ϕ ∂t ϕ − ϕ∂t ϕ (3.33)
2m c c
⃗j = − iℏ ϕ∗ ∇ϕ
 
⃗ − ϕ∇ϕ⃗ ∗ (3.34)
2m
The continuity equation is
1 ∂ρ ⃗ ⃗
∂µ J µ = + ∇ · j = 0. (3.35)
c ∂t
Exercise 61. Prove equation (3.35).
Problem: The density ρ (3.33) is not positive-definite. We cannot interpret it as
a probability! 181/216
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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: The Klein-Gordon equation

ρ is a Conserved Charge Density

Resolution: With the development of quantum field theory it was realised the
Klein-Gordon equation describes spin-0 charged particles.
ρ is the conserved charge density, which may be positive or negative.
The Klein-Gordon field is also a good approximation for modelling the spin-1
gauge bosons of the electromagnetic and weak forces: photons and the W ± , Z 0
bosons.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: The Klein-Gordon equation

Klein and Gordon

Oskar Klein 1894 – 1977 Walter Gordon 1893 – 1939

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Subsection 7

The Dirac Equation

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Dirac’s Motivation

The Klein-Gordon equation displays two (apparently) undesirable features:

negative-energy solutions, and a probability density that is not positive definite.
Neither is actually a problem, but this was not understood in the 1920s.
Both of these features arise because the energy-momentum relationship
E 2 = |⃗
p |2 + m2 is quadratic in E (equivalently, the KG equation is second-order in
t).
This motivated Dirac to look for a first-order relativistic equation.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Dirac’s Approach
Dirac’s strategy was to “factor” the energy-momentum relationship as follows:

0 = p µ pµ − m2 c 2 = (β κ pκ + mc)(γ λ pλ − mc) (3.36)

This requires β λ , γ λ be matrices that satisfy β λ = γ λ and also

γ κ γ λ + γ λ γ κ = 2η κλ (3.37)

or equivalently
(γ 0 )2 = +1 (γ 1 )2 = (γ 2 )2 = (γ 3 )2 = −1 (3.38)

γ0γ1 + γ1γ0 = 0 , (3.39)

1 2 2 1
γ γ + γ γ = 0, ... (3.40)

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Dirac’s Approach

The solutions are the 4 × 4 “gamma matrices”. One choice is

σi
   
I 0 0
γ0 = γi = (3.41)
0 −I −σ i 0

Here the σ i are the 2 × 2 Pauli spin matrices:

     
1 0 1 2 0 −i 3 1 0
σ = σ = σ = (3.42)
1 0 i 0 0 −1

Exercise 62. Using the identities for the Pauli matrices (eqns 3.66 and 3.67),
prove the gamma matrices (3.41) satisfy the requirements (3.37).

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

The Dirac Equation

Given the γ µ we can factor the energy momentum relationship as

0 = (γ κ pκ + mc)(γ λ pλ − mc) (3.43)

Replacing pµ → iℏ∂µ and acting on the wavefunction ψ gives the Dirac equation:

iℏγ µ ∂µ ψ − mcψ = 0 (3.44)

(We could have chosen +mcψ but our choice is conventional.)

Since the γ µ are 4 × 4 matrices, ψ has four components. However, it does not
tranform as a 4-vector under Lorentz transformations (more later). Instead it is an
object called a “bi-spinor” or “Dirac spinor”.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Solutions of the Dirac equation

For the special case of ψ independent of position the Dirac equation becomes
iℏ 0
γ ∂t ψ − mcψ = 0 (3.45)
c
which has 4 independent solutions of the form
       
1 0 0 0
−i mcℏ t 0 −i mcℏ t 1 +i mcℏ t 0 +i mcℏ t 0
2   2   2   2  
e 0 , e 0 , e 1 , e 0 . (3.46)
0 0 0 1
| {z } | {z }
E =mc 2 (particles) E =−mc 2 (anti-particles)

Exercise 63. Prove (3.46) solve (3.45).

The negative-energy solutions are required for a complete set of quantum states, and
represent antiparticles. The Dirac equation predicts the existence of antimatter! 189/216
PX3241: Particle Physics and Special Relativity
Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Plane Wave Solutions of the Dirac equation

Focus on plane-wave solutions with 4-momentum p α as the most important case.

They have the form
ψ(x α ) = a e−ik·x u(k) (3.47)
where a is a normalisation constant, k α = ±p α /ℏ, and u is a spinor.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Plane Wave Solutions of the Dirac equation

   
1 0
 0   1 
u = u (1) ≡ N  , u = u (2) ≡ N  c(px −ipy )  , (3.48)
   
cpz 
 E +mc 2   E +mc 2 
c(px +ipy ) −cpz
E +mc 2 E +mc 2
cpz
   
c(px −ipy )
−mc 2  E −mc 2
 E−cp  c(px +ipy ) 
 E −mcz 2 
u = v (1) ≡ N u = v (2) ≡ −N
 E −mc 2 
  ,   . (3.49)
 0   1 
1 0
Here N is an unimportant normalisation factor.

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PX3241: Particle Physics and Special Relativity
Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Solutions of the Dirac equation: II

For u (1) , u (2) we need to chose k α = p α /ℏ (particles), so

ψ(x α ) = a e−ik·x u(k) (3.50)

For v (1) , v (2) we need to chose k α = −p α /ℏ (antiparticles), so

ψ(x α ) = a eik·x v (k) (3.51)

Exercise 64. Prove (3.48) – (3.51) solve the Dirac equation.

The distinction between u (1) and u (2) (and between v (1) and v (2) ) is connected to
the Pauli spin matrices.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Spin 1/2 Particles

Exercise 65. Consider particles moving the in the z direction (px = py = 0),
and act on them with the spin operator
 
 3  1 0 0 0
ℏ σ 0 ℏ 0 −1 0 0 
Ŝz = 3 =   (3.52)
2 0 σ 2 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 −1
Show that the Dirac solutions behave as spin-1/2 particles:
Ŝz u (1) = +(ℏ/2)u (1) Ŝz v (1) = −(ℏ/2)v (1)
Ŝz u (2) = −(ℏ/2)u (2) Ŝz v (2) = +(ℏ/2)v (2) (3.53)

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PX3241: Particle Physics and Special Relativity
Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Continuity Equation for Dirac

It can be shown (e.g., Griffiths, Ch. 7.3) that ψ is not a 4-vector, but that the
following combinations transform simply under Lorentz transformations:
ψ̄ψ: scalar (where ψ̄ ≡ ψ † γ 0 is the “adjoint spinor”)
ψ̄γ µ ψ: 4-vector
The conserved 4-current for the Dirac field is

J µ = ψ̄γ µ ψ (3.54)

The continuity equation is

∂µ J µ = 0 . (3.55)

Exercise 66. Show that the density J 0 is positive-definite, and therefore can
be interpreted as a probability.
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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Dirac

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PX3241: Particle Physics and Special Relativity
Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

The Photon

We saw earlier that the electromagnetic field satisfies a wave equation.

In 4-vector notation, we introduce
⃗
Aµ = (Φ, A) (3.56)
⃗ is the magnetic potential (B
where Φ is the electric potential and A ⃗ = ∇ × A).
⃗
Then Aµ satisfies the wave equation

□Aµ = 0. (3.57)

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

The Photon

The solution is a plane wave (much like we saw for the Dirac equation)

Aµ (x α ) = a e−ik·x ϵµ (k) (3.58)

The wave equation requires

k µ kµ = 0 (3.59)
so that the photon is massless (recall that k α = p α /ℏ).
The are only two physical polarizations, usually chosen by requiring that
ϵ0 = 0 and ϵ · k = 0.

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PX3241: Particle Physics and Special Relativity
Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
The Dirac Equation

Quantum Electrodynamics

Quantum Electrodynamics is the relativistic quantum theory describing how light

and (charged) matter interact
It is written in terms of a Lagrangian, which determines the equations of motion
for the particles.
1
LQED = F µν Fµν + ψ̄(iγ µ ∂µ − m)ψ − e ψ̄γ µ Aµ ψ (3.60)
4
where Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ is the electromagnetic field.
The three terms are
1 The electromagnetic term, giving rise to Maxwell’s equations
2 The electron/positron term, giving rise to the Dirac equation
3 An interaction term between the electromagnetic field, Aµ , and electron/positron, ψ
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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Symmetry and Conservation Laws

Subsection 8

Symmetry and Conservation Laws

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Symmetry and Conservation Laws

Symmetry

Symmetry: An operation you can

perform on a system that leaves it
invariant
Familiar examples: Reflection,
rotation, inversion, translation
Newton’s laws are invariant under
Galilean Transformations
Special relativity is invariant under
Lorentz transformations

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Symmetry and Conservation Laws

Noether’s Theorem

Symmetries lead to conserved quantities in

physical theories
We are talking about symmetries of
the theory, rather than the states
e.g. symmetry of Newton’s equations
under Galilean transformations.

Emmy Noether,
1882 – 1935
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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Symmetry and Conservation Laws

Symmetry and Conservation Laws

Example We have seen that Newton’s laws are invariant under Galilean
transformations.
Time translation invariance → conservation of energy
Translation invariance → conservation of momentum
Rotational invariance → conservation of angular momentum

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Symmetry and Conservation Laws

Symmetry and Conservation Laws

Schrodinger’s equation
∂Ψ ℏ2 2
iℏ =− ∇ Ψ (3.61)
∂t 2M
Example If a wavef-unction Ψ is a solution to Schrodinger’s equation, then so is

Ψ′ = e iϕ Ψ (3.62)

where ϕ is a constant.
This corresponds to the conservation of probability, ρ = |Ψ|2 .

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PX3241: Particle Physics and Special Relativity
Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Symmetry and Conservation Laws

Gauge Invariance in Quantum Electrodynamics

The Schrodinger equation is invariant under a phase rotation:

Ψ′ = e iϕ Ψ (3.63)

More generally, QED is invariant under “gauge transformations” which are space
and time dependent. e.g. the wave-function of a charged particle transforms as

ψ ′ (r, t) = exp[−iqf (r, t)]ψ(r, t) (3.64)

The theory is only gauge invariant if we allow for interactions between charged
particles e − and photons in Eq (3.60) and the electromagnetic potential Aµ also
transforms in the appropriate way.

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PX3241: Particle Physics and Special Relativity
Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Symmetry and Conservation Laws

Elementary Group Theory

Very useful in discussing symmetry

1 A group is a collection (set) of elements or members with an operation that
combines any two members to give a third member which is also in the group.
a.b = c
2 Associative (a.b).c = a.(b.c) - May or may not be commutative.
3 There is an identity element I in the group I.a = a
4 There is an inverse a−1 for each member a, such that a−1 .a = a.a−1 = I

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Symmetry and Conservation Laws

Examples of Groups

Example The integers under addition form a group:

1 For integers a and b, c = a + b is also an integer.
2 Associativity (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
3 Identity is 0. a + 0 = 0 + a = a
4 Inverse of a is −a

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Symmetry and Conservation Laws

Examples of Groups

Exercise 67. Which of the following are groups? For those which are not, why?
1 Integers under multiplication
2 The integers −1, 0, 1 under multiplication
3 The rational numbers, excluding 0, under multiplication
4 The complex numbers 1, i, −1, −i under multiplication

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Groups, Spin and SU(2)

Subsection 9

Groups, Spin and SU(2)

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Groups, Spin and SU(2)

Examples of Groups

Permutations of n objects.
Symmetry groups of objects
Addition modulo n
Rotations
Lorentz group - group of all Lorentz transformation in Minkowski spacetime.
Special Unitary Groups SU(2), SU(3) — more about these later
Idea of “representation” of a group with a set of matrices which under matrix
multiplication has the same properties.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Groups, Spin and SU(2)

Example: Rotation Matrices

 
x
Consider a vector ⃗x = in two dimensions
y
 
cos θ sin θ
A rotation can be written as M = ,
− sin θ cos θ
so that ⃗x ′ = M⃗x
The matrices are orthogonal, M M T = M T M = I , and have determinant 1.
The set of rotation matrices form a group, known as SO(2) — special (det=1),
orthogonal matrices of dimension n.
Generalizes to other dimensions, SO(n).

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Groups, Spin and SU(2)

Example: Spin 1/2 particles

See lecture 9 from PX3141: Atomic and Nuclear Physics.
Consider spin  1/2 particle, with  two states
1 0
| 21 , 12 ⟩ = and | 12 , − 12 ⟩ =
0 1
Spin operator Ŝ = 21 ℏ⃗σ where
     
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σx = , σy = , σz = (3.65)
1 0 i 0 0 −1

Pauli matrices satisfy

σx2 = σy2 = σz2 = I (3.66)

σx σy = iσz , σy σz = iσx , σz σx = iσy , (3.67)
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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Groups, Spin and SU(2)

Matrices reminder

A Hermitian matrix is equal to its conjugate transpose

H = H† or hij = hji⋆ (3.68)

The inverse of a Unitary matrix is equal to its conjugate transpose

U† U = U U† = I (3.69)

Exercise 68. Show that the Pauli spin matrices σx , σy , σz are both Hermitian
and Unitary

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Groups, Spin and SU(2)

Spin 1/2 particles and SU(2)

     
α 1 0
a general state is =α +β
β 0 1
a general rotation is
M = I cos 2θ + i(⃗
n · ⃗σ ) sin 2θ (3.70)
where n⃗ is a unit vector and ⃗σ are the Pauli matrices.
The matrices, M, form a group under multiplication.
This group is known as SU(2). Special Unitary matrices of dimension 2.
[Note: “special” means det=1]

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Groups, Spin and SU(2)

Singlet and Triplet States

Consider a state combing two particles, each with spin 21 .

The total spin can be s = 1 or s = 0
If total spin is 1, then the z-component has 2s + 1 = 3 possible values
sz = −1, 0, 1. Triplet states
If total spin is 0, then the z-component has 2s + 1 = 1, possible value sz = 0.
Singlet state
   
1 0
Introducing | ↑⟩ = and | ↓⟩ = , we can represent these as :
0 1
Triplet: | ↑↑⟩, | ↑↓⟩ + | ↓↑⟩, | ↓↓⟩
Singlet: | ↑↓⟩ − | ↓↑⟩
The triplets are symmetric in exchange of the particles, the singlet is anti-symmetric.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Groups, Spin and SU(2)

Singlet and Triplet States

     
1 0 0
We can write the spin-1 (triplet) states as 0, 1, 0.
0 0 1
The equivalent of the Pauli matrices are then
     
0 1 0 0 −i 0 1 0 0
1 1
√ 1 0 1 , √  i 0 −i  and 0 0 0  (3.71)
2 0 1 0 2 0 i 0 0 0 −1

This is another representation of SU(2).

The singlet is also invariant under rotations — it transforms trivially.

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Section 3: Particle Physics – Fundamental Concepts
Groups, Spin and SU(2)

Combining three spin 1/2 particles

Consider a state combing three particles, each with spin 12 .

The total spin can be s = 32 or s = 21 .
If total spin is 32 , then the z-component has 2s + 1 = 4 possible values,
sz = − 32 , − 21 , 21 , 32 .
If total spin is 21 , then the z-component has 2s + 1 = 2, possible values sz = − 21 , 12
There are 8 total states as each spin can be up or down. These can be grouped into
Spin- 23 : which is symmetric under exchange of particles
| ↑↑↑⟩; | ↑↑↓⟩ + | ↑↓↑⟩ + | ↓↑↑⟩; | ↑↓↓⟩ + | ↓↑↓⟩ + | ↓↓↑⟩; | ↓↓↓⟩
Two Spin- 12 : which are anti-symmetric under 1 ↔ 2 and 1 ↔ 3 respectively
| ↑↓↑⟩ − | ↓↑↑⟩; | ↑↓↓⟩ − | ↓↑↓⟩ and | ↑↑↓⟩ − | ↓↑↑⟩; | ↑↓↓⟩ − | ↓↓↑⟩

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