Fox Valley Technical College

Multi-Engine Training Packet

 Flying Light Twins (General)

FAR Part 23 puts forth certification requirements for light twins with a max
gross weight of less than 12,500 lbs.

Certification Requirements:

At 5,000 ft. international standard atmosphere the airplane performance must be determined by the
manufacturer for certification.

6001 – 12,500 lbs. – Must climb clean at 5,000’ ISA

Rate of climb (ROC) = (.027 x Vso²)

6,000 lbs. or less – If Vso = 61 kts CAS or greater.

Must perform a positive ROC (.027 x Vso²)

If Vso = less than 61 kts Does not have to do anything. Can be a negative ROC.

Examples:

C-310 5,300 lbs.

Vso = 63.9 kts.
63.9² x .027 = 110.2 fpm ROC
Reality ROC = 119 fpm
BE-76 3,900 lbs.
Vso = 60 kts.
Reality ROC = 50 fpm
Climb Performance
 Climb performance is dependent on the excess power needed to overcome drag. When a twin- engine
airplane loses an engine, the airplane loses 50% of its available power. This power loss results in a loss
of approximately 90% of the aircraft’s excess power and climb performance.

Drag is a major factor relative to the amount of excess power available. An increase in drag (such as the
loss of one engine) must be offset by additional power. This additional power is now taken from the
excess power, making it unavailable to aid the aircraft in climb.

This graph shows the amount of power loss due to a loss of engine. With 2 engines fully operational,
we have a maximum available power supply of 360 Horsepower. With 360 total horsepower available,
looking at the graph, there is a 200 Horsepower surplus overcoming the total drag curve. When we lose
one engine, we only have 180 HP available to overcome the total drag curve. That only leaves a surplus
of 20 Horsepower. That is a loss of 90% total power output when you lose one engine. ***Understand
these numbers are just estimated numbers to put a concept to a visual aid. The loss of an engine may
actually create an even greater loss of performance with the increase in induced drag and parasite drag
due to slower airspeeds and increased parasite drag.
***Think critically of the different ways this graph would change as a result of other pieces of the
scenario changing (i.e. density altitude)***
When an engine is lost it is essential to achieve optimum single engine climb performance by:

Maximizing thrust- full power

Minimizing drag- flaps & gear up, feather prop

Drag Factors at ≈6,500’ Density Altitude:

1. Windmilling Prop- 100-200 fpm climb approx.
2. Gear Extended- 0-150 fpm descent approx.
3. Full Flaps- 400 fpm descent approx.
4. Gear extended and full flaps- 500-600 fpm descent
 Single Engine Aerodynamics
A twin engine aircraft that has both propellers rotating the same direction (usually clockwise as viewed
from inside the cockpit) is called a conventional twin. Since the same left-turning tendencies of a single
engine airplane affect a multi-engine airplane, counter-rotating propellers have been developed to help
combat those tendencies. The p-factor and torque from counter-rotating propellers cancel each other
out which results in less rudder needed to oppose these tendencies.

What happens when an engine fails?

When an engine fails, there are two things that will happen: Yaw and Roll.
An aircraft with a failed engine will yaw and roll towards the dead engine due to asymmetric lift,
thrust, and drag.

1. Asymmetric thrust will cause a yawing moment around the C.G. towards the dead engine.

2. Accelerated slipstream (or induced flow) is extra lift created by air accelerated from an operating
engine forced over the wing. There is a lack of this induced flow over the wing with the failed
engine. This results in a rolling moment around the C.G. toward the inoperative engine.

To counteract the roll and yaw, you must apply rudder towards the operating engine!

DEAD FOOT, DEAD ENGINE!

 Zero Sideslip

Just using rudder to maintain direction will put the aircraft into a sideslip, which introduces the
fuselage to the relative wind creating a large amount of drag. We need to minimize this drag as much as
possible while still maintaining heading. The solution is to improve performance by using a zero sideslip
condition.

When the aircraft is banked 2°- 5° toward the operating engine, the wing will create a horizontal
component of lift. This will minimize the rudder deflection required to align the longitudinal axis of the
airplane to the relative wind. With this bank, the appropriate amount of rudder deflection will be
indicated on the inclinometer by the ball being halfway deflected toward the operating engine.

Wings level with a single engine operating and the rudder deflected to keep the nose straight the
combined forces result in a sideslip condition. This causes increased drag along the fuselage.
By adding a small amount of bank toward the operating engine, the horizontal component of lift is
used to counteract those forces and bring the fuselage back to zero sideslip and reduce drag.

RAISE THE DEAD!

Service Ceiling- This is the maximum density altitude where the best rate of climb airspeed (Vx) will
produce a 100 fpm climb with both engines at max continuous power.

Absolute Ceiling- This is the maximum density altitude that the airplane is capable of attaining or
maintaining at max gross weight in the clean configuration and max continuous power. As altitude
increases, Vx increases, while Vy decreases. Where these two speeds converge is absolute ceiling.

Single Engine Service Ceiling- This is the maximum density altitude at which the aircraft can
maintain a 50 fpm climb with one engine operating at full power and one engine with a feathered
propeller. This is critically important, especially when flying over mountainous terrain. If the aircraft is
above the single engine service ceiling when an engine fails, it will slowly drift down to its single engine
service ceiling. This should be determined during flight planning using the single engine service ceiling
chart from the POH.

Example: Aircraft cruising altitude: 12,000’

MEA: 9,500’
Single engine service ceiling: 6,000’
If the aircraft has an engine failure at 12,000’, it will drift down to 6,000’. If you are IMC this could be
very bad. Always plan for an engine to fail! Choose a different route with a lower MEA.
 Vyse- This is best rate of climb single engine. Vyse is identified by the blue radial on the airspeed
indicator. Always pitch for blue line when an engine fails. It will give you the best single engine
performance, although it may not be a climb. In the BE-76 Duchess, Vyse is 85 KIAS.

Vxse- This is best angle of climb single engine. If you have obstacles to clear with an engine failed, use
Vxse. Once the obstacles are cleared, pitch for Vyse. In the BE-76 Duchess, Vxse is also 85 KIAS.

Vsse- This is the minimum speed at which an intentional engine cut can be performed. It gives a
safety margin from Vmc for safe engine cuts while training. MEI candidates need to know this. It is 71
KIAS in the Duchess.

Action when an engine fails- Memorize this!!

1. MIXTURE, PROPS, THROTTLE- right to left: mixtures full, props full, throttles full
2. GEAR UP, FLAPS UP- retract gear and flaps
(Do this next step if time and altitude allows otherwise skip to identify, verify, feather, secure)
3. TROUBLESHOOT- Make sure vitals (red knobs/ buttons) are on. Fuel Selectors, carb heat,
mixtures, aux fuel pumps, magnetos, master, alternators
4. IDENTIFY LEFT FOOT DEAD, LEFT ENGINE DEAD, LEFT THROTTLE, LEFT THROTTLE VERIFY
5. LEFT PROP, LEFT PROP FEATHER
6. LEFT MIXTURE, LEFT MIXTURE SECURE
7. SET 252 ON THE MANIFOLD PRESSURE AND RPM of operating engine
8. SQUAWK 7700 AND COMMUNICATE YOUR EMERGENCY
9. Securing engine checklist if time permits
 CRITICAL ENGINE
A critical engine is the engine which, if lost, will most adversely affect the performance and handling
characteristics of the aircraft. The effect of the critical engine is most significant when operating at low
airspeeds with a high power setting, thus producing more p-factor and torque.

On conventional twins with the propellers rotating clockwise, the critical engine is the left engine. On
aircraft with counter-rotating propellers, such as the Beechcraft Duchess or Piper Seminole, there is no
critical engine due to the turning tendencies cancelling each other out.

An engine can also be termed as a critical engine if important systems are operated off that engine.
(i.e. landing gear, pressure system, etc.)

There are four factors used in determining a critical engine:

P- P-factor

A- Accelerated Slipstream

S. Spiraling Slipstream

T. Torque

P-factor- The descending propeller blade is producing more thrust than the ascending blade.

If the left engine fails, the p-factor being produced from the right engine is farther from the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft, creating more of a yawing moment.
 Accelerated Slipstream- The air being forced over the wing by the operating engine creates extra
lift.

This is basically the equal and opposite reaction of p-factor. If the left engine fails, the effect of the p
factor creates more induced flow farther away from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft creating a rolling
moment. The longer the arm the greater the force created.

Spiraling Slipstream- The effect of the propeller being pulled through the air while rotating
creates a spiraling stream of air behind the propeller.

This spiraling air from the left propeller, due to its direction of spiral, hits the rudder creating more
airflow to make the rudder more effective. If the left engine fails, the spiraling slipstream from the right
engine spirals away from the rudder.

Torque- This is the opposite reaction to the action of the turning propeller.
 Torque tries to roll the airplane opposite of the propeller’s direction of rotation. If the left engine fails,
torque tries to roll the aircraft to the left, making it more difficult to raise the dead engine.

Vmc- Minimum Controllable Airspeed

FAR 23.149- Vmc is the calibrated airspeed, at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made
inoperative it is possible to:
1. Maintain control of the airplane with the engine still inoperative.
2. Maintain straight flight at the same speed with an angle of bank not more than 5 degrees.

As airspeed decreases the rudder becomes less effective, eventually an airspeed will be reached where
full rudder deflection will be required to maintain directional control. This airspeed is Vmc. Any further
reduction in airspeed will result in loss of directional control. Published Vmc is defined by the red radial
on the airspeed indicator. In the BE-76 Duchess published Vmc is 65 KIAS.

Vmc guarantees directional control only!!

Multi-Engine Training - Part 2 - VMC (Minimum Control Speed) - YouTube

How does the manufacturer determine Vmc?

C- Critical engine failed and windmilling

O- Operating engine at maximum takeoff power
M- Maximum gross weight
B- Bank of no more than 5 degrees
A- Aft center of gravity
T- Takeoff configuration (gear up, flaps up)
S- Standard temperature (15°C) and pressure (29.92” Hg)

Critical engine failed and windmilling- A windmilling propeller creates much more drag than a
feathered propeller. If the airplane is equipped with an autofeather system then propeller is feathered.

Operating engine at maximum takeoff power- With the engine at max power this will create more lift
and produce more of a yawing tendency about the longitudinal axis, thus increasing Vmc.
 Maximum gross weight- While a heavier airplane is more stable, it also requires the wing to produce
more lift. This is really more of a standardization requirement for certification.

Bank of no more than 5°- This is also a standardization requirement.

Aft center of gravity- Since an airplane rotates around the CG, an aft CG decreases the distance (arm)
between the CG and rudder, which decreases the leverage or effectiveness of the rudder.

Takeoff configuration- This includes flaps in normal takeoff position and landing gear retracted. While
gear and flaps down creates drag, it also creates a keel effect which tends to stabilize the aircraft.

Standard temperature and pressure- The published Vmc and red line on the airspeed indicator are
based on standard day at sea level. As density altitude increases, the red line becomes less reliable
because Vmc decreases with altitude – which brings Vmc closer to stall speed.

Vmc is not a static number. It changes with any combination of the above variables. The red line is the
highest speed that Vmc will be, in fact, it will most likely be lower. The object is to keep Vmc as low as
possible. For certification, Vmc cannot be greater than 1.2 times stall speed with flaps in takeoff
position and gear retracted.

Recognizing and recovering from Vmc

There are warning signs that Vmc is occurring or about to occur. These include:

Loss of directional control- The rudder pedal is depressed to its fullest travel and the airplane is still
yawing or rolling toward the inoperative engine.

Stall warning horn or buffeting of the controls- A single engine stall is very dangerous and could result
in a spin. Light twins are not known for good stall/spin recovery.

A rapid decay of control effectiveness- This could lead to the loss of control of the aircraft.

To recover from Vmc, you must simultaneously:

Reduce power on the operating engine- Reduce power on the operating engine reduces the
asymmetric air flow.
 Pitch down- Lowering the nose of the aircraft will get the air flowing again over the control surfaces
and allow you to regain directional control.

Vmc vs. Stall

Normally aspirated engines lose efficiency as density altitude increases. Since the operating engine is
not producing as much thrust as at sea level, asymmetrical airflow will be reduced, which will lower
Vmc. We must remember, though, that stall speed is an indicated airspeed that will remain constant as
altitude increases or decreases. Eventually the two speeds will be at the same point.

If both Vmc and stall speed are reached at the same time, a spin is almost inevitable.

The Duchess should always stall first.

Factors which affect Vmc
Vmc is defined using a very specific set of conditions. Published Vmc and actual Vmc can be two
very different numbers. Vmc only addresses directional control and is not related to aircraft
performance. While controllability is important, single engine performance is just as important. You must
be able to balance both controllability and performance to keep a serious situation from getting out of
control. In some cases, an element that provides an increase in controllability can actually hurt
performance.
13 Factors of Vmc

When Vmc is REDUCED, CONTROL is INCREASED

If we flew exactly as computed, Vmc would be 65 knots.

----------------------------The reverse of any above factors have a reverse on the effect----------------------------

#1 Cardinal Rule – Maintain control and airspeed at all times

Apply max power to operating engine
Reduce drag to an absolute minimum
Secure failed engine and related sub-systems
 Single Engine Performance and Airspeeds
V-Speeds (KIAS)
Vr Rotation Speed 71

Vx Best Angle of Climb 71

Vy Best Rate of Climb 85

Vyse Best Rate 1 Engine 85

Vxse Best Angle 1 Engine 85

Vso Stall w/ Flaps down 60

Vs1 Stall w/ Flaps up 70

65
Vmc Min Control 1 Engine

Va Maneuvering (Max Gross) 132

Vno Max Structural Cruise 154

Vne Never Exceed 194

Vsse 1 Engine Intentional 71
Shutdown

Vlr Max Gear Retraction 112

Vle/Vlo Max Gear Speeds 140

Vfe Flap Extension (20°) 120

Vfe Flap Extension (Full) 110

3000lbs. 82
Best Glide

Best Glide Max Gross 95

X-wind Max Demonstrated 25

 Maximum Certificated Weights

Maximum Ramp Weight 3916

lbs.
Maximum Takeoff Weight 3900
lbs.
Maximum Landing Weight 3900
lbs.
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight 3500
lbs.
Max Weight in Baggage Compartment 200
lbs.
Maximum Useful Load 1470
lbs.

Performance Charts
 Know your performance!! Your CFI will cover the performance charts with you, but it’s good to have a
basic understanding of several of them before you start your flight training. Refer to the BE-76 Duchess
POH for these charts.

Accelerate-Stop Distance
Accelerate-Stop distance is the distance required to accelerate to liftoff speed (71) and, assuming
failure of an engine at the instant liftoff speed is attained, bringing throttles to idle and stopping the
airplane.

Accelerate-Go Distance
Accelerate-Go distance is the distance required to accelerate to liftoff speed (71) and, assuming failure
of an engine at the instant liftoff speed is attained, continuing the takeoff and climbing to 50’. Know
before you try to takeoff whether you can maintain control and climbout if you lose an engine with the
gear still down!

Takeoff Weight To Achieve A Positive Single Engine Rate Of Climb at Liftoff

This chart is for exactly what the title implies. Plug in your weight from the weight & balance to
determine if you will be able to climb at liftoff, period. If you can’t, then you are committed to pulling
throttles to idle and stopping the airplane. Accelerate-Go would be impossible in this case.

Remember, These charts were printed in 1980 when the airplanes were new. Always assume that your
airplane will not live up to the performance stated in the charts. Always plan for the worst case scenario
and always give yourself an out. Always fly under the assumption “what if”.
 ***The picture above shows the different phases of flight each performance chart relates to
and shows when to use each chart.***
 Beech Duchess Systems and Limitations

Engines
Two direct drive, horizontally opposed, normally aspirated, 4 cylinder engines by Avco Lycoming. The
left engine is an O-360 (rotating clockwise). The right engine is an LO-360 (rotating counter-clockwise).
Both engines are rated for 180 horsepower at 2700 RPM. Since the engines rotate in opposite
directions, components are not interchangeable. The engines use a wet-sump pressure type oil system
with a maximum of 8 qts. and a minimum of 5 qts.

Propellers
Two Hartzell, 76” inch diameter, constant speed, full feathering, 2-bladed propellers. Springs and dome
air pressure, aided by counterweights move the blades to high pitch (feathered) position. Propeller RPM
is controlled by the engine driven propeller governor which regulates oil pressure in the hub. The
propeller controls in the cockpit allow the pilot to select the governor’s RPM range. Springs and dome
air pressure, aided by counterweights, move the blades to the high pitch, low RPM position. Engine oil
under governor-boosted oil pressure moves the blades to the low pitch, high RPM position.

The blades have centrifugal lock pins that retract into the blade bases. When the propeller is rotating
faster than 700-800 RPM, these pins will remain in the blade bases and allow the propeller to move into
the feather position. Below 700-800 RPM, the pins will spring out preventing the blades from
feathering. This is why the blades don’t feather on engine shutdown on the ground.
 Above: Pitch-change pin on the base of the propeller blade. The blade is held in place by a bearing on
the other side of the silver colored plate.
Unfeathering Accumulators
Unfeathering accumulators store oil from the engine to use for forcing the propellers out of the feather
position. The important thing to remember is that these are a one shot deal. They build pressure by
means of the engine oil pumps. If they are used and the blades don’t come out of feather, they can’t be
used again until the engine has been restarted. You will have to use the starter to try to restart the
engine in the air.
Fuel
The Duchess is approved to use 100 (green) and 100LL (blue) aviation gasoline only. The fuel system
uses an “ON-CROSSFEED-OFF” selector arrangement located on the lower center floor panel. Total fuel
capacity is 51.5 gallons per wing tank with 50 gallons useable per side. Each tank has a visual measuring
tab with markings for 30 (28.5 useable) and 40 (38.5 useable) and full at tank top.

There are two engine-driven and two electrically-driven auxiliary fuel pumps. The electric pumps are
used for engine start, takeoff, landing, and fuel selector changes. Each tank feeds its respective engine.

Fuel cannot be transferred from tank to tank; however, either tank may feed both engines in crossfeed
mode. The fuel crossfeed system is to be used during emergency conditions in level flight only.

A minimum of 9 gallons of fuel must be in each tank prior to flight. This is noted by the yellow arc on
the fuel gauges.
Total capacity 103 gallons
Total useable 100 gallons

There are a total of 8 fuel sumps: 4 per side. 1 sump for each tank, 1 sump for each engine strainer, 2
for each crossfeed line.

There are 2 ways to check fuel quantity in the duchess. The first being electronic and the second being
visual. The electronic quantity measuring uses 2 float-type indicators in each wing that send signals to
the fuel quantity gauge. All of the electrical wires are outside the tank. There are 2 indicators in each
wing to increase the accuracy because of the wing dihedral slanting the tanks. The fuel gauges have a
yellow arc when the tanks are nearing empty. If either of the gauges indicate in that yellow, you cannot
take off. Do not rely on the quantity gauges to determine the amount of fuel on board. Use them in
conjunction with the visual check during the preflight.
Pressure System
Two engine-driven, dry pressure pumps supply air pressure to drive the attitude and directional gyro
instruments, and autopilot (if installed). The pumps are interconnected to form a single system. Check
valves will automatically close if either pump fails to ensure continued operation.
Flaps
Wing flaps are operated by an electric motor located under the right rear passenger seat and
connected via torque tubes which operate worm gears to extend or retract the flaps. They are operated
by a three position switch located to the right of the throttle quadrant with an UP, DOWN, and OFF
position. The switch must be pulled out of the detent to raise or lower the flaps. There is an indicator
gauge with UP, 10, 20 ,and DOWN (35). It takes 3 seconds to lower from UP to 10, 1 second from 10 to
20, and 1 second from 20 to DOWN (35).
Landing Gear
The Duchess is equipped with a tricycle gear, hydraulically actuated, retractable landing gear. Hydraulic
pressure is provided by an electrically driven reversible hydraulic pump. There are two circuit breakers:
one for the pump and one for the control circuit. The gear is held in the up position by a hydraulic
pressure of 1250-1550 psi. It remains in the down and locked position using an over-center brace and
springs. The hydraulic pump is equipped with a time delay that will disengage it after 30 seconds of
continuous operation.

The aircraft is equipped with a gear warning horn that will activate under the following conditions:
1. Gear is not in the down and locked position below approx. 12” of manifold pressure.
2. Gear is not in the down and locked position with flaps extended below 16°.
3. Gear handle is in the up position on the ground.

Gear retraction on the ground is prevented by a pressure safety switch located in the pitot system to
deactivate the pump circuit when airspeed is below 59-63 KIAS. (Gear warning systems are no
replacement for proper checklist usage and should be relied upon to prevent an inadvertent gear up.)
The gear system is equipped with a hydraulic bypass valve located beneath the floor panel in front of
the pilot. By turning the valve counter-clockwise 90°, it will release hydraulic pressure and allow the
gear to freefall to the down and locked position. This can only be done with an airspeed below 100 KIAS
and the emergency checklist should be used. In the event that hydraulic pressure is lost, the gear will
freefall to the down and locked position.

Note how the nose gear actuator is different than the main gear actuators in the sense that it pushes
the nose gear down while the main gears pull the gear down. The operation is then opposite during
retraction. The reason for the nose gear is so the actuator allows more control of the nose going into
the relative wind and does not slam back into the up position with the wind during retraction. That is
also the reason Vle is 140 while Vlo is 112.
Stall Warning
An electric sensing vane is installed on the leading edge of each wing. The left horn can only be
triggered when flaps are 0-16°. The right horn can only be triggered when flaps are between 17-35°. The
stall warning system on the duchess is an electrical system comprised of 2 sensing vanes, a circuit
breaker, and a warning horn that sounds through the speaker. There is a sensing vane on each wing but
only one is used at a time. The left sensing vane is used any time the flaps are above 16 degrees. The
right sensing vane is used when the flaps are extended beyond 16 degrees. The stall warning horn will
sound through the speaker as a stall approaches. If the battery and alternator switches are off, the stall
warning horn will not sound.
Pitot-Static
The pitot tube is located on the left wing. There are two static ports; one on each side of the aft
fuselage. There is an alternate static located on the left lower side of the cabin. The pitot tube is also
equipped with a pitot heat system.
Brakes
There are hydraulically actuated disc brakes on the main landing gear. The hydraulic system is separate
from the landing gear hydraulic system. The brake reservoir is located on the left side of the nose
compartment. The dual hydraulic brakes are operated by depressing the tops of either the pilot’s or
copilot’s rudder pedals. The depression of either set of pedals compresses the piston rod in the master
cylinder attached to each pedal. The hydraulic pressure resulting from the movement of the pistons in
the master cylinders is transmitted through flexible hoses and fixed aluminum tubing to the disc brake
assemblies on the main landing gear wheels. This pressure forces the brake piston to press against the
linings and discs of the brake assembly. To set the parking brakes, pull the control out and pump both
toe pedals until solid resistance is felt. Push the control in to release the brakes.
Electrical System
The Duchess is equipped with a 28 volt electrical system using push-pull type circuit breakers. The
aircraft is equipped with two 12 volt 25 amp lead acid batteries, connected in series to create 24 volts.
Two 28 volt, 55 amp, belt driven alternators are installed on the aircraft. The output of each alternator
is controlled by a separate voltage regulator. The alternator systems are completely separate, except for
the bus tie fuse, the mutual tie to the battery bus through two bus isolation breakers. The aircraft uses a
split bus system with each alternator powering its respective bus. The battery is used for engine start
and emergency power.

The airplane is equipped with loadmeters instead of ammeters. Loadmeters show the percentage of
the electrical load that is being carried by the respective alternator. It is important to make sure that
each alternator isn’t carrying more than 40% of the load at low RPM and not carrying more than 80% of
the load at full power. If a loadmeter is registering a zero indication and undervoltage annunciator light
is on, that is an indication that the respective alternator has failed. If one alternator fails, the remaining
alternator should be able to provide adequate electrical power.

Picture shown above shows the electrical system operating without the alternators. When the
battery switch gets turned on, the red “plunger” will close and complete the circuit supplying power
to the left bus iso over to the right bus iso through the bus tie fuse which is equipped in our airplanes.
 The above picture shows what happens when the alt switch is flipped on which completes a circuit
as well where “L ALT FIELD SW” is located. The same applies to the right side as the R ALT FIELD SW is
activated.
Environmental Systems
The Duchess is equipped with a 45,000 BTU Janitrol gas heater located on the right side in the nose
compartment. This provides heated air for cabin warming and windshield defrosting. Fuel consumption
for the heater is approximately 2/3 of a gallon per hour taken from the right fuel tank. This fuel must be
taken into consideration during flight planning. The heater has an over-temp switch that automatically
deactivates the heater upon reaching an internal temperature of 300°F. The over-temp switch cannot be
reset in flight and must be reset after examination by a certified mechanic on the ground.
High Altitude Ops Pressurized Cabin
Cool air enters the engine and becomes pressurized in the different stages of the compressor.
During compression the air is heated and a controlled leak is routed as bleed air to the
intercooler. At the intercooler, the bleed air is cooled down to a comfortable temperature to be
exhausted into the cabin area. This air maintains a constant pressure within the airplane
allowing for high altitude flying. Excess air is allowed to exit through the rear of the airplane
through a waste gate that is more commonly today operated automatically. Many of these
waste gates are also allowed to be operated manually. PHAK 7-36.
 ORAL EXAM GUIDE
Commercial stage check 3 notes.
Explain AC 120-12 (Private carriage versus Common carriage)
Which chart to use in engine failure after take-off scenario.
TCO vs limitation 5000' AGL. – Found in POH
Governor system - unfeathering accumulator always has fluid being pumped with
800psi until we move the feather knob back moving a plate that releases a check
valve.
Flight controls - elevator trim tabs one on each side. How are the ailerons and rudder
trimmed, or do they not have trim systems?
Flaps - diagram cams and jack screws. Is there split flap protection with this system vs
skyhawk?
Fixed exhaust (flow through concept) is located where?
Full feather - lifting the entire works up and essentially making Oil exit the hub
quickly.
Start lock latches - spring loaded centrifugal force activated - find POH and in AFH
12-5
Cross country engine failure scenarios. Decision making about an engine already
secure - you go with it don't try to restart it even if you find something.
Simulated failure close to ground - no need to troubleshoot.
Commercial III stage one check
Update lessons plans to include
-Systems in depth!
Gear safety retraction airspeed switch connected to pitot static system -
Put gear up, two minutes in you see the red light still on, what does that mean? Delay
relay turns off the gear pump, but will the light stay on? What turns off the transit
light? Pressure built up to appropriate psi when light goes out. It is not related to
position of the gear. If ice blocked still turn off. It would however stay on if the time
delay relay kills the pump as the transit light still thinks it's trying to move.
Over center locks springs (two on each side) keep locks down.
Cabin heater knobs. What is good practice for when you start the heater?
Bottom knob - thermostat switch. Start heater and slowly increase heat with knobs.
What is coolest settings of these knobs to get minimal heat?
How would you have maximum cooling?
What shuts the gear motor off?
How are the flyweights connected?
What does normally aspirated engines mean?
Any engine can be turbocharged.
What is manifold pressure? It creates a vacuum, and operates at a lower pressure. The
only time it's the opposite is during low RPM governor settings over boosting the
engine.
-Forces acting towards and away from feather and basic understanding of how they
act towards and away from feather.
How does the prop system and forces at play keep the propellers at a constant speed?
How are flyweights connected to the system? Crankshaft connected via mechanical
linkages that spin the flyweights at rpm speed and then are spinning faster or slower
than the engine rpm's during pitch or propeller lever changes (things that will change
the rpm)
Why when we shutdown does the prop stay un-feathered?
Centrifugal forces slow faster than oil pressure leaving hub.
Why do we use half way down the runway and not 3/4? Landing takes roughly the
same distance as takeoff. Can use charts to show this. Beyond half way - more safe to
gear up and continue to climb.
Take off profile how the chart applies to them?
Draw profile accelerate stop, go, engine fail at liftoff, engine failure after at 80kts gear
up. "Transitional phase/shaded area"
Time delay relay - reset? yes, cycle the gear handle it resets each time.
Over center locks - Mains have that and 2 spring, yes - What does the nose have to
keep it down? It has over center locks.
Brakes - Fluid pressing onto what? Pad/clamp/disk brakes
(Basic disk brake operation) - clarify
-Parking break application
Power plant (Engine) - main components and how they work.
Which way do the engines spin? Inward spinning.
Air filtered for normal intake? Can we check it during pre-flight? Where is it located?
Oil - wet sump system - 20W-50 blue bottle - dip sticks. 100LL - blue 100Leaded -
green.
Normal Operating Parameters - Oil pressure, oil temp, fuel pressure. What is the green
range? Find POH - Use picture of cockpit to see numbers?
Electrical system - under voltage circuit will activate at what level? In POH. ISO
breaker - bus tie fuse purpose? If bus tie fuse severed, is there any way we would
know? No, other than breakers popped or loss of functions.
What does voltage regulator regulate? Regulates current by taking a larger or smaller
bite of the alternator field. Cuts amount of power going back into the alternator field -
regulating input.
What do the current limiter do? What is output of alternator?
Self-Excitation of the alternator does what? - What RPMs function what? Why not
lower than 850?
How do we control cylinder head temperature? Cowl flaps.
Performance
Worst case - cleaned airplane at 500' and still descending - how will you handle it?
MUST keep 85 and descend. Positive aircraft control to the ground is essential to
survival.
When would you use the carb heat for landing?
How will it indicate while flying? Not RPM, but MP.
Landing Checklist helps us ensure what is in the right place?
Why are the aux pumps on? - In case engine driven decides to fail - most favorable
position always.
Vmc Demo - Why do we only go power to mid range? Why not just go full idle?
When would you want to or would you ever? Stall vs Vmc and loss of directional
control vs control effectiveness vs performance.
-Power application why?
Landing Aerodynamics to include engine out and crosswind control through round out
power reduction and change of rudder.
DIVERSION / LOST PROCEDURES / PILOTAGE/DEAD RECKONING MUST
BE ADDED TO EACH STUDENTS STAGE CHECK LESSON SHEET.
Certs and Docs - Run me through what you need to be ready for the test please.
List in PTS: Medical - License - Knowledge Test - Endorsements - Logbook - IACRA
- What areas were deficient on your knowledge test? Be able to explain what you
learned from it.
What can you do after you get your certificate here today?
What kind of medical do you need? Friends want to rent a Duchess and go for a ride.
How do rules apply to you?
Neighbor wants to sell you an aircraft for crop dusting, what do you need to do in
order to be able to go out and do that service? It it exempt from common carriage?
Which part or reg would we have to operate under?
PART 137 - "Overall premise of what they're after" - concern over hazmat vs flight
training to get certified.
What do you need to have in possession in order to fly. What placards need to be
installed? POH
How do we know that all AD's are complied with if we haven't had an inspection
since November? Contact manufacturer? FAA published AD's - owner operator needs
to check AD's and that their are no new ones. So if a new AD comes out, the owner
has to put an entry in logbook that it was complied with.
-FAA sends you a notice
What a SB is, an AD is, who is responsible for what? Can manufacturer put out a fix?
yes, but may not be an AD.
If MP gauge is stuck during run-up, can we still go on a night VFR X/C? Why?
Duchess POH says it's required so no, can't do it.
If we deactivate and render the Attitude indicator Inop, when do we have to get it
fixed? - At next inspection - rendered Inop long term in the maintenance records. Who
can do the placarding of Inop? What could you do? A&P has to record it and do
maintenance, but I can put in the placard. (Possible). VSI - remove the instrument or
cover it and placard it Inop. Don't over think it - The needle was broken - it's already
rendered.
Who's responsible for maintaining airworthiness of aircraft? - Owner/Operator.
Supplemental Oxygen requirements. Pressurized vs non-pressurized.
Can you fly a pressurized aircraft after passing this test? What needs to be done? -
Additional endorsement needed-find in regs. 61.31(g)
Aeromedical - Causes/Symptoms/Fixes for each factor. Does Hypoxia require a
emergency? - Panic attack or emergency descent? What are some causes of motion
sickness? Turbs/vestibular - what would you do? Scuba diving answers
Systems:
-Electrical System
Used diagram and explained each device along from Alternator
External power self-excitation need battery at all? If we throttle down to idle and the
alternators go out - will throttling back up to higher RPM's bring them back on?
Connected via belt driven = always wanting to produce an electric field = yes they'd
come back to power the system.
How does the alternator work? - needs an electrical change to start its function, so if
they fall offline no more power for it to "restart" it's field won't be active. Need a
battery. If a battery entirely fails, we still have electrical as long as we have the power
up.
Fuses-Bus tie fuse, are we required to carry a spare? - No, only fuses that are
accessible by the pilot.
Cigar lighter breaker popped. What are we going to do about that?
How do we know if the "switch-type" breaker has tripped? What will it look like?
One is 80% and other is 0%. Over volt light is on, what is happening there? Do we
need to do anything?
-Fuel System
Basic functions
Mixture control movement controls what part of the system? Float does what? Check
picture in PHAK (Carburetor). - Main metering jet
Cross feed Ops movement
Normal pressure range
-Environmental
Basic components and how they work
When else does forward vent blower turn off? How do we get cooling?
Cross-Country Flight Planning
What electronic aide's do we have along our route to assist us?
Why those checkpoints?
Why that altitude?
How do we identify ourselves when flying inbound through he ADIZ - requesting
entry to U.S. Airspace - DVFR or IFR Flight plan - need two way radio and
transponder.
Performance - When would you use the Takeoff weight and Accelerate Go chart?
Define critical engine and Vmc. Discuss factors from the 13 / Stall vs Vmc as alt
increases.
Describe the weather brief for our route of flight. Include Notams that have an effect.
Funnel the brief towards your route. Don't bother unless it matters to you.
How do we use the Takeoff weight and accelerate go to make our plan for takeoff.
Shaping our takeoff briefing and why we use gear half way up. Point out conditions
and what performance you got for today - use airport diagram to explain why it is a
foolish procedure. It becomes a "non-option" We use the other charts that apply to our
takeoff brief/technique.
Basic VFR weather minimums to divert to Bravo take off and landing minimums.
Strobes Inop. Can we go fly today?
Yes because 91.205 civil aircraft certificated after March 11, 1996 can only be flown
to where it's going to be fixed. Duchess is a 1979 aircraft certified well before this. So
no problem placarding and log entry Inop to go flying.
Understanding of what "certified" means. What is aircraft certification?
**How does aircraft Certification relate to 91.213(d)
Certificates and documents:
MEL - Do we need to use it? How does an MEL actually work? Is our POH an
MEL?-No, just required equipment for each type of operation(VFR/IFR/Day/Night)
-Landing Light scenario - can we go, who can do maintenance/placard/render
inoperative?
Why can only the mechanic sign off the logbook? Is he the only one?
Systems
Where does the fuel for the heater come from? - any operation that would cut off the
heat?
Time delay relay goes out, can we reset it? What devices to keep gear down?
How is the nose different than the mains? Over center locks? How are the springs laid
out? Same type of position switch? Reversed hydraulic cylinder why?
What cockpit indications do we have that we may be getting carburetor icing?
-Seemed to not understand question about what instrument indications – Manifold
pressure will begin to drop. (Governor maintains RPMs)
When we increase carb heat - what will we see initially vs over time? Ice sheds off,
what will we see?
An increase in MP over time
Hypoxia emergency descent - declare an emergency? Passenger showing signs of
hypoxia, walk me through the sequence of how you would handle that. Do we need to
divert? Is passenger unconscious? Seems to be behaving normally, answering
questions correctly. What altitude would you stay at? Why?
How do we know if it's Carbon Monoxide poisoning instead of Hypoxia?
Going over the lake? Why? Why not? What survival gear do we need for that?
Diversion scenario that involves critical engine - airport closure - performance on
single engine to cover some of 13 factors - stall vs Vmc chart. Vmc(65) stall speeds
(60/70).
What condition is the airplane in aerodynamically and what caused it to be there?
What is the difference between spin and a spiral? In order to enter that stall - both
stalled. Which has the higher angle of attack then? SUA questions - ADIZ
(DVFR/IFR to cross) with two way radio.
Simple, looking for a very easy explanation of a stall. One engine = yaw being
produced = spin. Very easy.
If we have no conditions to meet in performance charts (Such as in between a clean
airplane or one with gear down) do we ever know? Should we make up numbers or
add information? "Performance on the chart is always accurate - but not realistic."
Don't say it's not accurate, it is in those conditions.
Hypoxia scenario - do we have supplemental O2? Yea, just give it to them and you're
good to go.
Carb ice/heat situation. What will happen to MP? Possible rough running engine if
water gets into engine while it melts.
Be sure to organize NOTAMS at the end of your weather brief. -don't forget
airmets/sigmets. At least point out that they don't apply today and that's it.
AD's - White packet for all of them was good - but make sure you know it's the
Owner and Operator is checking all AD's are complied with by contacting the FAA.
Aeromedical and emergency - access your PIC mentality
119 exemptions - not understanding commercial operator certificate.
What are you required to log as a commercial pilot?
Is there any instance close to stall or stalling you would instead pull power?
When/why?