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SEMESTER SOFTWARE ENGINEERING (SE)

Definition: Software engineering is defined as a process of analyzing user requirements

and then designing, building, and testing software application which will satisfy those
requirements.

1. IEEE standard defines software engineering as the application of a systematic,

disciplined, which is a computable approach for the development, operation, and
maintenance of software.

2. Fritz Bauer defined it as 'the establishment and used standard engineering principles. It
helps you to obtain, economically, software which is reliable and works efficiently on the
real machines'.

3. defines software engineering, which involves, 'the practical application of scientific

knowledge to the creative design and building of computer programs. It also includes
associated documentation needed for developing, operating, and maintaining them.'

Software attributes / quality factors

1.Reliability

Reliability requirements deal with service failure. They determine the maximum allowed
failure rate of the software system, and can refer to the entire system or to one or more of
its separate functions.

2. Efficiency

It deals with the hardware resources needed to perform the different functions of the
software system. It includes processing capabilities (given in MHz), its storage capacity
(given in MB or GB) and the data communication capability (given in MBPS or GBPS).
It also deals with the time between recharging of the system’s portable units, such as,
information system units located in portable computers, or meteorological units placed
outdoors.

3. Integrity

This factor deals with the software system security, that is, to prevent access to
unauthorized persons, also to distinguish between the group of people to be given read as
well as write permit.

4. Usability

Usability requirements deal with the staff resources needed to train a new employee and
to operate the software system.

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5. Maintainability

This factor considers the efforts that will be needed by users and maintenance personnel
to identify the reasons for software failures, to correct the failures, and to verify the
success of the corrections.

6. Flexibility

This factor deals with the capabilities and efforts required to support adaptive
maintenance activities of the software. These include adapting the current software to
additional circumstances and customers without changing the software. This factor’s
requirements also support perfective maintenance activities, such as changes and
additions to the software in order to improve its service and to adapt it to changes in the
firm’s technical or commercial environment.

7. Testability

Testability requirements deal with the testing of the software system as well as with its
operation. It includes predefined intermediate results, log files, and also the automatic
diagnostics performed by the software system prior to starting the system, to find out
whether all components of the system are in working order and to obtain a report about
the detected faults. Another type of these requirements deals with automatic diagnostic
checks applied by the maintenance technicians to detect the causes of software failures.

8. Portability

Portability requirements tend to the adaptation of a software system to other

environments consisting of different hardware, different operating systems, and so forth.
The software should be possible to continue using the same basic software in diverse
situations.

9. Reusability

This factor deals with the use of software modules originally designed for one project in a
new software project currently being developed. They may also enable future projects to
make use of a given module or a group of modules of the currently developed software.
The reuse of software is expected to save development resources, shorten the
development period, and provide higher quality modules.

10. Interoperability

Interoperability requirements focus on creating interfaces with other software systems or

with other equipment firmware. For example, the firmware of the production machinery
and testing equipment interfaces with the production control software.

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Software Process

A software process (also knows as software methodology) is a set of related activities that

leads to the production of the software. These activities may involve the development of the

software from the scratch, or, modifying an existing system.

Any software process must include the following four activities:

1. Software specification (or requirements engineering): Define the main functionalities

of the software and the constrains around them.

2. Software design and implementation: The software is to be designed and

programmed.

3. Software verification and validation: The software must conforms to it’s specification
and meets the customer needs.

4. Software evolution (software maintenance): The software is being modified to meet

customer and market requirements changes.

Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a process used by the software industry to
design, develop and test high quality softwares. The SDLC aims to produce a high-quality
software that meets or exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion within times
and cost estimates.

What is SDLC?

SDLC is a process followed for a software project, within a software organization. It

consists of a detailed plan describing how to develop, maintain, replace and alter or
enhance specific software. The life cycle defines a methodology for improving the quality
of software and the overall development process.
The following figure is a graphical representation of the various stages of a typical SDLC.

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A typical Software Development Life Cycle consists of the following stages −

Stage 1: Planning and Requirement Analysis

Requirement analysis is the most important and fundamental stage in SDLC. It is

performed by the senior members of the team with inputs from the customer, the sales
department, market surveys and domain experts in the industry. This information is then
used to plan the basic project approach and to conduct product feasibility study in the
economical, operational and technical areas.
Planning for the quality assurance requirements and identification of the risks associated
with the project is also done in the planning stage. The outcome of the technical feasibility
study is to define the various technical approaches that can be followed to implement the
project successfully with minimum risks.

Stage 2: Defining Requirements

Once the requirement analysis is done the next step is to clearly define and document the
product requirements and get them approved from the customer or the market analysts.
This is done through an SRS (Software Requirement Specification) document which
consists of all the product requirements to be designed and developed during the project
life cycle.

Stage 3: Designing the Product Architecture

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SRS is the reference for product architects to come out with the best architecture for the
product to be developed. Based on the requirements specified in SRS, usually more than
one design approach for the product architecture is proposed and documented in a DDS -
Design Document Specification.
This DDS is reviewed by all the important stakeholders and based on various parameters
as risk assessment, product robustness, design modularity, budget and time constraints,
the best design approach is selected for the product.
A design approach clearly defines all the architectural modules of the product along with
its communication and data flow representation with the external and third party
modules (if any). The internal design of all the modules of the proposed architecture
should be clearly defined with the minutest of the details in DDS.

Stage 4: Building or Developing the Product

In this stage of SDLC the actual development starts and the product is built. The
programming code is generated as per DDS during this stage. If the design is performed in
a detailed and organized manner, code generation can be accomplished without much
hassle.
Developers must follow the coding guidelines defined by their organization and
programming tools like compilers, interpreters, debuggers, etc. are used to generate the
code. Different high level programming languages such as C, C++, Pascal, Java and PHP are
used for coding. The programming language is chosen with respect to the type of software
being developed.

Stage 5: Testing the Product

This stage is usually a subset of all the stages as in the modern SDLC models, the testing
activities are mostly involved in all the stages of SDLC. However, this stage refers to the
testing only stage of the product where product defects are reported, tracked, fixed and
retested, until the product reaches the quality standards defined in the SRS.

Stage 6: Deployment in the Market and Maintenance

Once the product is tested and ready to be deployed it is released formally in the
appropriate market. Sometimes product deployment happens in stages as per the
business strategy of that organization. The product may first be released in a limited
segment and tested in the real business environment (UAT- User acceptance testing).
Then based on the feedback, the product may be released as it is or with suggested
enhancements in the targeting market segment. After the product is released in the
market, its maintenance is done for the existing customer base.

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software development life cycle (SDLC) Models

There are various software development life cycle models defined and designed which are
followed during the software development process. These models are also referred as
Software Development Process Models". Each process model follows a Series of steps
unique to its type to ensure success in the process of software development.
Following are the most important and popular SDLC models followed in the industry −

• Waterfall Model
• Iterative Model
• Spiral Model
• V-Model

Waterfall Model - Design

The Waterfall Model was the first Process Model to be introduced. It is also referred to as
a linear-sequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand and use. In a
waterfall model, each phase must be completed before the next phase can begin and there
is no overlapping in the phases.
The Waterfall model is the earliest SDLC approach that was used for software
development.
The waterfall Model illustrates the software development process in a linear sequential
flow. This means that any phase in the development process begins only if the previous
phase is complete. In this waterfall model, the phases do not overlap.

Waterfall Model - Design

Waterfall approach was first SDLC Model to be used widely in Software Engineering to
ensure success of the project. In "The Waterfall" approach, the whole process of software
development is divided into separate phases. In this Waterfall model, typically, the
outcome of one phase acts as the input for the next phase sequentially.
The following illustration is a representation of the different phases of the Waterfall
Model.

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The sequential phases in Waterfall model are −

• Requirement Gathering and analysis − All possible requirements of the system to
be developed are captured in this phase and documented in a requirement
specification document.
• System Design − The requirement specifications from first phase are studied in
this phase and the system design is prepared. This system design helps in
specifying hardware and system requirements and helps in defining the overall
system architecture.
• Implementation − With inputs from the system design, the system is first
developed in small programs called units, which are integrated in the next phase.
Each unit is developed and tested for its functionality, which is referred to as Unit
Testing.
• Integration and Testing − All the units developed in the implementation phase are
integrated into a system after testing of each unit. Post integration the entire
system is tested for any faults and failures.
• Deployment of system − Once the functional and non-functional testing is done;
the product is deployed in the customer environment or released into the market.
• Maintenance − There are some issues which come up in the client environment. To
fix those issues, patches are released. Also to enhance the product some better
versions are released. Maintenance is done to deliver these changes in the
customer environment.

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All these phases are cascaded to each other in which progress is seen as flowing steadily
downwards (like a waterfall) through the phases. The next phase is started only after the
defined set of goals are achieved for previous phase and it is signed off, so the name
"Waterfall Model". In this model, phases do not overlap.

Waterfall Model - Application

Every software developed is different and requires a suitable SDLC approach to be

followed based on the internal and external factors. Some situations where the use of
Waterfall model is most appropriate are −
• Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.
• Product definition is stable.
• Technology is understood and is not dynamic.
• There are no ambiguous requirements.
• Ample resources with required expertise are available to support the product.
• The project is short.

Waterfall Model - Advantages

The advantages of waterfall development are that it allows for departmentalization and
control. A schedule can be set with deadlines for each stage of development and a product
can proceed through the development process model phases one by one.
Development moves from concept, through design, implementation, testing, installation,
troubleshooting, and ends up at operation and maintenance. Each phase of development
proceeds in strict order.
Some of the major advantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
• Simple and easy to understand and use
• Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific
deliverables and a review process.
• Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
• Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.
• Clearly defined stages.
• Well understood milestones.
• Easy to arrange tasks.
• Process and results are well documented.

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Waterfall Model - Disadvantages

The disadvantage of waterfall development is that it does not allow much reflection or
revision. Once an application is in the testing stage, it is very difficult to go back and
change something that was not well-documented or thought upon in the concept stage.
The major disadvantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
• No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.
• High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
• Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
• Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
• Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of
changing. So, risk and uncertainty is high with this process model.
• It is difficult to measure progress within stages.
• Cannot accommodate changing requirements.
• Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.
• Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the very end, which doesn't allow identifying
any technological or business bottleneck or challenges early.

Iterative Model - Design

Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of the software

requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the full system is
implemented. At each iteration, design modifications are made and new functional
capabilities are added. The basic idea behind this method is to develop a system through
repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller portions at a time (incremental).
The following illustration is a representation of the Iterative and Incremental model −

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Iterative and Incremental development is a combination of both iterative design or

iterative method and incremental build model for development. "During software
development, more than one iteration of the software development cycle may be in
progress at the same time." This process may be described as an "evolutionary
acquisition" or "incremental build" approach."
In this incremental model, the whole requirement is divided into various builds. During
each iteration, the development module goes through the requirements, design,
implementation and testing phases. Each subsequent release of the module adds function
to the previous release. The process continues till the complete system is ready as per the
requirement.
The key to a successful use of an iterative software development lifecycle is rigorous
validation of requirements, and verification & testing of each version of the software
against those requirements within each cycle of the model. As the software evolves
through successive cycles, tests must be repeated and extended to verify each version of
the software.

Iterative Model - Application

Like other SDLC models, Iterative and incremental development has some specific
applications in the software industry. This model is most often used in the following
scenarios −
• Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.
• Major requirements must be defined; however, some functionalities or requested
enhancements may evolve with time.
• There is a time to the market constraint.
• A new technology is being used and is being learnt by the development team while
working on the project.
• Resources with needed skill sets are not available and are planned to be used on
contract basis for specific iterations.
• There are some high-risk features and goals which may change in the future.

Spiral model:
Spiral model is one of the most important Software Development Life Cycle models, which
provides support for Risk Handling. In its diagrammatic representation, it looks like a
spiral with many loops. The exact number of loops of the spiral is unknown and can vary
from project to project. Each loop of the spiral is called a Phase of the software
development process.

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The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes through these
phases in iterations called Spirals.

Identification

This phase starts with gathering the business requirements in the baseline spiral. In the
subsequent spirals as the product matures, identification of system requirements,
subsystem requirements and unit requirements are all done in this phase.
This phase also includes understanding the system requirements by continuous
communication between the customer and the system analyst. At the end of the spiral, the
product is deployed in the identified market.

Design

The Design phase starts with the conceptual design in the baseline spiral and involves
architectural design, logical design of modules, physical product design and the final
design in the subsequent spirals.

Construct or Build

The Construct phase refers to production of the actual software product at every spiral. In
the baseline spiral, when the product is just thought of and the design is being developed a
POC (Proof of Concept) is developed in this phase to get customer feedback.
Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and design details a
working model of the software called build is produced with a version number. These
builds are sent to the customer for feedback.

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Evaluation and Risk Analysis

Risk Analysis includes identifying, estimating and monitoring the technical feasibility and
management risks, such as schedule slippage and cost overrun. After testing the build, at
the end of first iteration, the customer evaluates the software and provides feedback.
The following illustration is a representation of the Spiral Model, listing the activities in
each phase.
Based on the customer evaluation, the software development process enters the next
iteration and subsequently follows the linear approach to implement the feedback
suggested by the customer. The process of iterations along the spiral continues
throughout the life of the software.

Spiral Model Application

The Spiral Model is widely used in the software industry as it is in sync with the natural
development process of any product, i.e. learning with maturity which involves minimum
risk for the customer as well as the development firms.
The following pointers explain the typical uses of a Spiral Model −
• When there is a budget constraint and risk evaluation is important.
• For medium to high-risk projects.
• Long-term project commitment because of potential changes to economic priorities
as the requirements change with time.
• Customer is not sure of their requirements which is usually the case.
• Requirements are complex and need evaluation to get clarity.
• New product line which should be released in phases to get enough customer
feedback.
• Significant changes are expected in the product during the development cycle.
The advantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −
• Changing requirements can be accommodated.
• Allows extensive use of prototypes.
• Requirements can be captured more accurately.
• Users see the system early.
• Development can be divided into smaller parts and the risky parts can be developed
earlier which helps in better risk management.
The disadvantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −
• Management is more complex.

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• End of the project may not be known early.

• Not suitable for small or low risk projects and could be expensive for small projects.
• Process is complex
• Spiral may go on indefinitely.
• Large number of intermediate stages requires excessive documentation.

V-Model

The V-model is a type of SDLC model where process executes in a sequential manner in V-
shape. It is also known as Verification and Validation model. It is based on the association
of a testing phase for each corresponding development stage. Development of each step
directly associated with the testing phase. The next phase starts only after completion of
the previous phase i.e. for each development activity, there is a testing activity
corresponding to it.

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Verification: It involves static analysis technique (review) done without executing code. It
is the process of evaluation of the product development phase to find whether specified
requirements meet.
Validation: It involves dynamic analysis technique (functional, non-functional), testing
done by executing code. Validation is the process to evaluate the software after the
completion of the development phase to determine whether software meets the customer
expectations and requirements.
So V-Model contains Verification phases on one side of the Validation phases on the other
side. Verification and Validation phases are joined by coding phase in V-shape. Thus it is
called V-Model.
Design Phase:
• Requirement Analysis: This phase contains detailed communication with the
customer to understand their requirements and expectations. This stage is known as
Requirement Gathering.
• System Design: This phase contains the system design and the complete hardware
and communication setup for developing product.
• Architectural Design: System design is broken down further into modules taking up
different functionalities. The data transfer and communication between the internal
modules and with the outside world (other systems) is clearly understood.
• Module Design: In this phase the system breaks down into small modules. The
detailed design of modules is specified, also known as Low-Level Design (LLD).
Testing Phases:
• Unit Testing: Unit Test Plans are developed during module design phase. These Unit
Test Plans are executed to eliminate bugs at code or unit level.
• Integration testing: After completion of unit testing Integration testing is performed.
In integration testing, the modules are integrated and the system is tested. Integration
testing is performed on the Architecture design phase. This test verifies the
communication of modules among themselves.
• System Testing: System testing test the complete application with its functionality,
inter dependency, and communication. It tests the functional and non-functional
requirements of the developed application.
• User Acceptance Testing (UAT): UAT is performed in a user environment that
resembles the production environment. UAT verifies that the delivered system meets
user’s requirement and system is ready for use in real world.

Agile model
Agile SDLC model is a combination of iterative and incremental process models with focus
on process adaptability and customer satisfaction by rapid delivery of working software
product. Agile Methods break the product into small incremental builds. These builds are
provided in iterations. Each iteration typically lasts from about one to three weeks. Every
iteration involves cross functional teams working simultaneously on various areas like −

• Planning
• Requirements Analysis

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• Design
• Coding
• Unit Testing and
• Acceptance Testing.
At the end of the iteration, a working product is displayed to the customer and important
stakeholders.

What is Agile?

Agile model believes that every project needs to be handled differently and the existing
methods need to be tailored to best suit the project requirements. In Agile, the tasks are
divided to time boxes (small time frames) to deliver specific features for a release.
Iterative approach is taken and working software build is delivered after each iteration.
Each build is incremental in terms of features; the final build holds all the features
required by the customer.
Here is a graphical illustration of the Agile Model −

The Agile thought process had started early in the software development and started
becoming popular with time due to its flexibility and adaptability.

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What is Risk?

"Tomorrow problems are today's risk." Hence, a clear definition of a "risk" is a problem
that could cause some loss or threaten the progress of the project, but which has not
happened yet.

Risk Management is the system of identifying addressing and eliminating these problems
before they can damage the project.

Risk Management

A software project can be concerned with a large variety of risks. In order to be adept to
systematically identify the significant risks which might affect a software project, it is
essential to classify risks into different classes. The project manager can then check which
risks from each class are relevant to the project.

There are three main classifications of risks which can affect a software project:

1. Project risks
2. Technical risks
3. Business risks

1. Project Risks: Project risks concern differ forms of budgetary, schedule, personnel,
resource, and customer-related problems. A vital project risk is schedule slippage. Since the
software is intangible, it is very tough to monitor and control a software project. It is very
tough to control something which cannot be identified. For any manufacturing program,
such as the manufacturing of cars, the plan executive can recognize the product taking
shape.

2. Technical Risks: Technical risks concern potential method, implementation, interfacing,

testing, and maintenance issue. It also consists of an ambiguous specification, incomplete
specification, changing specification, technical uncertainty, and technical obsolescence.
Most technical risks appear due to the development team's insufficient knowledge about
the project.

3. Business Risks: This type of risks contain risks of building an excellent product that no
one need, losing budgetary or personnel commitments, etc.

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1. Risk Identification: The project organizer needs to anticipate the risk in the project as
early as possible so that the impact of risk can be reduced by making effective risk
management planning.

A project can be of use by a large variety of risk. To identify the significant risk, this might
affect a project. It is necessary to categories into the different risk of classes.

There are different types of risks which can affect a software project:

1. Technology risks: Risks that assume from the software or hardware technologies
that are used to develop the system.
2. People risks: Risks that are connected with the person in the development team.
3. Organizational risks: Risks that assume from the organizational environment
where the software is being developed.
4. Tools risks: Risks that assume from the software tools and other support software
used to create the system.
5. Requirement risks: Risks that assume from the changes to the customer
requirement and the process of managing the requirements change.
6. Estimation risks: Risks that assume from the management estimates of the
resources required to build the system

2. Risk Analysis: During the risk analysis process, you have to consider every identified
risk and make a perception of the probability and seriousness of that risk.

There is no simple way to do this. You have to rely on your perception and experience of
previous projects and the problems that arise in them.

It is not possible to make an exact, the numerical estimate of the probability and
seriousness of each risk. Instead, you should authorize the risk to one of several bands:

1. The probability of the risk might be determined as very low (0-10%), low (10-25%),
moderate (25-50%), high (50-75%) or very high (+75%).

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2. The effect of the risk might be determined as catastrophic (threaten the survival of
the plan), serious (would cause significant delays), tolerable (delays are within
allowed contingency), or insignificant.

3. Risk planning: The risk planning method considers each of the key risks that have been
identified and develop ways to maintain these risks.

For each of the risks, you have to think of the behavior that you may take to
minimize the disruption to the plan if the issue identified in the risk occurs.

You also should think about data that you might need to collect while monitoring
the plan so that issues can be anticipated.

Again, there is no easy process that can be followed for contingency planning. It rely
on the judgment and experience of the project manager.

4. Risk Monitoring: Risk monitoring is the method king that your assumption about the
product, process, and business risks has not changed.

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