Introduction to Chemical Reactions and Equations

Physical and chemical changes

Chemical change - one or more new substances with new physical and chemical properties are
formed.
Example: F e(s) + CuSO (aq) → F eSO (aq) + Cu(s)
4 4

(Blue) (Green)
Here, when copper sulphate reacts with iron, two new substances, i.e., ferrous sulphate and
copper are formed.

Physical change - change in colour or state occurs but no new substance is formed.
Example: Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though
steam and water look different when they are made to react with a piece of Na, they react the
same way and give the exact same products). This involves only change in state (liquid to
vapour).

Observations that help determine a chemical reaction

A chemical reaction can be determined with the help of any of the following observations:
a) Evolution of a gas
b) Change in temperature
c) Formation of a precipitate
d) Change in colour
e) Change of state

Chemical reaction

Chemical reactions are chemical changes in which reactants transform into products by
making or breaking of bonds(or both) between different atoms.
Types of chemical reactions

Taking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple
categories.
Few examples are:
● Combination
● Decomposition
● Single Displacement
● Double displacement
● Redox
● Endothermic
● Exothermic
● Precipitation
● Neutralisation

Chemical Reactions and Equations I

Word equation

A word equation is a chemical reaction expressed in words rather than chemical formulas. It
helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
For example,
Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium chloride
The above equation means: "Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride."

Symbols of elements and their valencies

A symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two letter atomic
symbol, which is the abbreviated form of its name.
Valency is the combining capacity of an element. It can be considered as the number of
electrons lost, gain or shared by an atom when it combines with another atom to form a
molecule.

Writing chemical equations

Representation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and chemical formulae of the
reactants and products is known as a chemical equation.
Zn(s) + dil. H2 SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (↑)

(Reactants) (Products)
• For solids, the symbol is "(s)".
• For liquids, it is "(l)".
• For gases, it is "(g)".
• For aqueous solutions, it is "(aq)".
• For gas produced in the reaction, it is represented by "(↑)".
• For precipitate formed in the reaction, it is represented by "(↓)".

Balancing of a Chemical Reaction

Conservation of mass

According to the law of conservation of mass, no atoms can be created or destroyed in a

chemical reaction, so the number of atoms for each element in the reactants side has to
balance the number of atoms that are present in the products side.
In other words, the total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is equal to the
total mass of the reactants participated in a chemical reaction.

Balanced chemical equation

The chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element in the reactants side is
equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.

Steps for balancing chemical equations

Hit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coefficients (the numbers in
front of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same on
each side of the chemical equation.

Short-cut technique for balancing a chemical equation

Example:
aCaCO3 + bH3 P O4 → cCa3 (P O4 )2 + dH2 CO3
Set up a series of simultaneous equations, one for each element.
Ca: a=3c
C: a=d
O: 3a+4b=8c+3d
H: 3b=2d
P: b=2c
Let's set c=1
Then a=3 and
d=a=3
b=2c=2
So a=3; b=2; c=1; d=3
The balanced equation is
3CaCO3 + 2H3 P O4 → Ca3 (P O4 )2 + 3H2 CO3

Chemical Reactions and Equations II

Types of chemical reactions

Taking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple
categories.
Few examples are:
● Combination
● Decomposition
● Single Displacement
● Double displacement
● Redox
● Endothermic
● Exothermic
● Precipitation
● Neutralisation

Combination reaction

In a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one compound or two
compounds combine to give one single product.
H2 + Cl2 → 2H Cl

element + element → compound

2CO + O2 → 2CO2

compound + element → compound

N H3 + H Cl → N H4 Cl

compound + compound → compound

Decomposition reaction

A single reactant decomposes on the application of heat or light or electricity to give two or
more products.
Types of decomposition reactions:
a. Decomposition reactions which require heat - thermolytic decomposition or thermolysis.

Thermal decomposition of HgO

b. Decomposition reactions which require light - photolytic decomposition or photolysis.

Photolytic decomposition of H 2 O2

c. Decomposition reactions which require electricity - electrolytic decomposition or

electrolysis.
 Electrolytic decomposition of H 2O

Displacement reaction

More reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.

i) Zn(s) + CuSO (aq) → ZnSO (aq) + Cu(s)

4 4

ii) Cu(s) + 2AgN O (aq) → Cu(N O ) (aq) + 2Ag(s)

3 3 2

Double displacement reaction

An exchange of ions between the reactants takes place to give new products.
For example, Al 2 (SO4 )3 (aq) + 3Ca(OH )2 (aq) → 2Al(OH )3 (aq) + 3CaSO4 (s)

Precipitation reaction

An insoluble compound called precipitate forms when two solutions containing soluble salts
are combined.
For example, P b(N O 3 )2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → 2KN O3 (aq) + P bI2 (↓)(s)(yellow)
Redox reaction

Oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.

Oxidation: Substance loses electrons or gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.
Reduction: Substance gains electrons or loses oxygen or gains hydrogen.
Oxidising agent - a substance that oxidises another substance and self-gets reduced.
Reducing agent - a substance that reduces another substance and self-gets oxidised.

Examples:
1. F e(s) + CuSO 4 (aq) → F eSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)

(Blue) (Green)
Fe → Fe
+2
; Fe - reducing agent.
+ 2e − (oxidation)

+ 2e− → Cu(s) (reduction) ; Cu - oxidising agent.

+2
Cu

2. ZnO + C → Zn + CO

ZnO reduces to Zn → reduction

C oxidises to CO → oxidation
ZnO - Oxidising agent
C - Reducing agent

Endothermic and exothermic reaction

Exothermic reaction - heat is evolved during a reaction. Most of the combination reactions are
exothermic.

Al + F e2 O3 → Al2 O3 + F e + heat

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2 O + heat

Endothermic - Heat is required to carry out the reaction.

6CO2 + 6H2 O + Sunlight → C6 H12 O6 + 6O2

Glucose
Most of the decomposition reactions are endothermic.

Corrosion

Gradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or chemicals
in the surrounding environment.

Rusting:
4F e(s) + 3O2 (f rom air) + xH2 O(moisture) → 2F e2 O3 . xH2 O(rust)

Corrosion of copper:
Cu(s) + H2 O(moisture) + CO2 (f rom air) → CuCO3 . Cu(OH )2 (green)

Corrosion of silver:
Ag(s) + H2 S(f rom air) → Ag2 S(black) + H2 (g)

Rancidity

It refers to oxidation of fats and oils in food that is kept for a long time. It gives foul smell and
bad taste to food. Rancid food causes stomach infection on consumption.
Prevention:
(i) Use of air-tight containers
(ii) Packaging with nitrogen
(iii) Refrigeration
(iv) Addition of antioxidants or preservatives
Introduction to Acids, Bases and Salts
Classification of matter

On the basis of
a) composition - elements, compounds and mixtures
b) state - solids, liquids and gases
c) solubility - suspensions, colloids and solutions

Types of mixtures - homogeneous and heterogeneous

Types of compounds - covalent and ionic

What Is an Acid and a Base?

Ionisable and non-ionisable compounds

An ionisable compound when dissolved in water or in its molten state, dissociates into ions
almost entirely. Example: NaCl, HCl, KOH, etc.
A non-ionisable compound does not dissociate into ions when dissolved in water or in its
molten state. Example: glucose, acetone, etc.

Arrhenius theory of acids and bases

Arrhenius acid - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H (aq) or H

+
3O
+
ion.
Arrhenius base - when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH ion.
−

Examples

Acids

Hydrochloric acid (H Cl)

Sulphuric acid (H SO )
2 4

Nitric acid (H N O )
3

Bases

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH ) 2)
Bronsted Lowry theory

A Bronsted acid is a H +
(aq) ion donor.
A Bronsted base is a H +
(aq) ion acceptor.

Example
In the reaction: H Cl(aq) + N H 3 (aq) → NH
+

4
(aq) + Cl
−
(aq)

H Cl - Bronsted acid and Cl - its conjugate acid

−

N H3 - Bronsted base and N H - its conjugate acid

+

Physical test

Given are two possible physical tests to identify an acid or a base.

a. Taste

An acid tastes sour whereas a base tastes bitter.

The method of taste is not advised as an acid or a base could be contaminated or corrosive.

b. Effect on indicators by acids and bases

An indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties, mainly
colour or odour when brought in contact with an acid or a base.
Below mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they exhibit:

a) Litmus
In neutral solution - purple
In acidic solution - red
In basic solution - blue

Litmus is also available as strips of paper in two variants - red litmus and blue litmus.
An acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.
A base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.

b) Methyl orange
In neutral solution - orange
In acidic solution - red
In basic solution - yellow

c) Phenolphthalein
In neutral solution - colourless
In acidic solution - remains colourless
In basic solution - pink

Acid Base Reactions

Reactions of acids and bases

a) Reaction of acids and bases with metals

Acid + active metal → salt + hydrogen + heat

2H Cl + M g → M gCl2 + H2 (↑)

Base + metal → salt + hydrogen + heat

2N aOH + Zn → N a2 ZnO2 + H2 (↑)

A more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.
2N a + M g(OH )2 → 2N aOH + M g

b) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates

Acid + metal carbonate or bicarbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide.

2H Cl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2 O + CO2

H2 SO4 + M g(H CO3 )2 → M gSO4 + 2H2 O + 2CO2

Effervescence indicates liberation of CO gas.

2

c) Neutralisation reaction

1. Reaction of metal oxides and hydroxides with acids

Metal oxides or metal hydroxides are basic in nature.
Acid + base → salt + water + heat
H2 SO4 + M gO → M gSO4 + H2 O

2H Cl + M g(OH )2 → M gCl2 + 2H2 O

2. Reaction of non-metal oxides with bases

Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature

Base + Non-metal oxide → salt + water + heat
2N aOH + CO2 → N a2 CO3 + H2 O

Water
Acids and bases in water

When added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in
conducting electricity.

Difference between a base and an alkali

Base-

Bases undergo neutralisation reaction with acids.

They are comprised of metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and metal
bicarbonates.
Most of them are insoluble in water.

Alkali -

An alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).

It dissolves in water and dissociates to give OH ion.
−

All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.

Hydronium ion

Hydronium ion is formed when a hydrogen ion accepts a lone pair of electrons from the
oxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a coordinate covalent bond.

Formation of a hydronium ion

Dilution

Dilution is the process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more solvent
(usually water) to it.
It is a highly exothermic process.
To dilute an acid, the acid must be added to water and not the other way round.

Strength of acids and bases

Strong acid or base: When all molecules of given amount of an acid or a base dissociate
completely in water to furnish their respective ions, H (aq) for acid and OH (aq) for base).
+ −

Weak acid or base: When only a few of the molecules of given amount of an acid or a base
dissociate in water to furnish their respective ions, H (aq) for acid and OH (aq) for base).
+ −
Dilute acid: contains less number of H (aq) ions per unit volume.
+

Concentrated acid: contains more number of H (aq) ions per unit volume.
+

Universal indicator

A universal indicator has pH range from 0 to 14 that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a
solution.
A neutral solution has pH=7

pH
+
pH = −log10 [H ]

In pure water, [H
+
] = [OH
−
] = 10
−7
mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
If pH < 7 - acidic solution
If pH > 7- basic solution
 pH scale

Importance of pH in everyday life

1. pH sensitivity of plants and animals

Plants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,
functions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.

2. pH of a soil

The pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.

3. pH in the digestive system

The process of digestion happens at a specific pH in our stomach which is 1.5 - 4.

The pH of the interaction of enzymes, while food is being digested, is influenced by HCl in our
stomach.

4. pH in tooth decay

Tooth decay happens when the teeth are exposed to an acidic environment of pH
5.5 and below.

5. pH of self-defense by animals and plants

Acidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defense mechanism. For example,
bee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defense. These secreted
acidic substances have a specific pH.

Manufacture of Acids and Bases

Manufacture of acids and bases

a) Non-metal oxide + water → acid

SO2 (g) + H2 O(l) → H2 SO3 (aq)
SO3 (g) + H2 O(l) → H2 SO4 (aq)

4N O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + O2 (g) → 4H N O3 (aq)

Non-metal oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.

b) Hydrogen + halogen → acid

H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2H Cl(g)

H Cl(g) + H2 O(l) → H Cl(aq)

c) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid → salt + more volatile acid

2N aCl(aq) + H2 SO4 (aq) → N a2 SO4 (aq) + 2H Cl(aq)

2KN O3 (aq) + H2 SO4 (aq) → K2 SO4 (aq) + 2H N O3 (aq)

d) Metal + oxygen → metallic oxide (base)

4N a(s) + O2 (g) → 2N a2 O(s)

2M g(s) + O2 (g) → 2M gO(s)

e) Metal + water → base or alkali + hydrogen

Zn(s) + H 2 O(steam) → ZnO(s)+ H (g)
2

f) Few metallic oxides + water → alkali

N a2 O(s) + H2 O(l) → 2N aOH (aq)

g) Ammonia + water → ammonium hydroxide

N H3 (g) + H2 O(l) → N H4 OH (aq)

Salts
Salts

A salt is a combination of an anion of an acid and a cation of a base.

Examples - KCl, N aN O , CaSO , etc.
3 4

Salts are usually prepared by neutralisation reaction of an acid and a base.

Common salt

Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it’s used all over the world for
cooking.

Family of salts

Salts having the same cation or anion belong to the same family. For example, NaCl, KCl, LiCl.
pH of salts

A salt of a strong acid and a strong base will be neutral in nature. pH = 7 (approx.).
A salt of a weak acid and a strong base will be basic in nature. pH > 7.
A salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.
The pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.

Preparation of Sodium hydroxide

Chemical formula - NaOH

Also known as - caustic soda
Preparation (Chlor-alkali process):
Electrolysis of brine (solution of common salt, NaCl) is carried out.
At anode: Cl is released
2

At cathode: H is released
2

Sodium hydroxide remains in the solution.

Bleaching powder

Chemical formula - Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl 2

Preparation - Ca(OH ) (aq) + Cl (g) → CaOCl

2 2 2 (aq) + H2 O(l)

On interaction with water - bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for
bleaching action.

Baking soda

Chemical name - Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Chemical formula - N aH CO 3

Preparation (Solvay process) -

a. Limestone is heated: CaCO 3 → CaO + CO2

b. CO_2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia:

N aCl(aq) + N H3 (g) + CO2 (g) + H2 O(l) → N aH CO3 (aq) + N H4 Cl(aq)

Uses:
1. Textile industry
2. Paper industry
3. Disinfectant

Washing soda

Chemical name - Sodium carbonate decahydrate.

Chemical formuala - \(Na_2CO_3 \)
Preparation: By heating N aH CO 3

2N aH CO3 (s) → N a2 CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2 O(g)

N a2 CO3 (s) + 10H2 O(l) → N a2 CO3 .10H2 O(s)

Uses
1. In glass, soap and paper industries
2. Softening of water
3. Domestic cleaner

Crystals of salts

Certain salts form crystals by combining with a definite proportion of water. The water that
combines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.

Plaster of paris
1 3
Gypsum, CaSO4 .2H2 O (s) on heating at 100°C (373K) gives CaSO4 . H2 O and H2 O
2 2

is plaster of paris.
1
CaSO4 . H2 O
2

means two formula units of CaSO share one molecule of water.

1
CaSO4 . H2 O 4
2

Uses - cast for healing fractures.

Corrosion
Alloys

Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metal with other metals or nonmetals. Alloy formation
enhances the desirable properties of the material, such as hardness, tensile strength and
resistance to corrosion.
Examples of few alloys -
Brass: copper and zinc
Bronze: copper and tin
Solder: lead and tin
Amalgam: mercury and other metal

Corrosion

Gradual deterioration of a material usually a metal by the action of moisture, air or chemicals
in the surrounding environment.
Rusting:
4F e(s) + 3O2 (f rom air) + xH2 O(moisture) → 2F e2 O3 . xH2 O(rust)

Corrosion of copper:
Cu(s) + H2 O(moisture) + CO2 (f rom air) → CuCO3 . Cu(OH )2 (green)

Corrosion of silver:
Ag(s) + H2 S(f rom air) → Ag2 S(black) + H2 (g)

Prevention of Corrosion

Prevention:
1. Coating with paints or oil or grease: Application of paint or oil or grease on metal surfaces
keep out air and moisture.

2. Alloying: Alloyed metal is more resistant to corrosion. Example: stainless steel.

3. Galvanization: This is a process of coating molten zinc on iron articles. Zinc forms a
protective layer and prevents corrosion.

4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by use of electric current.
This method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.
Example: silver plating, nickel plating.
5. Sacrificial protection: Magnesium is more reactive than iron. When it is coated on the
articles made of iron or steel, it acts as the cathode, undergoes reaction (sacrifice) instead of
iron and protects the articles.

Physical Properties
Physical Properties of Metals

● Hard and have a high tensile strength

● Solids at room temperature
● Sonorous
● Good conductors of heat and electricity
● Malleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets
● Ductile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires
● High melting and boiling points (except Caesium (Cs) and Gallium (Ga))
● Dense, (except alkali metals). Osmium - highest density and lithium - least density
● Lustrous
● Silver-grey in colour, (except gold and copper)

Non-Metals

Nonmetals are those elements which do not exhibit the properties of metals.

Physical Properties of Nonmetals

Occur as solids, liquids and gases at room temperature

Brittle
Non-malleable
Non-ductile
Non-sonorous
Bad conductors of heat and electricity

Exceptions in Physical Properties

Alkali metals (Na, K, Li) can be cut using a knife.

Mercury is a liquid metal.
Lead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.
Mercury expands significantly for the slightest change in temperature.
Gallium and caesium have a very low melting point
Iodine is non-metal but it has lustre.
Graphite conducts electricity.
Diamond conducts heat and has a very high melting point.
Chemical Properties
Chemical Properties of Metals

● Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc) react vigorously with water and oxygen or air.
● Mg reacts with hot water.
● Al, Fe and Zn react with steam.
● Cu, Ag, Pt, Au do not react with water or dilute acids.

Reaction of Metals with Oxygen (Burnt in Air)

Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide (basic)

● Na and K are kept immersed in kerosene oil as they react vigorously with air and catch fire.
4K(s) + O (g) → 2K O(s) (vigorous reaction)
2 2

● Mg, Al, Zn, Pb react slowly with air and form a protective layer that prevents corrosion.
2M g(s) + O (g) → 2M gO(s) (Mg burns with a white dazzling light)
2

4Al(s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Al2 O3 (s)

● Silver, platinum and gold don't burn or react with air.

Basic Oxides of Metals

Some metallic oxides get dissolved in water and form alkalis. Their aqueous solution turns red
litmus blue.

N a2 O(s) + H2 O(l) → 2N aOH (aq)

K2 O(s) + H2 O(l) → 2KOH (aq)

Amphoteric Oxides of Metals

Amphoteric oxides are metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to form salt
and water.
For example - Al 2 O3 , ZnO, P bO, SnO

Al2 O3 (s) + 6H Cl(aq) → 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2 O(l)

Al2 O3 (s) + 2N aOH (aq) → 2N aAlO2 (aq) + H2 O(l)

ZnO(s) + 2H Cl(aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 O(l)

ZnO(s) + 2N aOH (aq) → N a2 ZnO2 (aq) + H2 O(l)

Reactivity Series

The below table illustrates the reactivity of metals from high order to low order.

Symbol Element
K Potassium ( Highly Active Metal)
Ba Barium
Ca Calcium
Na Sodium
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminium
Zn Zinc
Fe Iron
Ni Nickel
Sn Tin
Pb Lead
H Hydrogen
Cu Copper
Hg Mercury
Ag Silver
Au Gold
Pt Platinum

Reaction of Metals with Water or Steam

M etal + W ater → M etal hydroxide or M etal oxide + H ydrogen

2N a + 2H2 O(cold) → 2N aOH + H2 + heat

Ca + 2H2 O(cold) → Ca(OH )2 + H2

M g + 2H2 O(hot) → M g(OH )2 + H2

2Al + 3H2 O(steam) → Al2 O3 + 3H2

Zn + H2 O(steam) → ZnO + H2

3F e + 4H2 O(steam) → F e3 O4 + 4H2

Reaction of Metals with Acid

M etal + dilute acid → Salt + H ydrogen gas

2N a(s) + 2H Cl(dilute) → 2N aCl(aq) + H2 (g)

2K(s) + H2 SO4 (dilute) → K2 SO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

Only Mg and Mn, react with very dilute nitric acid to liberate hydrogen gas.
M g(s) + 2H N O3 (dilute) → M g(N O3 )2 (aq) + H2 (g)

M n(s) + 2H N O3 (dilute) → M n(N O3 )2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Displacement Reaction

A more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.

How Do Metal React with Solution of Other Metal Salts

M etal A + Salt of metal B → Salt of metal A + M etal B

F e(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → F eSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)

Cu(s) + 2AgN O3 (aq) → Cu(N O3 )(aq) + 2Ag(s)

Reaction of Metals with Bases

Base + metal → salt + hydrogen

2N aOH (aq) + Zn(s) → N a2 ZnO2 (aq) + H2 (g)

2N aOH (aq) + 2Al(s) + 2H2 O(l) → 2N aAlO2 (aq) + 2H2 (g)

Extraction of Metals and Non-Metals

Applications of Displacement Reaction

Uses of displacement reaction

1. Extraction of metals
2. Manufacturing of steel
3. Thermite reaction: Al(s) + F e 2 O3 (s) → Al2 O3 + F e(molten)

The thermite reaction is used in welding of railway tracks, cracked machine parts, etc.

Occurrence of Metals

Most of the elements especially metals occur in nature in the combined state with other
elements. All these compounds of metals are known as minerals. But out of them, only a few
are viable sources of that metal. Such sources are called ores.
Au, Pt - exist in the native or free state.

Extraction of Metals

Metals of high reactivity - Na, K, Mg, Al.

Metals of medium reactivity - Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn.
Metals of low reactivity - Cu, Ag, Hg

Roasting

Converts sulphide ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of excess air.
It also removes volatile impurities.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) + H eat → 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2 (g)

Calcination

Converts carbonate and hydrated ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of
limited air. It also removes volatile impurities.
ZnCO3 (s) + heat → ZnO(s) + CO2 (g)

CaCO3 (s) + heat → CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

Al2 O3 .2H2 O(s) + heat → 2Al2 O3 (s) + 2H2 O(l)

2F e2 O3 .3H2 O(s) + heat → 2F e2 O3 (s) + 3H2 O(l)

Extracting Metals Low in Reactivity Series

By self-reduction- when the sulphide ores of less electropositive metals like Hg, Pb, Cu etc.,
are heated in air, a part of the ore gets converted to oxide which then reacts with the
remaining sulphide ore to give the crude metal and sulphur dioxide. In this process, no
external reducing agent is used.

1. 2H gS(Cinnabar) + 3O 2 (g) + heat → 2H gO(crude metal) + 2SO2 (g)

2H gO(s) + heat → 2H g(l) + O2 (g)

2. Cu 2 S(Copper pyrite) + 3O2 (g) + heat → 2Cu2 O(s) + 2SO2 (g)

2Cu2 O(s) + Cu2 S(s) + heat → 6Cu(crude metal) + SO2 (g)

3. 2P bS(Galena) + 3O 2 (g) + heat → 2P bO(s) + 2SO2 (g)

P bS(s) + 2P bO(s) → 2P b(crude metal) + SO2 (g)

Extracting Metals in the Middle of Reactivity Series

Smelting - it involves heating the roasted or calcined ore(metal oxide) to a high temperature
with a suitable reducing agent.​​The crude metal is obtained in its molten state.
F e2 O3 + 3C(coke) → 2F e + 3CO2

Aluminothermic reaction - also known as the Goldschmidt reaction is a highly exothermic

reaction in which ​metal oxides usually of Fe and Cr are heated to a high temperature with​​
aluminium.
F e2 O3 + 2Al → Al2 O3 + 2F e + heat

Cr2 O3 + 2Al → Al2 O3 + 2Cr + heat

Extraction of Metals Towards the Top of the Reactivity Series

Electrolytic reduction:

1. Down’s process: Molten NaCl is electrolysed in a special apparatus.

At the cathode (reduction) -

+ −
Na (molten) + e → N a(s)

Metal is deposited.
At the anode (oxidation) -
− –
2Cl (molten) → Cl2 (g) + 2e

Chlorine gas is liberated.

2. Hall’s process: Mixture of molten alumina and a fluoride solvent usually cryolite, (N a 3 AlF6 ) is
electrolysed.

At the cathode (reduction) -

3+ –
2Al + 6e → 2Al(s)

Metal is deposited.

At the anode (oxidation) -

2– –
6O → 3O2 (g) + 12e

Oxygen gas is liberated.

Enrichment of Ores

It means removal of impurities or gangue from ore, through various physical and chemical
processes. The technique used for a particular ore depends on the difference in the properties
of the ore and the gangue.

Refining of Metals

Refining of metals - removing impurities or gangue from crude metal. It is the last step in
metallurgy and is based on the difference between the properties of metal and the gangue.

Electrolytic Refining

Metals like copper, zinc, nickel, silver, tin, gold etc., are refined electrolytically.
Anode – impure or crude metal
Cathode – thin strip of pure metal
Electrolyte – aqueous solution of metal salt

From anode (oxidation) - metal ions are released into the solution
At cathode (reduction) - equivalent amount of metal from solution is deposited
Impurities deposit at the bottom of the anode.

The Why Questions

Electronic configuration
 Group 1 elements - Alkali metals
Electronic conf igurati
Element on

Lithium(Li) 2, 1

Sodium(N a
) 2, 8, 1

P otassium(
K) 2, 8, 8, 1

Rubidium(R
b) 2, 8, 18, 8, 1

Group 2 elements - Alkaline earth metals

Electronic conf igurati
Element on

Beryllium(Be) 2, 2

M agnesium(
M g) 2, 8, 2

Calcium(Ca) 2, 8, 8, 2

Stronium(Sr) 2, 8, 18, 8, 2

How Do Metals and Nonmetals React

Metals lose valence electron(s) and form cations.

Non-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.
The cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus
forming an ionic bond.
For example: In Calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by oppositely charged calcium and
chloride ions.
Calcium atom loses 2 electrons and attains the electronic configuration of the nearest noble
gas (Ar). By doing so, it gains a net charge of +2.
The two Chlorine atoms take one electron each, thus gaining a charge of -1 (each) and attain
the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas (Ar).

Ionic Compounds

The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound
together.
Example: M gCl 2, CaO, M gO, N aCl, etc.

Properties of Ionic Compound

Ionic compounds

1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions).

2. Have high melting and boiling points.
3. Conduct electricity when in aqueous solution and when melted.
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents.

Physical Nature

Ionic solids usually exist in a regular, well-defined crystal structures.

Electric Conduction of Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten or aqueous state when ions become free
and act as charge carriers.
In solid form, ions are strongly held by electrostatic forces of attractions and not free to move;
hence do not conduct electricity.
For example, ionic compounds such as NaCl does not conduct electricity when solid conduct
electricity but when dissolved in water or in molten state, it will conduct electricity.
 Salt solution conducts electricity

Melting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds

In ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high amount of
energy to break. Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound are usually
very high.

Solubility of Ionic Compounds

Most ionic compounds are soluble in water due to the separation of ions by water. This occurs
due to the polar nature of water.
For example, N aCl is a 3-D salt crystal composed of N a and Cl ions bound together through
+ −
electrostatic forces of attractions. When a crystal of NaCl comes into contact with water, the
partial positively charged ends of water molecules interact with the Cl ions, while the
−

negatively charged end of the water molecules interacts with the N a ions. This ion-dipole
+

interaction between ions and water molecules assist in the breaking of the strong electrostatic
forces of attractions within the crystal and ultimately in the solubility of the crystal.
Soaps and Detergents
Cleansing Action of Soap

When soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form spherical
shape micelles.

The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of the
fabric, while the polar hydrophilic part or head,(−COO N a , remains attracted to water
− +

molecules.

The agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles and
detach them from the fibres of the fabric.
Hard Water

Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates, chlorides,
and sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard water
react with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts of
fatty acids.

2C17 H35 COON a + M gCl2 → (C17 H35 COO)2 M g + 2N aCl

2C17 H35 COON a + CaCl2 → (C17 H35 COO)2 Ca + 2N aCl

These precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere with the cleaning
ability of the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if water is hard.

Covalent Bonds
Difficulty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion

To achieve the electronic configuration of nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom loses four
of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C 4+
ion hence formed will be
highly unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.

If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic configuration of the
noble gas, Ne, C ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required.
4−

Moreover, in C ion it is difficult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its
4+

tetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.
Ionic Bond

Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a
nonmetal. The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the
compound together.
Ionic compounds:

1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)

2. Have high melting and boiling points
3. Conduct electricity when melted
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents

Covalent Bond

A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. It is
primarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or between nonmetallic atoms with
similar electronegativity.

Lewis Dot Structure

Lewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.
These are basically diagrams with the element's symbol in the centre. The dots around it
represent the valence electrons of the element.

Lewis structures of elements with atomic number 5-8

Covalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2

Formation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:

Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to acquire
nearest noble gas configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.

Formation of a double bond in an oxygen molecule:

Each oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to
acquire nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.

Formation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:

Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons to
acquire nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.

Single, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths

A single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them, i.e.,
one electron from each participating atom.
It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.

A double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between them,
i.e., one pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines between
the two atoms.
A triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between them, i.e.,
two pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines between the
two atoms.

Bond strength:
- The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a
bond.
- The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is: Triple bond>double
bond>single bond
- This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for two
bonds or a single bond.

Bond length:
- Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.
- The order of bond length for multiple bonds is: Triple bond<double bond<single bond
The distance between the nuclei of two atoms is least when they are triple bonded.

Covalent Bonding of N, O with H and Polarity

In ammonia (N H ), the three hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the nitrogen atom
3

and form three covalent bonds.

Ammonia has one lone pair.

All the three N-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
N atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus the shared pair of electrons lies
more towards N atom.
This causes the N atom to acquire a slight negative charge, and H atom a slight positive
charge.
In water (H O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen atom and
2

form two covalent bonds.

Water has two lone pairs. ​

The two O-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
O atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus the shared pair of electrons lies
more towards O atom.
This causes the O atom to acquire a slight negative charge, and H atom a slight positive
charge.
Covalent Bonding in Carbon

A methane molecule (CH 4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with four
hydrogen atoms as shown below.
Mp,Bp and Electrical Conductivity

Covalent compounds:

1. Are molecular compounds

2. Are gases, liquids or solids
3. Have weak intermolecular forces
4. Have low melting and boiling points
5. Are poor electrical conductors in all phases
6. Are mostly soluble in nonpolar liquids

Allotropes of Carbon

- The phenomenon of existence of the same element in different physical forms with similar
chemical properties is known as allotropy.
- Some elements like carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., exhibit this phenomenon.
- Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and, fullerene.
- Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, coke, charcoal, lamp black and gas carbon.

Diamond

Diamond has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is because each carbon is connected to four
neighbouring carbon atoms via single covalent bonds, resulting in a single unit of a crystal.
These crystal units lie in different planes and are connected to each other, resulting in a rigid
three-dimensional cubic pattern of the diamond.

Diamond:

1. Has a high density of 3.5g/cc.

2. Has a very high refractive index of 2.5.
3. Is a good conductor of heat.
4. Is a poor conductor of electricity.

Graphite

In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded covalently to three other carbon atoms, leaving each
carbon atom with one free valency. This arrangement results in hexagonal rings in a single
plane and such rings are stacked over each other through weak Van der Waals forces.

Graphite:
 1. Has a density of 2.25 g/cc.
2. Has a soft and slippery feel.
3. Is a good conductor of electricity.

C60

C60 , also known as Buckminsterfullerene, is the very popular and stable form of the known
fullerenes.
It is the most common naturally occurring fullerene and can be found in small quantities in
soot.
It consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons, like in a soccer ball.

Chains, Branches and Rings

Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Saturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have all carbon-carbon single bonds. These are
known as alkanes. General formula = C n H2n+2 where n = 1,2,3,4…..
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon-carbon double or
triple bond.
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes. General
formula = C H n where n = 2,3,4…..
n 2

Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond are called alkynes. General formula
=C n H2n−2 where n = 2,3,4…..

Chains, Rings and Branches

Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.

In cyclic compounds, atoms are connected to form a ring.

Structural Isomers

The compounds with same molecular formula and different physical or chemical properties are
known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
The isomers that differ in the structural arrangement of atoms in their molecules are called
structural isomers and the phenomenon is known as structural isomerism.
 Structural isomers with molecular formula - C 5 H12

Benzene

Benzene is the simplest organic, aromatic hydrocarbon.

Physical properties: colourless liquid, pungent odour, flammable, volatile.
Structure:
Cyclic in nature with chemical formula, C 6 H6 , i.e., each carbon atom in benzene is arranged in
a six-membered ring and is bonded to only one hydrogen atom.
It includes 3-double bonds which are separated by a single bond.
Hence this arrangement is recognized to have conjugated double bonds and two stable
resonance structures exist for the ring.
 Resonating structures of Benzene

Functional Groups and Nomenclature

Functional Groups

An atom or a group of atoms which when present in a compound gives specific physical and
chemical properties to it regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain is called a
functional group.

Classification of Functional Groups

Main Functional Groups:

(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH): All organic compounds containing - OH group are known as
alcohols. For example, Methanol (CH 3 OH ) , Ethanol (CH 3 − CH2 − OH ) , etc.

(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing -CHO group are known as
aldehydes. For example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH CH O), etc.
3

(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): All organic compounds containing (-C=O) group flanked by two alkyl
groups are known as ketones. For example, Propanone (CH 3 COCH3 ) , Butanone
(CH3 COCH2 CH3 ) , etc.

(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). Hence they
are also called carboxylic acids.
For example, Ethanoic acid (CH 3 COOH ) , Propanoic acid (CH 3 CH2 COOH ) , etc.

(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): The alkanes in which one or more than one hydrogen atom is
substituted by - X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as haloalkanes. For example, Chloromethane
(CH3 Cl) , Bromomethane (CH 3 Br) , etc.

Homologous Series

Homologous series constitutes organic compounds with the same general formula, similar
chemical characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent members differ in their
molecular formula by −CH . 2

Physical Properties

The members of any particular family have almost identical chemical properties due to the
same functional group. Their physical properties such as melting point, boiling point, density,
etc., show a regular gradation with the increase in the molecular mass.

Chemical Properties
Combustion Reactions

Combustion means burning of carbon or carbon-containing compounds in the presence of air

or oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, heat and light.

Flame Characteristics

Saturated hydrocarbons give clean flame while unsaturated hydrocarbons give smoky flame. In
the presence of limited oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give smoky flame.

Oxidation

Oxidation
By use of mild oxidizing agent, CrO (chromic anhydride), ethanol CH
3 3 CH2 OH is oxidised
to ethanal (CH 3 CH O) .
Whereas, by use of a strong oxidizing agent like (alkaline KM nO or acidified K
4 2 Cr2 O7 ), ethanol
CH3 CH2 OH is oxidised to ethanoic acid (CH 3 COOH ) .
 al
ka
li
n
e
K
M
n
O
4
o
r

CH3 CH2 OH −
a−−−−−−−−−−−→ CH3 COOH
ci
d
i
f
ie
d
K
2

C
r
2
O
7

al
ka
li
n
e
K
M
n
O
4
o
r

CH3 CH O −
a−−−−−−−−−−−→ CH3 COOH
ci
d
i
f
ie
d
K
2
C
r
2
O
7

Addition

The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all the atoms of
the combining molecules are called addition reactions.
The hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction. In this reaction, hydrogen is
added to a double bond or a triple bond in the presence of a catalyst like nickel, palladium or
platinum.
N
i
o
r
P
t
o
r
P
d

C 2 H2 + H2 −−−−−−−−−→ C 2 H4

Substitution

The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or substituted by

different atoms or group of atoms is called substitution reaction. In alkanes, hydrogen atoms
are replaced by other elements.

CH4 + Cl2 + Sunlight → CH3 Cl + H Cl

Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid

Ethanol

(i) Ethanol, C 2 H5 OH is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.

(ii) It boils at 351 K.
(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iv) It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
(v) It is neutral to litmus.

Uses:

1. As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.

2. As a solvent in the manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic rubber.
3. As a solvent to prepare the tincture of iodine.

How Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?

(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH 3 OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and loss of
eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction, damages the liver if taken in excess.
(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.

Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium

Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. This reaction
supports the acidic character of ethanol.
− +
2C2 H5 OH + 2N a → 2C2 H5 O Na + H2 (↑)

Elimination Reaction

An elimination reaction is a type of reaction in which two substituents are removed from a
molecule. These reactions play an important role in the preparation of alkenes.

Dehydration Reaction

Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This reaction is
known as dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water molecule is removed from
the ethanol molecule.
c
o
n
c.
H
2
S
O
4

CH3 CH2 OH −−−−−−−→ CH2 = CH2 + H2 O

Ethanoic Acid or Acetic Acid

(i) Molecular formula: CH 3 COOH

(ii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether.

(iii) It often freezes during winter in cold climate and therefore it is named as glacial acetic
acid.

Esterification

When a carboxylic acid is refluxed with an alcohol in presence of small quantity of conc.H 2 SO4 ,
a sweet-smelling ester is formed. This reaction of ester formation is called esterification.

When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of conc.H 2 SO4 , ethyl ethanoate and water
are formed. (

C
o
n
c.
H
2
S
O
4
)

CH3 COOH + C2 H5 OH −−−−−−−−−→ CH3 COOC2 H5 + H2 O

Saponification

A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). The soap
molecule is generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic hydrocarbon group and
−COO
−
Na
+
ionic group. When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is treated with a
concentrated sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place; soap and
glycerol are formed. This alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as
saponification.
Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Metals and Bases

Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and magnesium to liberate
hydrogen gas.
2CH3 COOH + 2N a → 2CH3 COON a + H2 (↑)

It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.
CH3 COOH + N aOH → CH3 COON a + H2 O

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and Bicarbonates

Carboxylic acids reacts with carbonates and bicarbonates with the evolution of CO gas. For
2

example, when ethanoic acid (acetic acid) reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium
bicarbonate, CO gas is evolved.
2

2CH3 COOH + N a2 CO3 → 2CH3 COON a + H2 O + CO2

CH3 COOH + N aH CO3 → CH3 COON a + H2 O + CO2

Friendly Carbon
Why Carbon Can Form so Many Compounds

Catenation occurs most readily with carbon due to its small size, electronic configuration and
unique strength of carbon-carbon bonds. Tetravalency, catenation and tendency to form
multiple bonds with other atoms account for the formation of innumerable carbon
compounds.

Catenation
Catenation is the self-linking property of an element by which an atom forms covalent bonds
with the other atoms of the same element to form straight or branched chains and rings of
different sizes. It is shown by carbon, sulphur and silicon.

S8

In its native state, sulphur show catenation up to 8 atoms in the form of S molecule. It has
8

puckered ring structure.