1

Commands : 300 Linux Commands with examples

Community :

Indian Linux User Group , Chennai https://ilugc.in/

Kanchi Linux User Group , Kanchipuram https://kanchilug.wordpress.com/

Content created : [email protected]

Copyright : CC-BY-SA-NC
 3

Table of Contents
#1 apt..................................................................................................................................................10
#2 apt-cache........................................................................................................................................12
#3 ar....................................................................................................................................................14
#4 add-apt-repository..........................................................................................................................16
#5 adduser...........................................................................................................................................17
#6 useradd...........................................................................................................................................18
#7 groupadd........................................................................................................................................21
#8 add group.......................................................................................................................................22
#9 alias................................................................................................................................................23
#10 unalias..........................................................................................................................................24
#11 apg................................................................................................................................................25
#12 apropos........................................................................................................................................26
#13 arch..............................................................................................................................................27
#14 badblocks.....................................................................................................................................28
#15 bg.................................................................................................................................................30
#16 blkid.............................................................................................................................................31
#17 bluetoothctl..................................................................................................................................32
#18 brctl..............................................................................................................................................34
#19 bunzip2........................................................................................................................................36
#20 bzcat.............................................................................................................................................37
#21 bzip2recover................................................................................................................................38
#22 blkdeactivate................................................................................................................................39
#23 bc.................................................................................................................................................40
#24 baobab..........................................................................................................................................42
#25 apparmor......................................................................................................................................43
#26 aa-enabled....................................................................................................................................44
#27 aa-remove-unknown....................................................................................................................45
#28 aa-status.......................................................................................................................................46
#29 aa-teardown.................................................................................................................................47
#30 bzdiff............................................................................................................................................48
#31 bzcmp..........................................................................................................................................49
#32 bzgrep..........................................................................................................................................50
#33 bzless...........................................................................................................................................51
#34 bzmore.........................................................................................................................................52
#35 chattr............................................................................................................................................53
#36 cancel...........................................................................................................................................55
#37 cat................................................................................................................................................56
#38 cd.................................................................................................................................................58
#39 cfdsik...........................................................................................................................................60
#40 chacl.............................................................................................................................................61
#41 chage............................................................................................................................................62
#42 check-bios-nx..............................................................................................................................64
#43 check-language-support...............................................................................................................65
#44 cheese..........................................................................................................................................66
#45 cal................................................................................................................................................67
#46 chfn..............................................................................................................................................68
#47 chgrp............................................................................................................................................70
#48 chmem.........................................................................................................................................72
 4

#49 chmod (symbolic mode)..............................................................................................................73

#50 chmod (numeric mode)................................................................................................................75
#51 chown..........................................................................................................................................77
#52 chpasswd......................................................................................................................................79
#53 chsh..............................................................................................................................................80
#54 cksum...........................................................................................................................................81
#55 clear.............................................................................................................................................82
#56 cmp..............................................................................................................................................83
#57 colrm............................................................................................................................................84
#58 column.........................................................................................................................................85
#59 comm...........................................................................................................................................86
#60 compgen......................................................................................................................................88
#61 convert.........................................................................................................................................89
#62 cpio..............................................................................................................................................90
#63 cp.................................................................................................................................................91
#64 cracklib-check..............................................................................................................................93
#65 crontab.........................................................................................................................................94
#66 ctrlaltdel.......................................................................................................................................96
#67 csplit............................................................................................................................................97
#68 curl...............................................................................................................................................98
#69 cut................................................................................................................................................99
#70 dumpe2fs...................................................................................................................................100
#71 du...............................................................................................................................................101
#72 dpkg-reconfigure.......................................................................................................................103
#73 dpkg-query.................................................................................................................................104
#74 dpkg...........................................................................................................................................105
#75 do-release-upgrade....................................................................................................................107
#76 domainname..............................................................................................................................108
#77 dmsetup......................................................................................................................................109
#78 dmidecode..................................................................................................................................111
#79 dmesg.........................................................................................................................................113
#80 dirname......................................................................................................................................115
#81 dir...............................................................................................................................................116
#82 dig..............................................................................................................................................117
#83 date.............................................................................................................................................118
#84 dd...............................................................................................................................................121
#85 delgroup.....................................................................................................................................123
#86 delpart........................................................................................................................................124
#87 deluser........................................................................................................................................125
#88 df................................................................................................................................................126
#89 diff.............................................................................................................................................127
#90 diff3...........................................................................................................................................129
#91 e2fsck.........................................................................................................................................130
#92 e2label........................................................................................................................................131
#93 e2mmpstatus..............................................................................................................................132
#94 e4defrag.....................................................................................................................................133
#95 ebook-convert............................................................................................................................134
#96 ebook-meta................................................................................................................................135
#97 ebook-polish..............................................................................................................................136
#98 echo............................................................................................................................................137
 5

#99 ed...............................................................................................................................................139
#100 egrep........................................................................................................................................142
#101 eject..........................................................................................................................................144
#102 env...........................................................................................................................................145
#103 evince.......................................................................................................................................146
#104 faillog.......................................................................................................................................147
#105 factor........................................................................................................................................148
#106 fakeroot....................................................................................................................................149
#107 fallocate...................................................................................................................................150
#108 fc..............................................................................................................................................151
#109 fc-list........................................................................................................................................153
#110 fdisk.........................................................................................................................................154
#111 fgrep.........................................................................................................................................155
#112 fg..............................................................................................................................................156
#113 file............................................................................................................................................157
#114 find...........................................................................................................................................159
#115 finger........................................................................................................................................160
#116 findfs........................................................................................................................................161
#117 findmnt.....................................................................................................................................162
#118 firefox......................................................................................................................................163
#119 fmt............................................................................................................................................164
#120 fold...........................................................................................................................................165
#121 for............................................................................................................................................166
#122 free...........................................................................................................................................167
#123 fsck..........................................................................................................................................168
#124 fsck.ext4...................................................................................................................................169
#125 ftp.............................................................................................................................................171
#126 funzip.......................................................................................................................................173
#127 fuser.........................................................................................................................................174
#128 getent.......................................................................................................................................175
#129 getfacl......................................................................................................................................176
#130 gpasswd...................................................................................................................................178
#131 groupadd..................................................................................................................................179
#132 groupdel...................................................................................................................................180
#133 groupmod.................................................................................................................................181
#134 gpg...........................................................................................................................................182
#135 gpg-zip.....................................................................................................................................184
#136 gzip..........................................................................................................................................185
#137 groupmems..............................................................................................................................188
#138 grep..........................................................................................................................................189
#139 groups......................................................................................................................................192
#140 gcc............................................................................................................................................193
#141 gawk........................................................................................................................................194
#142 gunzip......................................................................................................................................196
#143 halt...........................................................................................................................................197
#144 history......................................................................................................................................198
#145 hash..........................................................................................................................................200
#146 hd.............................................................................................................................................201
#147 head..........................................................................................................................................203
#148 hdparm.....................................................................................................................................205
 6

#149 help..........................................................................................................................................206
#150 host..........................................................................................................................................207
#151 hostid.......................................................................................................................................209
#152 hostnamectl..............................................................................................................................210
#153 hostname..................................................................................................................................211
#154 hwclock....................................................................................................................................213
#155 hwe-support-status...................................................................................................................215
#156 id..............................................................................................................................................216
#157 ifconfig....................................................................................................................................217
#158 import......................................................................................................................................220
#159 info...........................................................................................................................................221
#160 init............................................................................................................................................222
#161 insmod.....................................................................................................................................223
#162 install.......................................................................................................................................224
#163 ip..............................................................................................................................................225
#164 iptables.....................................................................................................................................227
#165 isoinfo......................................................................................................................................229
#166 isosize......................................................................................................................................230
#167 iwconfig...................................................................................................................................231
#168 iwlist........................................................................................................................................232
#169 jobs..........................................................................................................................................233
#170 journalctl..................................................................................................................................235
#171 join...........................................................................................................................................236
#172 kill............................................................................................................................................237
#173 killall........................................................................................................................................239
#174 kmod........................................................................................................................................240
#175 last............................................................................................................................................241
#176 lastlog......................................................................................................................................242
#177 lastb..........................................................................................................................................243
#178 ldd............................................................................................................................................244
#179 link...........................................................................................................................................245
#180 less...........................................................................................................................................246
#181 ln..............................................................................................................................................247
#182 locale........................................................................................................................................248
#183 localectl....................................................................................................................................249
#184 logger.......................................................................................................................................250
#185 login.........................................................................................................................................252
#186 loginctl.....................................................................................................................................253
#187 logname...................................................................................................................................254
#188 logout.......................................................................................................................................255
#189 logrotate...................................................................................................................................256
#190 logsave.....................................................................................................................................257
#191 look..........................................................................................................................................258
#192 lsattr.........................................................................................................................................260
#193 ls..............................................................................................................................................262
#194 lshw..........................................................................................................................................264
#195 lsb_release...............................................................................................................................266
#196 lscpu.........................................................................................................................................267
#197 lsblk.........................................................................................................................................269
#198 lspci..........................................................................................................................................271
 7

#199 lsof...........................................................................................................................................273
#200 lslocks......................................................................................................................................275
#201 lsmem......................................................................................................................................276
#202 lsns...........................................................................................................................................278
#203 lsinitramfs................................................................................................................................281
#204 lsipc..........................................................................................................................................282
#205 lslogins.....................................................................................................................................284
#206 lsmod.......................................................................................................................................287
#207 lsusb.........................................................................................................................................288
#208 man..........................................................................................................................................289
#209 mandb......................................................................................................................................291
#210 manpath...................................................................................................................................292
#211 md5sum....................................................................................................................................293
#212 mesg.........................................................................................................................................295
#213 mkdir........................................................................................................................................296
#214 mkswap....................................................................................................................................297
#215 modinfo....................................................................................................................................298
#216 modprobe.................................................................................................................................300
#217 mke2fs.....................................................................................................................................302
#218 mkfs.ext4.................................................................................................................................304
#219 mkfs.ntfs / mkfs.vfat................................................................................................................305
#220 mkinitramfs..............................................................................................................................306
#221 mkisofs....................................................................................................................................307
#222 more.........................................................................................................................................308
#223 mount.......................................................................................................................................310
#224 mdadm.....................................................................................................................................312
#225 mv............................................................................................................................................315
#226 nice..........................................................................................................................................317
#227 nmap........................................................................................................................................318
#228 networkctl................................................................................................................................321
#229 netstat.......................................................................................................................................323
#230 nisdomainname........................................................................................................................326
#231 nano.........................................................................................................................................328
#232 nmcli........................................................................................................................................332
#233 nl..............................................................................................................................................334
#234 netcat........................................................................................................................................336
#235 newgrp.....................................................................................................................................337
#236 newusers..................................................................................................................................338
#237 nohup.......................................................................................................................................339
#238 nproc........................................................................................................................................340
#239 nslookup..................................................................................................................................341
#240 nstat..........................................................................................................................................342
#241 on_ac_power............................................................................................................................343
#242 openssl.....................................................................................................................................344
#243 od.............................................................................................................................................346
#244 banner......................................................................................................................................348
#245 parted.......................................................................................................................................349
#246 partprobe..................................................................................................................................351
#247 partx.........................................................................................................................................352
#248 passwd.....................................................................................................................................353
 8

#249 paste.........................................................................................................................................355
#250 patch........................................................................................................................................357
#251 pdf2ps......................................................................................................................................359
#252 pdffonts....................................................................................................................................360
#253 pdfinfo.....................................................................................................................................361
#254 pdftotext...................................................................................................................................362
#255 pgrep........................................................................................................................................363
#256 pidgin.......................................................................................................................................365
#257 pidof.........................................................................................................................................366
#258 ping..........................................................................................................................................367
#259 pip , pip3..................................................................................................................................369
#260 pkcon.......................................................................................................................................372
#261 pkexec......................................................................................................................................374
#262 pkg-config................................................................................................................................375
#263 grpck........................................................................................................................................376
#264 pkill..........................................................................................................................................377
#265 pmap........................................................................................................................................379
#266 popd.........................................................................................................................................381
#267 poweroff...................................................................................................................................383
#268 pr..............................................................................................................................................384
#269 printf........................................................................................................................................386
#270 printenv....................................................................................................................................387
#271 prtstat.......................................................................................................................................388
#272 ps..............................................................................................................................................389
#273 pstree........................................................................................................................................392
#274 ps2pdf......................................................................................................................................394
#275 pvck.........................................................................................................................................395
#276 pwconv....................................................................................................................................396
#277 pwd..........................................................................................................................................397
#278 pwdx........................................................................................................................................398
#279 qemu-img.................................................................................................................................399
#280 rcp............................................................................................................................................402
#281 renice.......................................................................................................................................403
#282 reboot.......................................................................................................................................404
#283 realpath....................................................................................................................................406
#284 rev............................................................................................................................................407
#285 replace......................................................................................................................................408
#286 reset..........................................................................................................................................409
#287 resize2fs...................................................................................................................................410
#288 resizepart..................................................................................................................................411
#289 return........................................................................................................................................412
#290 rfkill.........................................................................................................................................413
#291 rlogin........................................................................................................................................415
#292 rm.............................................................................................................................................416
#293 rmdir........................................................................................................................................418
#294 rmmod......................................................................................................................................419
#295 route.........................................................................................................................................420
#296 rsh............................................................................................................................................422
#297 rsync........................................................................................................................................423
#298 rsyslogd....................................................................................................................................426
 9

#299 runlevel....................................................................................................................................428
#300 runuser.....................................................................................................................................429
 10

#1 apt

apt - command line interface for Ubuntu and Debian based systems
apt provides a high-level command line interface for the package
management system

To install packages
$ sudo apt install package_name

To Check All Dependencies of a Package

$ sudo apt depends bind9

To Search for a Package

$ sudo apt search apache2

To View Information About Package

$ sudo apt show apache2

To Verify a Package for any Broken Dependencies

$ sudo apt check apache2

To Update System Packages

$ sudo apt update

To Upgrade System
$ sudo apt upgrade

To Remove Unused Packages

$ sudo apt autoremove

To Clean Old Repository of Downloaded Packages

$ sudo apt autoclean
 11

To Remove Packages with its Configuration Files

$ sudo apt purge apache2

To Install .Deb Package

$ sudo apt deb package-amd64.deb

To Find Help for apt

$ sudo apt help

To Remove Packages
$ sudo apt remove package_name

To List Packages
$ sudo apt list
 12

#2 apt-cache

apt-cache - query the APT cache for debian and ubuntu based system

Examples:

To Find Out Package Name and Description of Software

$ sudo apt-cache search vsftpd

To find and list down all the packages starting with apache2
$ sudo apt-cache pkgnames apache2

To List All Available Packages

$ sudo apt-cache pkgnames

To Check Package Information

$ sudo apt-cache show apache2

To Check Dependencies for Specific Packages

$ sudo apt-cache showpkg vsftpd

To Check statistics of Cache

$ sudo apt-cache stats

To install Packages without Upgrading

$ sudo apt-get install packageName --no-upgrade

To Upgrade Only Specific Packages

$ sudo apt-get install packageName --only-upgrade

To Remove Packages Without Configuration

$ sudo apt-get remove package_name
 13

To Completely Remove Packages

$ sudo apt-get purge package_name

To Clean Up Disk Space

$ sudo apt-get clean

To Download a Package Without Installing

$ sudo apt-get download apache2

To Check Change Log of Package

$ sudo apt-get changelog vsftpd

To Check Broken Dependencies

$ sudo apt-get check

To Auto clean Apt-Get Cache

$ sudo apt-get autoclean
 14

#3 ar

ar - create, modify, and extract from archives

install binutils for ar

$ sudo apt install binutils

create 4 text files file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt file4.txt

general syntax to create new archive

$sudo ar r [archive file] [file(s)]

To create a new archive myfiles.a and place all .txt files in

archive
$sudo ar r myfiles.a *.txt

To add a new file file5.txt to the archive

$sudo ar r myfiles.a file5.txt

To print the archive members

$sudo ar p myfiles.a

To print the archive contents in a list format

$sudo ar t myfiles.a

To extract a file4.txt from archive

$sudo ar x myfiles.a file4.txt

To Extract multiple files from archive

$sudo ar x myfiles.a file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt

To Extract all files

$sudo ar x myfiles.a
 15

To delete a file from an archive

$sudo ar d myfiles.a file5.txt

To delete multiple files

$sudo ar d myfiles.a file5.txt file4.txt file3.txt

To read the contents of an archive

$sudo ar pv myfiles.a
 16

#4 add-apt-repository

add-apt-repository - Adds a repository into the

/etc/apt/sources.list
or /etc/apt/sources.list.d or removes an existing one
example:
$ sudo add-apt-repository ppa:PPA_REPOSITORY_NAME/PPA
$ sudo add-apt-repository ppa:libreoffice/ppa

To list all repositories

$ sudo apt policy

To remove PPA repository

$ sudo add-apt-repository --remove ppa:PPA_REPOSITORY_NAME/PPA
$ sudo add-apt-repository --remove ppa:libreoffice/ppa
 17

#5 adduser

adduser - add a user to the system

install the adduser package

$ sudo apt install adduser

To add a new user

$ adduser username

To add a user with a different shell.

$ sudo adduser username --shell /bin/sh

To add a new user with a different configuration file

$ sudo adduser username --conf custom_config.conf

To add a user with different home directory.

$ sudo adduser username --home /home/klug/

To get the version of the adduser command

$ sudo adduser --version

To display the help section of the adduser command

$ sudo adduser -h
 18

#6 useradd

useradd - create a new user or update default new user information

To add a new user klug

$ sudo useradd klug

To set a password for account klug

$ sudo passwd klug

To create a User with Different Home Directory

$ sudo useradd -d /data/myprojects klug

To view user related info

$ sudo cat /etc/passwd | grep klug

To create a User with a Specific User ID

$ sudo useradd -u 1007 klug

Create a User with a Specific Group ID

$ sudo useradd -u 1007 -g mygroup klug
To verify the user’s GID
$ id -gn klug

To Add a User klug to Multiple Groups

$ sudo groupadd admins
$ sudo groupadd devops
$ sudo groupadd cloud
$ sudo usermod -a -G admins,devops,cloud klug
$ sudo useradd -G admins,devops,cloud ilugc

To verify
$ id klug
 19

$ id ilugc

To Add a User without Home Directory

$ sudo useradd -M klug
to check
$ ls -l /home/klug

To Create a User with Account Expiry Date

$ sudo useradd -e 2022-08-30 klug

To verify the age of the account and password

$ chage -l klug

To Create a User with Password Expiry Date

$ sudo useradd -e 2022-04-01 -f 40 klug

To verify
$ sudo chage -l klug

To Add a User with Custom Comments

$ sudo useradd -c "Welcome to foss world +91-9999988888" klug
To verify
$ sudo tail -1 /etc/passwd

To Create User Login Shell in Linux

$ sudo useradd -s /sbin/nologin klug
To check
$ sudo tail -1 /etc/passwd

To Add a User with Specific Home Directory, Default Shell, and

Custom Comment
$ sudo useradd -m -d /var/www/klug -s /bin/bash -c "website admin"
-U klug
 20

To Add a User with Home Directory, Custom Shell, Custom Comment,

and UID/GID
$ sudo useradd -m -d /var/www/klug -s /bin/sh -c "website admin" -
u 1000 -g 100 klug

To Add a User with Home Directory, No Shell, Custom Comment, and

User ID
$ sudo useradd -m -d /var/www/klug -s /usr/sbin/nologin -c "web
admin" -u 1001 klug

To Add a User with Home Directory, Shell, Custom Skell/Comment,

and User ID
$ sudo useradd -m -d /var/www/klug -k /etc/custom.skell -s /bin/sh
-c "custom message" -u 1020 klug

To Add a User without Home Directory, No Shell, No Group, and

Custom Comment
$ sudo useradd -M -N -r -s /bin/false -c "Disabled group Member"
klug
 21

#7 groupadd

groupadd - create a new group

To create a new Linux group

$ sudo groupadd webadmin
To check
$ sudo grep webadmin /etc/group

To Create new group with a specific groupid

$ sudo groupadd webadmin -g 1030
To check
$ sudo grep 1030 /etc/group

To create group with group id with certain range of id

$ sudo groupadd webadmin -K GID_MIN=1500 -K GID_MAX=2000
 22

#8 add group

addgroup - add group to the system

install addgroup package

$ sudo apt install addgroup

To add a new group ilugc

$ sudo addgroup ilugc

To add a new group with specified group id

$ sudo addgroup klug --gid 6789

To create a group with a specific shell

$ sudo addgroup klug --shell /bin/sh

To enter verbose mode

$ sudo addgroup webadmin --debug

To display help related to addgroup command.

$ addgroup --help
 23

#9 alias

alias - customised shortcut for commands

$ sudo alias name="value"

create a user klug with home directory then,

$ sudo alias cd="cd /home/klug"
root@klug:~# cd
root@klug:/home/klug

$ sudo alias d="df -Th"

root@klug:~# d

To print all the defined aliases is reusable format

# alias -p
 24

#10 unalias

unalias - this command will remove the customised shortcuts

created in alias

unalias - Removing an existing alias

$ sudo unalias [alias name]

$ sudo alias d="df -Th"

to remove the alias d

To check

$ sudo alias -p

$ sudo unalias d

will remove the shortcut d for df -Th

 25

#11 apg

apg - generates several random passwords

$ apg -h

display the options

$ apg -n 2 -m 8 -x 10

-n number of passwords

-m minimum password length

-x maximum password length

will give 2 passwords with min password length 8 characters and

max 10 characters
 26

#12 apropos

apropos - search the manual page names and descriptions

example:

$ apropos useradd

$ apropos adduser

$ apropos df

$ apropos free

$ apropos command_name
 27

#13 arch

arch - print machine hardware name

$ arch
 28

#14 badblocks

badblocks - search a device for bad blocks

By default it doesn’t display any output on the screen, when there

are no bad blocks as shown below.
$ sudo badblocks /dev/sda1

To view the badblocks search in verbose mode i.e how much scanning
it has done so far
$ sudo badblocks -v /dev/sda1

By default it uses 1024 as block size , we specify a block size

using -b option
$ sudo badblocks -v -b 2048 /dev/sda1

To Specify Maximum Bad Blocks Count to 100

$ sudo badblocks -v -e 100 /dev/sda1

Write the Badblocks to a File

$ sudo badblocks -v -o badblocks.log /dev/sdb1

To Perform a Badblock Write Mode Test

$ sudo badblocks -vw /dev/sda1

To display current progress of the test

$ sudo badblocks -s /dev/sda1

To specify the number of blocks to be tested at a time ,the

default is 64 blocks.
$sudo badblocks -sc 2000 /dev/sda1
 29

To write the list of badblocks to a file rather than on standard

output
$ sudo badblocks -o out.txt /dev/sda1

To provide an input file which contains a list of known bad blocks

in device, it will skip the known bad blocks at the time of test
$ sudo badblocks -i known-badblocks.txt /dev/sda1

To perform a non-destructive read-write test on device,

$ sudo badblocks -sn /dev/sda1

To test blocks from the first block to the specified last block
$ sudo badblocks -s /dev/sda1 2000

It is specified by passing the starting block number to test as an

option after last block.
$ sudo badblocks -s /dev/sda1 2000 200
 30

#15 bg

bg command in linux is used to place foreground jobs in

background.

$ ping google.com

press CTRL+Z

To view running jobs (in my environment)

$ jobs -l

[1]+ 73192 Stopped ping google.com

To resume the job ping google.com job with job number 1

$ bg %1

To kill the job # ping google.com

$ kill -s stop 73192

or

$ kill -s stop 1

or

$ pkill -stop 73192

or

To kill the job

$ kill -9 73192
 31

#16 blkid

blkid - locate/print block device attributes

To display all the block devices

$ sudo blkid

To display the I/O limits on a particular block device

$ sudo blkid -i /dev/vda1

To displays information about /dev/vda1

$ sudo blkid -p /dev/vda1
$ sudo blkid -pi /dev/vda1

To look up the devices that matches a specific search criteria

$ sudo blkid -l -t TYPE=ext4
$ sudo blkid -l -t TYPE=swap

search based on UUID

$ sudo blkid -U 02a5af55-4c2a-45b7-9876-599abc192ada

To display in list format

$ sudo blkid -o list
 32

#17 bluetoothctl

bluetoothctl - interactive bluetooth control tool

check for bluetoothctl status

$ sudo systemctl status bluetooth
$ sudo systemctl start bluetooth
$ sudo systemctl enable bluetooth

search for Bluetooth devices

$ bluetoothctl scan on

To make your Bluetooth adapter discoverable to other devices

$ bluetoothctl discoverable on

To connect with a Bluetooth device is to pair it with your PC

using the pair command
$ bluetoothctl pair MAC_ID_of_Device

To connect with already paired device

$ bluetoothctl connect MAC_ID-of_Device

To List Paired Devices With bluetoothctl

$ bluetoothctl paired-devices

To list devices that are within the Bluetooth range of your

computer
$ bluetoothctl devices

To trust a Bluetooth device

$ bluetoothctl trust MAC_ID_of_Device

To untrust a device
 33

$ bluetoothctl untrust MAC_ID_of_Device

To unpair a Bluetooth device

$ bluetoothctl remove MAC_ID_of_Device

To disconnect a device from system

$ bluetoothctl disconnect MAC_ID_of_Device

To block a specific device from connecting to system

$ bluetoothctl block MAC_ID_of_Device

To enter interactive mode

$ bluetoothctl
[bluetooth]# devices
[bluetooth]# exit
 34

#18 brctl

brctl - ethernet bridge administration

$ sudo apt install bridge-utils

To Create New Ethernet Bridge using addbr

$ sudo brctl addbr dev
$ sudo brctl addbr stage
$ sudo brctl addbr prod

To Display Available Ethernet Bridge using show

$ sudo brctl show

To Delete Existing Ethernet Bridge using delbr

$ sudo brctl delbr dev

To Add an Interface to Existing Bridge

$ sudo brctl addif dev eth0

To Add Multiple Interfaces to Existing Bridge

$ sudo brctl addif dev eth0 eth1

To Track MAC address of a Bridge

$ sudo brctl showmacs dev

To Set Ageing Time for Mac Address on a Bridge

$ sudo brctl setaging dev 300

To Setup Spanning Tree on Ethernet Bridge

$ sudo brctl stp dev on
or
$ sudo brctl stp dev yes
 35

To turn off spanning tree on your ethernet bridge

$ sudo brctl stp dev off

To Display STP Parameter Values of a Bridge

$ sudo brctl showstp dev

To Change Bridge Parameters Values

$ sudo brctl setageing dev 200
 36

#19 bunzip2

bunzip2 - a block-sorting file compressor

To compress file input.txt it deletes original

$ bzip2 -z input.txt

will give input.txt.bz2

To decompress the input.txt.bz2

$ bzip2 -d input.txt.bz2

To compress file input.txt but does not deletes the original file

$ bzip2 -k input.txt

To check the integrity of file and to check file is corrupt or not

$ bzip2 -t input.txt.bz2

To show the compression ratio for each file processed in verbose

mode

$ bzip2 -v input.txt
 37

#20 bzcat

bzcat - decompresses files to stdout

bzcat - decompresses files to stdout

To read the compressed file without decompressing it

example:

create a file number.txt

$ echo "for(i=1; i<=10000; i++) {i;}" | bc > number.txt

bzip the number.txt file

$ bzip2 number.txt

$ bzcat number.txt.bz2
 38

#21 bzip2recover

bzip2recover - recovers data from damaged bzip2 files

example:
$ bzip2recover file_name
$ bzip2recover archive.tar.bz2
 39

#22 blkdeactivate

blkdeactivate — utility to deactivate block devices

To Deactivate all supported block devices , If a device is

mounted, skip its deactivation

$ sudo blkdeactivate

To Deactivate all supported block devices , If a device is

mounted, unmount it

$ sudo blkdeactivate -u
 40

#23 bc

bc - An arbitrary precision calculator language

$ echo "12+5" | bc

$ echo "10^2" | bc

To store the result of complete operation in variable

$ x=`echo "12+5" | bc`

$ echo $x

$ echo "var=10;var" | bc

$ echo "var=10;var^=2;var" | bc

To store the result of complete operation in variable

$ x=`echo "var=500;var%=7;var" | bc`

$ echo $x

$ echo "var=11;++var" | bc

Variable is increased first and then result of variable is stored

$ echo "var=20;var++" | bc

Result of the variable is used first and then variable is

incremented

$ echo "var=20;--var" | bc

Variable is decreased first and then result of variable is stored

 41

$ echo "var=10;var--" | bc

Result of the variable is used first and then variable is

decremented.
 42

#24 baobab

Baobab - A graphical tool to analyze disk usage

$ baobab

$ baobab /dev/
 43

#25 apparmor

AppArmor is a Linux kernel security module that allows the system

administrator to restrict programs capabilities with per-program
profiles in ubuntu, its similar to selinux in redhat based systems

apparmor_status - display various information about the current

AppArmor policy

$ sudo apparmor_status
 44

#26 aa-enabled

aa-enabled - test whether AppArmor is enabled in ubuntu systems

$ aa-enabled
Yes
 45

#27 aa-remove-unknown

aa-remove-unknown - remove unknown AppArmor profiles

$ sudo aa-remove-unknown
 46

#28 aa-status

aa-status - display various information about the current AppArmor

policy.
$ sudo aa-status
 47

#29 aa-teardown

aa-teardown - unload all AppArmor profiles

$ sudo aa-teardown
 48

#30 bzdiff

bzdiff - compare bzip2 compressed files

examples:
To output a normal diff
$ bzdiff --normal file1.bz2 file2.bz2

To output in two columns

$ bzdiff -y file1.bz2 file2.bz2
 49

#31 bzcmp

bzcmp - compare two bzip2 compressed file internally it uses cmp

command

example:

$ bzcmp -b file1.bz2 file2.bz2

 50

#32 bzgrep

bzgrep - search possibly bzip2 compressed files for a regular

expression

example:

$ bzgrep -i "keyword" file.txt.bz2

$ bzgrep -i "keyword" file1.bz2

 51

#33 bzless

bzless - file perusal filter for crt viewing of bzip2

compressed text

example:
$ echo "for(i=1; i<=10000; i++) {i;}" | bc > number.txt
$ bzip2 number.txt
$ bzless number.txt.bz2
 52

#34 bzmore

bzmore - file perusal filter for crt viewing of bzip2 compressed

text

To view the content of bzip2 compressed files page by page.

example:

$ echo "for(i=1; i<=10000; i++) {i;}" | bc > number.txt

$ bzip2 number.txt

$ bzmore number.txt.bz2
 53

#35 chattr

chattr - change file attributes on a Linux file system

To add attributes on files and immutable to secure from deletion

create file sample.txt
$ sudo chattr +i sample.txt

To list the file attributes on a Linux second extended file system

$ lsattr sample.txt
----i---------e----- sample.txt
Now change permission , rename , remove force will not be
permitted

To unset attribute on Files

$ sudo chattr -i sample.txt
$ lsattr sample.txt
--------------e----- sample.txt
Now its possible to rename , remove , change permissions of the
file sample.txt

To open the file only in append mode and the previous data cannot
be modified
create a text file example.txt
$ sudo chattr +a example.txt
$ lsattr example.txt
-----a--------e----- example.txt

$ echo "this is line two" > example.txt

bash: sample.txt: Operation not permitted
$ echo "this is line two" >> example.txt
$ cat example.txt
 54

this is line one

this is line two

To secure entire directory important_folder and its files

$ sudo chattr -R +i important_folder

To unset it
$ sudo chattr -R -i important_folder
 55

#36 cancel

cancel - cancel jobs

examples:

To cancel the current print job

$ cancel

To cancel all jobs

$ cancel -a

To cancel job printer-1

$ cancel printer-1

To cancel with printer name laser-100

$ cancel laser-100

To cancel all the print jobs that are queued for the user klug

$ cancel -u klug
 56

#37 cat

cat - concatenate files and print on the standard output

example:
To display contents of file
$ cat /etc/group

To view contents of multiple files

$ cat file3.txt file4.txt

To create a file with cat command

$ cat > file5.txt
this is file 5
^D

To view cat command with large file size

$ cat file.txt | more
$ cat file.txt | less

To display $ at the end of each Line using cat

$ cat -E file1.txt

To display line numbers in file

$ cat -n number.txt

To display multiple files

$ cat file1.txt; cat file2.txt; cat file3.txt

To redirect the standard output of a file into a new file

$ cat file1 > file2
 57

To append in existing file

$ cat file1 >> file2

To redirect all output files to a new single file

$ cat file3.txt file4.txt file5.txt > file6.txt
 58

#38 cd

cd - change directory

example:

change current directory to /usr/share

$ cd /usr/share/

switch back to previous directory

$ cd -

To change current directory to parent directory

$ cd ..

To show last working directory from where we work

$ cd --

To move two directory up from where we now

$ cd ../ ../

move to users home directory from anywhere

$ cd ~
 59

pushd saves the current location to memory and changes to the

requested directory

$ pushd /etc/perl/Net/

/etc/perl/Net ~

when popd command is entered, fetch the saved directory location

from memory and makes it current working directory

$ popd
 60

#39 cfdsik

cfdisk - display or manipulate a disk partition table

example:

$ sudo cfdisk

$ sudo cfdisk /dev/sda1

 61

#40 chacl

chacl - change the access control list of a file or directory

example:

To change the ACL of a file

$ chacl u::rwx,g::r-x,o::r-- file

To set default acl for a directory

$ chacl -d u::rwx,g::r-x,o::r-- file_name

To remove the ACL

$ chacl -R file

To remove the directory default ACL

$ chacl -D /directory_name

To remove all ACL

$ chacl -B file

To list the ACL for a file/directory

$ chacl -l file/directory

To set the access ACL recursively

$ chacl -r u::r-x,g::r-x,o::r-- /directory

 62

#41 chage

chage - change user password expiry information

example:

To view the list of options

$ chage -h

To view the account aging information

$ chage -l user_name

To set the last password change date to your specified date

$ chage -d 2022-03-01 user_name

To set the date when the account should expire

$ chage -E 2022-06-30 user_name

To specify the maximum and minimum number of days between password

change

$ chage -M 90 user_name

To give prior warning 7days before the password expires

$ chage -W 7 user_name
 63

To make the user account to be locked after X number of inactivity

days

$ chage -I 10 user_name
 64

#42 check-bios-nx

check-bios-nx - determine if BIOS has blocked CPU's NX

capabilities

NX stands for No eXecute is a technology used in processors to

prevent the execution of certain types of code

This program attempts to determine if the running x86-based CPU

has NX capabilities

If the CPU is NX-capable but the nx bit is missing from flags,

exit 1 otherwise exit 0 (nothing wrong with BIOS)

$ sudo check-bios-nx --verbose

ok: the NX bit is operational on this CPU.

 65

#43 check-language-support

check-language-support - returns the list of missing packages in

order to provide a complete language environment

To show installed packages as well as missing ones

$ check-language-support --show-installed

To check all available languages

$ check-language-support -a
 66

#44 cheese

cheese - tool to take pictures and videos from your webcam

To Start in fullscreen mode

$ cheese -f

Start in wide mode, with the thumbnails to the right of the video
preview

$ cheese -w

To use the supplied DEVICE as the video capture device

$ cheese --device=DEVICE
 67

#45 cal

cal - displays a calendar

example:

To Show current month calendar

$ cal

To Show calendar of selected month and year

$ cal August 2002

To Show the calendar of current year with the current date

highlighted

$ cal -y

To Show the whole calendar of the year

$ cal 2010

To Show calendar of previous, current and next month

$ cal -3
 68

#46 chfn

chfn - change real user name and information

$ chfn

Password:

Changing the user information for klug

Enter the new value, or press ENTER for the default

Full Name: klug

Room Number [123]: 456

Work Phone [9898]: 2323

Home Phone [9999]: 4545

To change the full name on the account

$ sudo chfn -f kanchilug klug

To change the work phone number on the account

$ sudo chfn -w 9999988888 klug

To change the room number on the account

$ sudo chfn -r 8888 klug

To change the home phone number on the account

$ sudo chfn -h 7777 klug

 69

To change any other detail on the account

$ sudo chfn -o "7th floor room 55555" klug

 70

#47 chgrp

chgrp - change group ownership

To change a directory group ownership

$ sudo chgrp ilugc example

To change group ownership of a file

$ sudo chgrp ilugc abc.txt

To recursively change group ownership

$ sudo chgrp -R ilugc example

To change the group of a file to match the group of another,

reference file

To change the group ownership of the file abc.file to be the same

as that of the test.file

$ sudo chgrp --reference=test.file abc.file

To list the changes that happened in our example directory

$ sudo chgrp -c -R ilugc example

To describe the action or non-action taken for every File

$ sudo chgrp -v ilugc file1

To change the group name of link files

 71

$ sudo chgrp --dereference ilugc symbolic_link

To suppress potential error messages when executing the chgrp

command

$ sudo chgrp -f [GROUP_NAME] [DIRECTORY/FILE_NAME]

$ sudo chgrp -f ilugc no_file

 72

#48 chmem

chmem - configure memory

The chmem command sets a particular size or range of memory

online or offline

To request 1024 MiB of memory to be set online

$ sudo chmem --enable 1024

2 GiB of memory to be set online

$ sudo chmem -e 2g

This command requests the memory range starting with

0x00000000e4000000 and ending with 0x00000000f3ffffff to be set

offline

$ sudo chmem --disable 0x00000000e4000000-0x00000000f3ffffff

The memory block number 10 to be set off‐line

$ chmem -b -d 10
 73

#49 chmod (symbolic mode)

chmod - change file mode bits

Symbolic Method
u - The file owner.
g - The users who are members of the group.
o - All other users.
a - All users, equal to ugo.

r - read
w - write
x - execute

- Removes the specified permissions.

+ Adds specified permissions.
= Changes the current permissions to the specified permissions

To set group permission to read the file

$ chmod g=r file_name

To set other users permission to read the file

$ chmod o=r file_name

To set user , group and others permission to read the file

$ chmod ugo=r file_name

To set no permission to execute for all users

$ chmod a-x file_name
or
$ chmod ugo-x file_name
 74

To set user alone full permission and no permission to group and

other users
$ chmod og-rwx filename

To set user , group and others full permissions

$ chmod a=rwx file_name
or
$ chmod ugo=rwx file_name

To set read, write and execute permission to the file’s owner,

read permissions to the file’s group and no permissions to all
other users
$ chmod u=rwx,g=r,o= file_name

To set file owners permission to group and others permissions

$ chmod g+u,o+u file_name

To set sticky bit to a given directory

$ chmod o+t dir_name

To set Recursively remove the write permission for other users and
group
$ chmod -R o-w,g-w dir_name
 75

#50 chmod (numeric mode)

chmod - change file mode bits

numeric method
r (read) = 4
w (write) = 2
x (execute) = 1
no permissions = 0

rwx=4+2+1=7
rw= 4+2=6
rx= 4+1=5

To set read , write , execute permission to users , group and

others
$ chmod 777 file_name

To set read , write , execute permission to users and read

permission only for group and others
$ chmod 744 file_name

To set users read, write and execute permissions, read and execute
permissions to group members and no permissions to all other users
$ chmod 750 file_name

To recursively set read, write, and execute permissions to the

file owner and no permissions for group and all other users on a
given directory
$ chmod -R 700 dir_name

To set the file’s permissions to be same for (file2_name) as those

of the specified reference file (file1_name)
 76

$ chmod --reference=file1_name file2_name

To set the permissions of all files and subdirectories under

the /var/www to 700
$ chmod -R 700 /var/www

To set read, write, and execute permissions, and a sticky bit to a

given directory
$ chmod 1777 dir_name
 77

#51 chown

chown - change file owner and group

To change the owner of a file

$ sudo chown klug file.txt

To change the group of a file

$ sudo chown :developers file.txt

To change both owner and the group

$ sudo chown klug:developers file.txt

To change on symbolic link file

$ sudo chown ilugc:devops symlnk_file

To forcefully change the owner/group of symbolic file

$ sudo chown -h ilugc:devops symlnk_file

To change owner only if a file is owned by a particular user

$ sudo chown --from=klug ilugc file_name

To change group only if a file already belongs to a certain group

$ sudo chown --from=:developers :devops file_name

 78

To copy the owner/group settings from one file to another

$ sudo chown --reference=fileX fileY

To change the owner/group of the files by traveling the

directories recursively

$ sudo chown -R ilugc:devops dir_name/

To forcefully change the owner/group of a symbolic link directory

recursively

$ sudo chown -R -H klug:developers symlnk_dir

To list all the changes made by the chown command

$ sudo chown -v -R ilugc:devops file_name

 79

#52 chpasswd

chpasswd - update passwords in batch mode

$ sudo chpasswd

klug: p@ssword1

ilugc: p@ssword2

CTRL+D

storing username and password in a file and give input to chpasswd

$ cat > password.txt

klug: p@ssword1

ilugc: p@ssword2

then,

$sudo chpasswd < password.txt

or

$ sudo cat password.txt | chpasswd

To apply encryption algorithm on password

$sudo chpasswd -c SHA512

$ sudo chpasswd -c SHA256

$ sudo chpasswd --md5

 80

#53 chsh

chsh - change login shell

To set login shell for user1

$ chsh -s /bin/bash user1

$ chsh

Password: *****

Changing the login shell for klug

Enter the new value, or press ENTER for the default

Login Shell [/bin/bash]: /bin/sh

To change current login shell from sh to bash

$ echo $SHELL

/bin/sh

$ chsh -s /bin/bash

$ echo $SHELL

/bin/bash
 81

#54 cksum

cksum - checksum and count the bytes in a file

cksum command in Linux is used to display a cyclic redundancy

check (CRC) value

CRC is unique for each file and only changes if the file is edited

$ cksum file.txt

2410262730 15 file.txt

after transfer of file.txt to other device or location

check with cksum

$ cksum file.txt

2410262730 15 file.txt

CRC value is same hence the file is not corrupted or edited

 82

#55 clear

clear - clear the terminal screen

clear the terminal

$ clear

or

CTRL+l

or

$ reset

or

$ printf "\033c"
 83

#56 cmp

cmp - compare two files byte by byte

cmp command reports the byte and line number if a difference is

found

$ cmp file1.txt file2.txt

To display the differing bytes in the output

$ cmp -b file1.txt file2.txt

To skip a particular number of initial bytes from both the files

$ cmp -i 100 file1.txt file2.txt

To input the number of bytes we want to skip

$ cmp -i 100:120 file1.txt file2.txt

To print byte position and byte value for all differing bytes

$ cmp -l file1.txt file2.txt

To limit the number of bytes we want to compare

$ cmp -n 500 file1.txt file2.txt

 84

#57 colrm

colrm - remove columns from a file

$ cat number.txt

123456789

$ colrm 4 6 < number.txt

123789

it will remove 4 5 and 6 column in the line

$ colrm 1 3 < number.txt

456789

it will remove 1 2 and 3 column in the line

 85

#58 column

column - columnate lists

To display the information of the text file in form of columns

$ column employee.txt

To List File Content in Tabular Format

$ column -t employee.txt

To convert file rows into columns

$ column -x employee.txt
 86

#59 comm

comm - compare two sorted files line by line

$ cat file1.txt

D1

D2

S1

S2

X1

$ cat file2.txt

D1

D2

S1

Z1

$ comm file1.txt file2.txt

To display first column

$ comm -23 file1.txt file2.txt

To display second column

$ comm -13 file1.txt file2.txt

 87

To display third column

$ comm -12 file1.txt file2.txt

 88

#60 compgen

compgen - is a bash built-in command which is used to list all

the commands that could be executed in the Linux system

To list all commands available to be directly executed.

$ compgen -c

To search for commands having a specific keyword

$ compgen -c | grep reminna

To count total number of commands available for use

$ compgen -c | wc -l

To list all the bash alias

$ compgen -a

To list all the bash built-ins

$ compgen -b

To list all the bash keywords

$ compgen -k

To list all the bash functions

$ compgen -A function
 89

#61 convert

convert - convert between image formats as well as resize an

image,blur, crop, despeckle, dither, draw on, flip, join, re-
sample

$ convert picture.jpg picture.png

$ convert picture.png picture.jpg

$ convert picture.jpg -rotate 45 picture.png

$ convert picture.png -flip picture.png

$ convert picture.jpg -font courier -fill black -pointsize 50 -

annotate +50+50 'ILUGC' picture.jpg

$ convert picture.jpg picture_flip.jpg -append appended.jpg

 90

#62 cpio

cpio - copy files to and from archives

To create a *.cpio file

$ ls | cpio -ov > my_files.cpio

To extract a *.cpio file

$ cpio -iv < my_files.cpio

To create *.tar archive file using cpio

$ ls | cpio -ov -H tar > myfiles.tar

To extract *.tar archive file using cpio

$ cpio -iv -F myfiles.tar

To create a *.cpio archive with selected files

$ find . -iname "*.txt" | cpio -ov > myfiles.cpio

To create a *.tar archive with selected files

$ find . -iname "*.txt" | cpio -ov -H tar > myfiles.cpio

To only view *.tar archive file using cpio

$ cpio -it -F myfiles.tar

 91

#63 cp

cp - copy files and directories

To copy file to a directory

$ cp file_name /opt/

To copying multiple files to a directory

$ cp file1_name file2_name file3_name /opt

To copying the files interactively

$ cp -i file_name /opt

To verbose output during copy command

$ cp -v file_name /opt

To copying a directory or folder

$ cp -r /home/klug /opt/backup

To archive files and directory during copy

$ cp -a /home/klug /opt/backup/

To copy only when source file is newer than the target file

$ cp -v -u file_*.txt /opt/backup/
 92

To create symbolic links using cp command

$ cp -s /home/klug/file1.txt /opt/backup/

To create hard link using cp command

$ cp -l /home/klug/file.txt /opt/backup/

To copy attributes from source to destination

$ cp --attributes-only /home/klug/file.txt /opt/backup/

To preserve mode, ownership and timestamps when copying

$ cp -p file.txt /opt/backup/

To copy the files and directory forcefully

$ cp -f file.txt /opt/backup
 93

#64 cracklib-check

cracklib-check - Check passwords using libcrack2

$ echo "abcdef123456" | cracklib-check

$ echo "password" | cracklib-check

$ echo "Wsd234$#@" | cracklib-check

or

$ cracklib-check<<<"Wsd234$#@"
 94

#65 crontab

crontab - maintain crontab files for individual users

To list crontab entries

$ crontab -l

To edit the crontab entry

$ crontab -e

To list scheduled cron jobs

$ crontab -u ilugc -l

To remove scheduled jobs without confirmation

$ crontab -r

To prompt before deleting crontab

$ crontab -i -r

To schedule Jobs for Specific Time

$ crontab -e

00 09 * * * /home/ilugc/mycode.sh
 95

To disable email notification.

$ crontab -e

* * * * * >/dev/null 2>&1
 96

#66 ctrlaltdel

ctrlaltdel - set the function of the Ctrl-Alt-Del combination

$ sudo ctrlaltdel

soft

To set ctrlaltdel function to hard

$ sudo ctrlaltdel hard

hard
 97

#67 csplit

csplit - split a file into sections determined by context lines

$ cat file.txt

one

two

three

four

five

six

To split file.txt into two parts (second part from 4 th line)

$ csplit file.txt 4

two files named xx00 and xx01 created

To prefix in abc in place of ‘xx’ in output

$ csplit -f abc file.txt 4

$ ls

$ cat abc00

$ cat abc01
 98

#68 curl

curl - transfer a URL

$ curl https://www.ilugc.in

To display a progress meter during use to indicate the transfer

rate, amount of data transferred, time left, etc

$ curl -# -O ftp://ftp.mysite.com/file.zip

To resumes download which has been stopped when downloading large

files was interrupted

$ curl -C - -O ftp://mysite.int/10000MB.zip

To limit the upper bound of the rate of data transfer and keeps it
around the given value in bytes.

$ curl --limit-rate 500K -O ftp://mysite.in/10000MB.zip

To download files from user authenticated FTP servers

$ curl -u username:P@ssword -O ftp://mysite.in/confidential.txt

To upload a file to the FTP server, use the -T followed by the

name of the file to upload

$ curl -T file.zip -u username:P@ssword ftp://ftp.example.com/

 99

#69 cut

cut - remove sections from each line of files

$ cat file.txt

Alpha is first line

Beta is second line

Charlie is third line

Delta is fourth line

To display 2nd character from each line of a file

$ cut -c2 file.txt

To extract first 3 characters of each line from file.txt

$ cut -c1-3 file.txt

To extract 7 characters from the beginning of each line in

file.txt

$ cut -c-7 test.txt

To display only first field of each lines from a file using

delimiter ":"

$ cut -d':' -f1 file_name

 100

#70 dumpe2fs

dumpe2fs - dump ext2/ext3/ext4 filesystem information

To dump the file system information about a device

$ sudo dumpe2fs /dev/sda1

To display superblock information

$ sudo dumpe2fs -h /dev/sda1

To display Information of block groups

$ sudo dumpe2fs /dev/sda1

To view about superblocks

$ sudo dumpe2fs /dev/sda1 | grep -i superblock

 101

#71 du

du - estimate file space usage

To check the disk usage summary of a directory

$ du /etc

$ du /home

To check disk usage in a human-readable format

$ du -h /etc

$ du -h /home/ilugc

To check the total usage size of a particular directory

$ du -sh /etc

To list the disk usage of all files in human readable format

including directories

$ du -ah /home/ilugc

To print the grand total for a directory

$ du -ch /home/ilugc

To change the default block size output to Kilobytes, Megabytes or

Gigabytes

$ du -BK /home/klug

$ du -BM /home/klug
 102

$ du -BG /home/ilugc

To check the size of all the sub-directories in their current

location

$ du -h --max-depth=1 /home/ilugc

or

$ du -h -d1 /home/ilugc

To exclude a particular type of file ex. python files while

calculating the disk size

$ du -h --exclude="*.py" /home/ilugc/Documents

To check the disk usage of the last modification time

$ du -ha --time log

To show summary of size

$ du -s /home/ilugc/Documents
 103

#72 dpkg-reconfigure

dpkg-reconfigure - reconfigure an already installed package

$ sudo dpkg-reconfigure -f package_name

$ sudo dpkg-reconfigure phpmyadmin

 104

#73 dpkg-query

dpkg-query - a tool to query the dpkg database

Display package status details

$ dpkg-query -s apache2

List files 'owned' by package

$ dpkg-query -L apache2

List packages concisely

$ dpkg-query -l apache2

Show information on package

$ dpkg-query -W apache2

Find package owning file

$ dpkg-query -S apache2
 105

#74 dpkg

dpkg - package manager for Debian

To install a package

$ sudo dpkg -i package_name.deb

To list all the installed packages

$ sudo dpkg -l

To remove a package

$ sudo dpkg -r flashpluginnonfree

To remove the package along with configuration file

$ sudo dpkg -p flashpluginnonfree

To view the content of a package

$ sudo dpkg -c package_name.deb

To check a package is installed or not

$ sudo dpkg -s package_name.deb

check the location of packages installed

$ sudo dpkg -L package_name.deb

 106

To display dpkg licence

$ sudo dpkg --licence

 107

#75 do-release-upgrade

do-release-upgrade - upgrade operating system to latest release

$ sudo apt update

$ sudo apt upgrade

$ do-release-upgrade
 108

#76 domainname

domainname - show or set the system's NIS/YP domain name

To show alias names

$ domainame -a

To show all long host names (FQDNs)

$ domainname -A

To print DNS domain name

$ domainame -d

To print addresses for the host name

$ domainname -i

To show all addresses for the host

$ domainname -I

To show short host name

$ domainname -s

To show NIS/YP domain name

$ domainname -y
 109

#77 dmsetup

dmsetup — low level logical volume management

To list the device mapper devices:

$ sudo dmsetup ls

To get information about any DM device

$ sudo dmsetup info /dev/VG01/LV01

To list the DM device dependencies

$ sudo dmsetup deps /dev/VG01/LV01

To get the status of a DM device

$ sudo dmsetup status /dev/VG01/LV01

To destroy the inactive table for a device

$ sudo dmsetup clear /dev/VG01/LV01

To remove all the devices

$ sudo dmsetup remove_all

To rename the device

$ dmsetup /dev/VG01/LV01 /dev/VG07/LV07

 110

To output the table for a device

$ sudo dmsetup table /dev/VG01/LV01

 111

#78 dmidecode

dmidecode - is a tool for dumping a computer's DMI (some say

SMBIOS) table contents in a human-readable format

To get information about Processor

$ sudo dmidecode -t processor

To get hardware information

$ sudo dmidecode

To get BIOS information

$ sudo dmidecode -t bios

To print less verbose output

$ sudo dmidecode -q

To display the value of the given DMI string

$ sudo dmidecode -s processor-frequency

To get information about Baseboard

$ sudo dmidecode -t baseboard

To get information about Chassis

$ sudo dmidecode -t 3
 112

To display the version

$ sudo dmidecode -V

To get DMI types

$ sudo dmidecode -t 6

To get the cache information

$ sudo dmidecode -t cache

To get memory Information

$ sudo dmidecode -t 16

To get the manufacturer, model and serial number

$ sudo dmidecode -t system

To Display Information of about Installed Physical Memory and

DIMMs

$ sudo dmidecode -t 17

To find the maximum physical memory supported by your system

$ sudo dmidecode -t 16
 113

#79 dmesg

dmesg - print or control the kernel ring buffer, it display

message command and to display kernel-related messages

$ sudo dmesg | less

To read dmesg output in human readable format

$ sudo dmesg -H

To monitor real-time logs

$ sudo dmesg --follow

To print last or first 15 lines

$ sudo dmesg | head -15

$ sudo dmesg | tail -15

To search for a specific string or patterns

$ sudo dmesg | grep -i usb

To check for hard disk and will display the messages wherever sda
is listed

$ sudo dmesg | grep -i sda

To list all the informational messages

$ sudo dmesg -l info

 114

To display dmesg messages for eth0 user interface

$ sudo dmesg | grep -i eth0

 115

#80 dirname

dirname - strip last component from file name

$ dirname /home/ilugc/myscript.sh

/home/ilugc

$ dirname -z /home/klug/autoscript.sh

/home/klug
 116

#81 dir

dir - list directory contents

To display all the hidden files

$ dir -a

$ dir -A

To Displays author of all the files

$ dir -l --author

To list in single column

$ dir -1

To list with commas

$ dir -m
 117

#82 dig

dig - DNS lookup utility

To perform a DNS lookup

$ dig ilugc.in

$ dig @8.8.8.8 google.com

To display only the IP address associated with the domain name

$ dig google.com +short

$ dig ilugc.in +short

The +trace option lists each different server the query goes
through to its final destination

$ dig google.com +trace

To look up a domain name by its IP address

$ dig -x yy.zz.aa.bb

yy.zz.aa.bb ip address

Batch Mode for Reading Host Names From a File

store domain names in domain.txt and give input to dig command

$ dig -f domain.txt +short

 118

#83 date

date - print or set the system date and time

date command displays the current date and time

$ date

To display the time in GMT/UTC time zone

$ date -u

To display the given date string in the format of date

$ date --date="1/04/2020"

$ date --date="April 2 2020"

To display past dates

$ date --date="3 year ago"

$ date --date="5 hours ago"

$date --date="1 month ago"

$ date --date="2 week ago"

$date --date="10 day ago"

To display future date

$date --date="next wed"

$ date --date="next month"

$date --date="2 day"

 119

$date --date="1 year"

To set the system date and time

$date --set="Wed Apr 27 14:20:55 PDT 2022"

To display the date string present at each line of file in the

date and time format

$ cat >> datefile

May 07 2022

Apr 03 2022

$ date --file=datefile

%D: Display date as mm/dd/yy.

%d: Display the day of the month (01 to 31).

%a: Displays the abbreviated name for weekdays (Sun to Sat).

%A: Displays full weekdays (Sunday to Saturday).

%h: Displays abbreviated month name (Jan to Dec).

%b: Displays abbreviated month name (Jan to Dec).

%B: Displays full month name(January to December).

%m: Displays the month of year (01 to 12).

%y: Displays last two digits of the year(00 to 99).

%Y: Display four-digit year.

%T: Display the time in 24 hour format as HH:MM:SS.

%H: Display the hour.

%M: Display the minute.

%S: Display the seconds.

 120

$ date +%[format-option]

$ date "+%D"

$ date "+%D %T"

$ date "+%A %B %d %T %y"

$ date "+%Y/%m/%d"

$ date "+%Y-%m-%d"
 121

#84 dd

dd - convert and copy a file

To backup the entire harddisk

$ dd if=/dev/sdc of=/dev/sdd

To create an image of a Hard Disk

$ dd if=/dev/hdb of=~/hdbdisk.img

To restore using the Hard Disk Image

$ dd if=hdcdisk.img of=/dev/hdd

To create a compressed disk image

$ dd if=/dev/sdb | gzip -c >/tmp/sdbdisk.img.gz

Backup a partition to another

$ dd if=/dev/sdb1 of=/dev/sdc1 bs=4096 conv=noerror,sync

To restore a disk or a partition image

$ dd if=/tmp/sdbdisk.img of=/dev/sdb

To restore compressed image

$ gzip -dc /tmp/sdcdisk.img.gz | dd of=/dev/sdc

 122

To convert case of a file

$ cat file1

abcdefgh

$ dd if=~/file1 of=~/file2 conv=ucase

$ cat file2

ABCDEFGH

$ dd if=~/file2 of=~/file3 conv=lcase

 123

#85 delgroup

delgroup - remove a user or group from the system

$ sudo delgroup group_name

$ sudo delgroup devops_group

 124

#86 delpart

delpart - tell the kernel to forget about a partition

$ sudo umount /dev/sdb2

$ sudo delpart /dev/sdb 2

 125

#87 deluser

deluser - remove a user or group from the system

To delete an user account

$ sudo deluser klug

To delete or account including deleting home directory

$ sudo deluser --remove-home klug

To delete account even while the user logged in

$ sudo deluser --force klug

To delete user account and backup home directory

$ sudo deluser --backup-to /backup_dir klug

 126

#88 df

df - report file system disk space usage

To display all the file system

$ df -a

To display size in human readable format

$ df -h /home/klug

To get complete grand total

$ df -h --total

To display file type

$ df -T /home/ilugc
 127

#89 diff

GNU diff - compare files line by line

$ cat a.txt

Apple

Banana

Grapes

Mango

Papaya

$ cat b.txt

Apple

Banana

Grapes

Mango

The change character can be one of the following:

a - Add the lines.

c - Change the lines.

d - Delete the lines.

$ diff a.txt b.txt

 128

To view differences in context mode

$ diff -c f1.txt f2.txt

To view differences in unified mode

$ diff -u f1.txt f2.txt

To ignores case

$ diff -i f1.txt f2.txt

 129

#90 diff3

GNU diff3 - compare three files line by line

$ cat f1.txt

Hello

This is f1 file.

$ cat f2.txt

This is f2 file.

$ cat f3.txt

This is f3 file.

==== : It means all the files are different.

====1 : File 1 is different.

====2 : File 2 is different.

====3 : File 3 is different.

$ diff3 f1.txt f2.txt f3.txt

treat all files as text

$ diff3 -a f1.txt f2.txt f3.txt

 130

#91 e2fsck

e2fsck - check a Linux ext2/ext3/ext4 file system

To check a partition

$ sudo e2fsck /dev/sdc1

To perform automatic repair using e2fsck

$ sudo e2fsck -p /dev/sdc1

or

$ sudo e2fsck -y /dev/sdc1

To check only using e2fsck

$ sudo e2fsck -n /dev/sdc1

To force the filesystem check

$ sudo e2fsck -f /dev/sdc1

T0 display a progress bar during e2fsck check

$ sudo e2fsck -f -C 0 /dev/sdc1

 131

#92 e2label

e2label - Change the label on an ext2/ext3/ext4 filesystem

To display or change the filesystem label on the ext2, ext3, or

ext4 filesystem located on device

$ sudo e2label /dev/device

$ sudo e2label /dev/device new-label-name-here

To view the label name of partition

$ sudo e2label /dev/sdb1

To set label name of partition

$ sudo e2label /dev/sdb1 mypartition

To remove a partition label name by supplying an empty string

$ sudo e2label /dev/sdb1 ""

 132

#93 e2mmpstatus

e2mmpstatus - it is used to check Multiple-Mount Protection (MMP)

status of an ext4 filesystem with the mmp feature enabled. The
specified filesystem can be a device name or an ext4 filesystem
label or UUID

$ sudo e2mmpstatus /dev/sda1

or

$ sudo e2mmpstatus LABEL=label_name

or

$ sudo e2mmpstatus UUID=cccccccccc-aaaaa-zzzzzzz-yyyyyy-xxxxxxx

 133

#94 e4defrag

e4defrag - online defragmenter for ext4 filesystem

To defragment Linux partitions

$ sudo e4defrag <location>

or

$ sudo e4defrag <device>

$ sudo e4defrag /home/klug/directory

$ sudo e4defrag /dev/sdb2

To defragment your entire system

$ sudo -v e4defrag /
 134

#95 ebook-convert

ebook-convert - tool to convert ebooks format

To convert .epub format to .docx

$ ebook-convert book.epub book.docx

To convert .docx to .epub

$ ebook-convert book.docx book.epub

To convert .epub .mobi

$ ebook-convert book.epub book.mobi

 135

#96 ebook-meta

ebook-meta - ebook-meta process tool

$ ebook-meta ebook_file [options]

To display the meta data of book

$ ebook-meta my_book.pdf

To change the meta data of publish date

$ ebook-meta -d 2020-04-04T01:00:00+00:00 my_book.pdf

$ ebook-meta my_book.pdf

To change the meta data of author

$ ebook-meta -a ilugc linux_book.pdf

To set publisher in meta data

$ ebook-meta -p FTE linux_book.pdf

 136

#97 ebook-polish

ebook-polish – ebook-polish Polishing tries to minimize the

changes to the internal code of your e-book

$ ebook-polish [options] input_file [output_file]

To compress the images losslessly in ebook with quality

$ ebook-polish -i input book.epub new_book.epub

Upgrade the internal structures of the book

upgrades EPUB 2 books to EPUB 3 books

$ ebook-polish -U input book.epub new_book.epub

 137

#98 echo

echo - display a line of text

$ echo [string]

$ echo "Welcome to Linux"

To enable the interpretation of backslash escapes -e option

\b To removes all the spaces in between the text

$ echo -e "Welcome \bto \bLinux"

WelcometoLinux

\c To suppress trailing new line with backspace interpretor ‘-e‘

to

continue without emitting new line.

$ echo -e "Welcome \cto Linux"

Welcome

\n To create new line from where it is used.

$ echo -e "Welcome \nto \nLinux"

Welcome

to

Linux
 138

\t To create horizontal tab spaces

$ echo -e "Welcome \tto \tLinux"

Welcome to Linux

\r To carriage return with backspace interpretor ‘-e‘ to have

specified carriage return in output

$ echo -e "Welcome \rto Linux"

to Linux

\v To create vertical tab spaces

$ echo -e "Welcome \vto \vLinux"

Welcome

to

Linux

To print all files/folders

$ echo *
 139

#99 ed

ed - line-oriented text editor

Type ed

$ ed

To get into insert mode press "a"

$ ed

this is line one

this is line two

this is line three

when you are done writing stop it by “.” (dot)

To view the last line enter “p” into the ed command prompt.

To print all the lines that we inserted in the buffer by using

“,p”

,p

To save these lines into a file write “f [filename]”.

f myfile.txt
 140

To write the data into the file and see how many bytes are written

To exit to the terminal by pressing “Q”

To summarize all

$ ed

this is line one

this is line two

this is line three

this is line three

,p

this is line one

this is line two

this is line three

f myfile.txt

myfile.txt

53

Q
 141

To check

$ cat myfile.txt

this is line one

this is line two

this is line three

 142

#100 egrep

grep, egrep, fgrep, rgrep - print lines that match patterns

$ egrep [ options ] 'PATTERN' files

$ cat myfile.txt

this is line one

this is line two

this is line three

$ egrep this myfile.txt

this is line two

this is line three

To count and print the number of lines that matched the pattern
and not the lines

$ egrep -c this myfile.txt

To Ignore the case of the pattern while matching

$ egrep -i this myfile.txt

This is line one

this is line two

this is line three

 143

To Print only the names of the files that matched.

$ egrep -l this myfile.txt

myfile.txt

To Print only the names of the files that did not have the pattern
quite opposite to -l

$ egrep -L this myfile.txt myfile

myfile

To recursively search for the pattern in all the files of the

directory

$ egrep -r -i '.conf' .

. is current directory

To print each matched line along with the respective line numbers

$ egrep -n config myprogram.py

To print only the matched parts of the line and not the entire
line for each match

$ egrep -o config myprogram.py

To search for matches till the count reaches number mentioned as

argument

$ egrep -m 3 config myprogram.py

 144

#101 eject

eject - eject removable media

To eject default cdrom drive

$ eject -v

To list default device name

$ eject -d

To display available help commands

$ eject -h

To give out more information about the command’s execution

$ eject -v

To display the selected device, but perform no action

$ eject -n
 145

#102 env

env - run a program in a modified environment

To print out a list of all environment variables

$ env

To run a command with an empty environment

$ env -i /bin/sh
$ env
PWD=/home/klug/test
$ exit

To remove variable from the environment

$ env -u variable_name

To end each output line with NULL

$ env -0
 146

#103 evince

Evince - is a document viewer capable of displaying multiple and

single
page document formats like PDF and Postscript

To Run evince in fullscreen mode.

$ evince -f your_book.pdf

To run evince in presentation mode.

$ evince -s your_book.pdf

To open the document on the page with the specified page index
$ evince -i 5 your_book.pdf

To run evince as a previewer

$ evince -w your_book.pdf

Opening a document at a specific page

$ evince --page-label=3 book.pdf

open multiple files

$ evince book1.pdf book2.pdf

To open files on the web

$ evince http://url_path/file.pdf
 147

#104 faillog

faillog - display faillog records or set login failure limits

To display the faillog records for all the users

$ sudo faillog -a

To lock an account klug for 2 minute / 120 seconds after failed

login
$ sudo faillog -l 60 -u username

To set the maximum number of login failures

$ sudo faillog -m 5 username

To reset the counters of login failures

$ sudo faillog -r username

To display faillog records more recent than days

# faillog -t 5 username
# faillog --time DAYS username

To display faillog record or maintains failure counters and limits

$ sudo faillog -u username
 148

#105 factor

factor - Print the prime factors of each specified integer NUMBER

$ factor number

$ factor 1000
1000: 2 2 2 5 5 5

$ factor 10000
10000: 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 5

$ factor 30
30: 2 3 5

$ factor 300
300: 2 2 3 5 5

$ factor 10000000
10000000: 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

$ factor 17
17: 17

$ factor 19
19: 19
 149

#106 fakeroot

fakeroot - fakeroot runs a command in an environment wherein it

appears to have root privileges for file manipulation. This is
useful for allowing users to create archives (tar, ar, .deb etc.)
with files in them with root permissions/ownership

$ fakeroot

# echo "fake root access given" > root.txt

# ls -l root.txt

# ls -l /root

# exit

$ ls -l root.txt
 150

#107 fallocate

fallocate - preallocate or deallocate space to a file

To allocate a file with a size of 2GB and 10 GB

$ fallocate -l 2G file1.img

$ fallocate -l 10G file2.img

check with

$ ls -lh *.img
 151

#108 fc

fc - shell built-in command used to list, edit and re-execute the

most recently entered commands

To display the last 16 commands

$ fc -l

To reverse the order of the commands

$ fc -r

To suppress the line numbers using

$ fc -ln

To list the result starting from a specific command

$ fc -l 2060

To list a commands within a specific range

$ fc -l 2055 2060

To list the commands starting from fallocate command up to the

latest command
$ fc -l f

To list between falloacate to ls command (in this case)

$ fc -l f l

To edit the last command and re-run it again

$ fc

To change the default editor to edit commands

$ fc -e vim
 152

To set "vim" as the new default editor, edit your ~/.profile

FCEDIT=vim
save and exit
$ source ~/.profile
 153

#109 fc-list

fc-list command is a part of the fontconfig system. It is used to

list the available fonts and font styles

To print all the file locations of the font files present in the
system
$ fc-list

To print only the names of the font families

$ fc-list : family

To print only the names of the font families which support the
tamil language code
$ fc-list : family lang=ta
 154

#110 fdisk

fdisk is a dialog-driven program for creation and manipulation of

partition tables. It understands GPT, MBR, Sun, SGI and BSD
partition tables

To view all disk partitions in linux

$ sudo fdisk -l

To view specific disk partition in linux

$ sudo fdisk -l /dev/sda

To view all available fdisk commands

$ sudo fdisk /dev/sda

To print all partition table in linux

$ sudo fdisk /dev/sda
Command (m for help): p

To check Size of a partition in linux

$ sudo fdisk -s /dev/sda3
 155

#111 fgrep

grep, egrep, fgrep, rgrep - print lines that match patterns

To display the count of number of matches

$ fgrep -c "config_value" file.txt

To display the matched lines

$ fgrep -h "config.py" file.txt

To display case insensitive search

$ fgrep -i "Linux" file.txt

To display the file names that match the pattern

$ fgrep -l "config.py" file1 file2

To show line number of file with the line matched

$ fgrep -n "ubuntu" file.txt

To display only lines matched entirely

$ fgrep -x "Keyword_exact_match" file.txt

 156

#112 fg

fg command in linux used to put a background job in foreground.

$ ping ilugc.in

^Z

$ jobs -l

[1]+ 25365 Stopped ping ilugc.in

$ fg %1
 157

#113 file

file - determine file type

$ file [option] [filename]

To display just file type in brief mode

$ file -b filename.py

$ file -b file.img

$ file -b file.txt

$ file -b file.pdf

To display all files’s file type

$ file *

To display all files filetypes in particular directory

$ file /my_home_dir/*

To display the file type of files in specific range

$ file [a-d]*

$ file [e-h]*

To view mime type of file

$ file -i filename.txt
 158

To view file type inside compressed files

$ file -z file.bz2
 159

#114 find

find - search for files in a directory hierarchy

To find all the files whose name is ilugc.txt in current working

directory

$ find . -name ilugc.txt

To find files in home directory

$ find /home -name ilugc.txt

To find all directories whose name is klug in / directory

$ find / -type d -name klug

To find all python files whose name is myprogram.py in current

working directory

$ find . -type f -name myprogram.py

To find all python files in a directory

$ find . -type f -name "*.py"

To find all the files with permission 777

$ find . -type f -perm 0777 -print

To find all empty files

$ find /home -type d -empty

 160

#115 finger

finger - displays the user's login name, real name, terminal name
and write status , idle time, login time, office location and
office phone number

$ finger user_name

$ finger klug

To get idle status and login details of a user

$ finger -s ilugc

To avoid printing PGP key, plan and project details

$ finger -p klug
 161

#116 findfs

findfs - will search the block devices in the system

looking for a filesystem or partition with specified tag

$ findfs LABEL=<label>

$ findfs LABEL=klug

$ findfs UUID=<uuid>

$ findfs UUID=cbbf8b34-7bf1-4dba-9eb0-59e85ade7083

/dev/sda5

$ findfs PARTUUID=<uuid>

$ findfs PARTLABEL=<label>
 162

#117 findmnt

findmnt - it will list all mounted filesystems or search for a

filesystem

To display a list of currently mounted file systems

$ sudo findmnt

To display the information as an ordinary list

$ sudo findmnt -l

To display only file systems of a specific type using the -t

$ sudo findmnt --fstab -t ext4

To print all /etc/fstab filesystems and convert LABEL= and UUID=

tags to the real device name

$ sudo findmnt --fstab --evaluate

To monitor mount, unmount, remount and move actions on a directory

$ sudo findmnt --poll --mountpoint /mnt/my_dir

 163

#118 firefox

firefox - a free and open source web browser from Mozilla

To find out full path to firefox

$ type -a firefox

$ firefox

or

$ /usr/bin/firefox

To open URL in a new window

$ /usr/bin/firefox --new-window https://ilugc.in/

To open Firefox options/preference

$ /usr/bin/firefox --preferences

To set the Firefox app as the default browser

$ /usr/bin/firefox --setDefaultBrowser
 164

#119 fmt

fmt - simple optimal text formatter Reformat each paragraph in

the files, writing to standard output

$ cat file.txt

Hai

all Welcome

to

ILUGC

$ fmt file.txt

Hai all Welcome to ILUGC

To split long lines, but don’t refill them

$ fmt -s file.txt

To make one space between words and two spaces after sentences for
formatting

$ fmt -u file.txt
 165

#120 fold

fold - wrap each input line to fit in specified width

$ fold [OPTION] [FILE]

$ fold testfile.txt

To limit the width by number of columns

$ fold -w[n] testfile.txt

$ fold -w40 testfile.txt

To limit the width of the output by the number of bytes

$ fold -b[n] testfile.txt

$ fold -b30 testfile.txt

To break the lines on spaces so that words are not broken

$ fold -w[n] -s testfile.txt

$ fold -w30 -s testfile.txt

 166

#121 for

for - command in Linux is used to repeatedly execute a set of

command for every element present in the list.

$ for i in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9; do echo $i; done

$ for i in 1 2 3 4 5; do echo "welcome $i times"; done

welcome 1 times

welcome 2 times

welcome 3 times

welcome 4 times

welcome 5 times
 167

#122 free

free - Display amount of free and used memory in the system

$ free

To display free and used memory in bytes

$free -b

To display free and used memory in kilobytes

$free -k

To display free and used memory in megabytes

$free -m

To display free and used memory in gigabyte

$free -g

To display an additional line containing the total of the total,

used and free columns

$ free -t

To display the output of free command after a set time gap

$ free -s 4 -c 4
 168

#123 fsck

fsck - check and repair a Linux filesystem it is used to check and

optionally repair one or more Linux filesystems

fsck [OPTIONS] [FILESYSTEM]

Unmount the device first

$ sudo umount /dev/sdb1

$ sudo fsck -p /dev/sdb1

when file system is repaired, mount the partition

$ sudo mount /dev/sdb1

To do a dry run with fsck

$ sudo fsck -N /dev/sdb1

To fix detected errors automatically with fsck

$ sudo fsck -y /dev/sdb1

To skip repair but print fsck errors in the output

$ sudo fsck -n /dev/sdb1

To force fsck to do a filesystem check

$ sudo fsck -f /dev/sdb1

To run fsck on all filesystems at once

$ fsck -AR
 169

#124 fsck.ext4

e2fsck - it is used to check Linux ext2/ext3/ext4 file system

$ sudo fsck [OPTIONS] [FILESYSTEM]

Unmount the device

$ sudo umount /dev/sdaX

To repair the file system

$ sudo fsck -p /dev/sdaX

when the file system is repaired, mount the partition

$ sudo mount /dev/sdaX

To do a dry run with fsck

$ sudo fsck -N /dev/sda

To fix potential problems without getting any prompts

$ sudo fsck -y /dev/sda

To skip repair but print fsck errors in the output

$ sudo fsck -n /dev/sdc

To force fsck to do a filesystem check

$ sudo fsck -f /dev/sdc

 170

To run fsck on all filesystems at once

$ sudo fsck -AR

To skip fsck on a specific filesystem

$ sudo fsck -AR -t noext2 -y

To skip fsck on mounted filesystems

$ sudo fsck -M /dev/sdc

 171

#125 ftp

ftp - internet file transfer program. ftp is the user interface to

the Internet standard File Transfer Protocol

To open an ftp connection to a remote system

$ ftp xx.xx.xx.xx

xx.xx.xx.xx is the remote server ip

to change to another directory

ftp > lcd dir_name

To download a single file from the remote server

ftp > get file_name

To download multiple files at once

ftp > mget file1 file2 file3

To upload a file

ftp > put file_name

To upload multiple files

ftp > put file1 file2 file3

 172

To close the connection

ftp > quit

or

ftp > bye

 173

#126 funzip

funzip - filter for extracting from a ZIP archive in a pipe

To extract the first member file of the archive myfile.zip and to

pipe it into more

$ funzip myfile.zip | more

To test the first member file of myfile.zip

$ funzip myfile.zip > /dev/null

 174

#127 fuser

fuser - identify processes using files or sockets fuser displays

the PIDs of processes using the specified files or filesystems.

To find process accessing a directory

$ fuser .

or

$ fuser /home/ilugc

To view more details enable verbose

$ fuser -v .

or

$ fuser -v /home/ilugc

To find process accessing file system

$ fsuer -v -m /etc/profile

To kill a processes accessing a file or socket

$ sudo fuser -k .

To interactively kill a process

$ sudo fuser -ki .

To list all the signals

$ sudo fuser --list-signals

 175

#128 getent

getent - The getent command displays entries from databases

supported by the Name Service Switch libraries

To Fetch the list of user accounts on a Linux system

$ getent passwd

To fetch details for a particular user

$ getent passwd user_name

To fetch a list of group accounts

$ getent group

To find the service name and its protocol

$ getent services 20

ftp-data 20/tcp

$ getent services 53

domain 53/tcp

$ getent services 22

ssh 22/tcp

$ getent services 3306

mysql 3306/tcp
 176

#129 getfacl

getfacl - getfacl displays the file name, owner, the group, and
the Access Control List (ACL)

example:

To get the ACL’s of a file

$ getfacl file_name

To display the file access control list

$ getfacl -a file.txt

To display the default access control list

$ getfacl -d file.txt

To avoid displaying comment header

$ getfacl --omit-header file.txt

To Print all effective rights comments

$ getfacl -e file.txt

To skip files that only have the base ACL entries

$ getfacl -s file.txt

To list the ACL’s recursively

$ getfacl -R /dir_name
 177

To get the tabular output format

$ getfacl -t /home/ilugc/file.txt

To list the numeric user and group IDs

$ getfacl -n file.txt
 178

#130 gpasswd

gpasswd - administer /etc/group and /etc/gshadow

To add user user1 to the group ilugc

$ sudo gpasswd -a user1 ilugc

To give user user1 administrative rights to the group ilugc

$ sudo gpasswd -A user1 ilugc

To remove user user1 from the group ilugc

$ sudo gpasswd -d user1 ilugc

 179

#131 groupadd

groupadd - create a new group

To create a group ilugc

$ sudo groupadd ilugc

To create a group ilugc with specific groupid

$ sudo groupadd ilugc -g 1234

To create a system group

$ sudo groupadd -r 499 admin

To create a new group ilugc with group ID from 5000 to 7000

$ sudo groupadd ilugc -K GID_MIN=5000 -K GID_MAX=7000

To use an encrypted password for the group

$ sudo groupadd ilugc -p pa55code123!@#

 180

#132 groupdel

groupdel - delete a group

$ sudo groupdel GROUP_NAME

$ sudo groupdel webadmin

 181

#133 groupmod

groupmod - The groupmod command modifies the definition of the

specified GROUP by modifying the appropriate entry in the group
database.

To change the group “ilugc” to “klug”

$ sudo groupmod -n klug ilugc

To change groupid of a group

$ sudo groupmod -g 1234 ilugc

To change the group ID with non-unique

$ sudo groupmod -o 0 ilugc

To change the group password

$ sudo groupmod -p pa55@123 ilugc

 182

#134 gpg

gpg - gpg is the OpenPGP part of the GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG).
It is a tool to provide digital encryption and signing services
using the OpenPGP standard

To check gpg version

$ gpg --version

To generate a new Key pair Using gpg command

$ gpg --gen-key

To list all the public keys using gpg command

$ gpg --list-keys

To export a public key

$ gpg --export ilugc > ilugc-pub.gpg

To get the key ID from a public key file

$ gpg --show-keys ilugc-pub.gpg

To simulate import of a public key

$ gpg --dry-run --import ilugc-pub.gpg

To delete private key of a public key

$ gpg --delete-secret-keys xxxxxyyyyyyyzzzzz53453553

 183

To delete a public key

$ gpg --delete-key xxxxxyyyyyyyzzzzz53453553

To import a public key

$ gpg --import ilugc-pub.gpg

To encrypt a file with password

$ gpg -c helloworld.py

To decrypt a file using gpg command

$ gpg -d helloworld.py.gpg

To use a user's public key to encrypt a file

$ gpg --recipient ilugc --encrypt hello.txt

To check all the options available with gpg command

$ gpg --dump-options
 184

#135 gpg-zip

gpg-zip - encrypts or signs files into an archive. It is a

gpg-ized tar using the same format as PGP's PGP Zip.

To encrypt the contents of directory dirX for user ilugc to file

fileY

$ gpg-zip --encrypt --output fileY --gpg-args -r ilugc dirX

To list the contents of archive fileY

$ gpg-zip --list-archive fileY

 185

#136 gzip

gzip - compress or expand files reduces the size of the

named files using Lempel-Ziv coding

To compress a single file

$ gzip file_name.txt

To compress multiple files at once

$ gzip a.txt b.txt c.txt

To compress a single file and keep the original

$ gzip -c a.txt > a.txt.gz

To compress all files recursively

$ gzip -r *

To decompress a gzip compressed file

$ gzip -d file_name.txt.gz

To decompress a file and keep the original .gz file

$ gunzip -c file.txt.gz > file.txt

To list compression information

$ gzip -l file.tar.gz
 186

To adjust compression level

level of compression range from 1 to 9

using option 1 will complete faster but space saving is less

using option 9 will complete slow but space saving is high

default gzip uses a compression level of -6

$ time gzip -1 file.tar

$ gzip -l file.tar.gz

$ time gzip -9 file.tar

$ gzip -l file.tar.gz

To check the integrity of a compressed file

$ gzip -tv file.txt.gz

To view the CRC value

$ gzip -lv file.txt.gz

To concatenate multiple files

$ gzip -c a.txt > c.gz

$ gzip -c b.txt >> c.gz

To specify our own suffix instead of .gz

$ gzip -S .cz file

 187

To display the gzip license info

$ gzip -L

To suppress all warnings

$ gzip -q file.txt

To save the original file name and time stamp

$ gzip -N file.txt
 188

#137 groupmems

groupmems - administer members of a user's primary group

user : ilugc

group : foss

To make the user ilugc a member of the group foss

$ sudo groupmems -g foss -a ilugc

To add a user to a group

$ sudo groupmems -a ilugc -g foss

To delete/remove a user from a group

$ sudo groupmems -d ilugc foss -g foss

To change the group name

$ sudo groupmems -g linux

To remove the users from group

$ sudo groupmems -p -g ilugc

or

$ sudo groupmems --purge -g ilugc

To list the members of the group

$ sudo groupmems -l -g foss

 189

#138 grep

grep - print lines that match patterns

$ cat grep_example.txt

This is line number one

this is line number two

THIS is line number three

this is line 4

This is line 5

To search for the given string in a single file

$ grep "this" grep_example.txt

this is line number two

this is line 4

To check for the given string in multiple files

$ grep "this" grep_example.txt file2.txt

To search case insensitive using grep -i

$ grep -i "4" grep_example.txt

this is line 4
 190

To check for full words using grep -w

$ grep -iw "is" grep_example.txt

This is line number one

this is line number two

THIS is line number three

this is line 4

This is line 5

To search in all files recursively using grep -r

$ grep -r "key_word" *

To count the number of matches using grep -c

$ grep -c this grep_example.txt

To find out how many lines that does not match the pattern

$ grep -v -c this grep_example.txt

To show line number while displaying the output using grep -n

$ grep -n "this" grep_example.txt

2:this is line number two

4:this is line 4
 191

To display the number of MP3 files , .txt files present in a

directory

$ ls ~/Music | grep -c .mp3

$ ls /home/ilugc | grep -c .txt

 192

#139 groups

groups - print the groups a user is in

$ groups [username]

Provided with a username ilugc

$ groups ilugc

ilugc : ilugc adm cdrom sudo dip plugdev lpadmin lxd sambashare
libvirt docker

To display group membership for the current user

$ groups

To find groups of root

# groups

root
 193

#140 gcc

gcc - GNU project C and C++ compiler

To compile a C code without options

$ gcc hello.c

To specify explicitly mention the output file name

$ gcc hello.c -o output

To see the warnings when compile C program

$ gcc -wall hello.c -o output

To get preprocessed output

$ gcc -E hello.c > output.i

To get intermediate files using

$ gcc -save-temps hello.c

To see the error while compiling the C Program

$ gcc hello.c -Werror -o output

To debug C Program in Linux during compilation

$ gcc -ggdb hello.c -wall -o output

 194

#141 gawk

gawk - used for pattern scanning and processing language

$ cat staff.txt

arun 0001

babu 0002

chandru 0003

dhana 0004

kiran 0005

raj 0006

sunil 0007

teja 0008

To print current count of the number of input line

$ gawk '{print NR "-" $1 }' staff.txt

gawk prints every line of data from the input line

$ gawk '{print}' staff.txt

To print the lines matching with the given pattern

$ gawk '/babu/ {print}' staff.txt

To print the second column records of the input file

$ gawk '{print $2}' staff.txt

 195

To display count of lines

$ gawk '{print NR, $0}' staff.txt

To find the length of the longest line present in the file

$ gawk '{ if (length($0) > max) max = length($0) } END { print max
}' staff.txt

To count the lines in a file

$ gawk 'END { print NR }' staff.txt

To print lines with more than 11 characters

$ gawk 'length($0) > 11' staff.txt

 196

#142 gunzip

gunzip - tool for decompressing gzip files.

To decompress a .gz file

$ gunzip file.gz

gunzip will remove the compressed file , to keep the original file

$ gunzip -k file.gz

To keep the compressed file and decompress it to another location

$ gunzip -c file.gz > /path/to/file

$ gunzip -c mydoc.gz > /home/ilugc/mydoc

To decompress multiple files

$ gunzip file1.gz file2.gz file3.gz

To recursively decompresses all files in a given directory

$ gunzip -r directory

To list the compressed file contents

$ gunzip -lv file.gz

 197

#143 halt

halt - used to instruct the hardware to stop all the CPU functions

To cease all CPU function on the system

$ sudo halt

To power off the system using halt command

$ sudo halt -p

To halt with -w option to write shutdown record

$ sudo halt -w

To reboot the system

$ sudo halt --reboot

 198

#144 history

history - it is a built-in shell tool that displays a list of

commands used in the terminal session

To display the list of commands used since the start of the

terminal session

$ history

To show only the latest 10 entries from the list of commands used
since the start of the

terminal session

$ history 10

To run the 100 th command again in history

$ !100

To repeat the last command

$ !!

To run the command count starts the from the end of the list

for example to run the 3rd command in history count starts from
the end

$ !-3
 199

To search a command by string

$ !sudo

To display the command without running it

$ !sudo:p

To search for a command that contains a string but not start with
the string

$ !?firewall-cmd

sudo firewall-cmd --get-services

To use history along with grep

$ history | grep chown

To remove a command from history

$ history -d event_number

$ history -d 100

To remove whole history

$ history -c

To view the last 10 commands

$ history | tail
 200

#145 hash

hash - built-in command of bash which is used to maintain a hash

table of recently executed programs

To display information about the hash table

$ hash

hits command

2 /usr/bin/man

2 /usr/bin/ls

1 /usr/bin/cat

To forget the remembered location of each name

$ hash -r

To display in a format that may be reused as input

$ hash -l

To display the remembered location of each NAME

$ hash -t cat ls

cat /usr/bin/cat

ls /usr/bin/ls
 201

#146 hd

hd - hd or hexdump is used to filter and display the specified

files, or standard input in a human readable specified format

$ cat dummy.txt

this is ubuntu linux

this is centos linux

this is arch linux

one-byte octal display

$ hexdump -b dummy.txt

one-byte character display

$ hexdump -c dummy.txt

canonical hex + ASCII display

$ hexdump -C dummy.txt

Two-byte decimal display

$ hexdump -d dummy.txt

Two-byte octal display

$ hexdump -o dummy.txt
 202

Two-byte hexadecimal display

$ hexdump -x dummy.txt

Hexdump had the option of deciding a specific number of bytes from

a file to hexdump

$ hexdump -s 2 -c dummy.txt

hexdump to display all input data

$ hexdump -v -b dummy.txt
 203

#147 head

head - output the first part of files

To display the first 10 lines default of head command

$ head file.txt

To show the first 6 lines of file.txt

$ head -n 6 file.txt

To displaying specific number of bytes ex.10 bytes

$ head -c 10 example1.txt

To displaying the file name tag

$ head -v file.txt

To display multiple files

$ head file1.txt file2.txt

To display the first 5 lines of each file

$ head -n 5 file1.txt file2.txt

To redirect output to a text file

$ head file.txt > output.txt

 204

To display head with Pipeline

$ ls /etc | head

$ ls -t | head -n 4 | sort
 205

#148 hdparm

hdparm - is used to handle disk devices and hard disks. it get

statistics about the hard disk, alter writing intervals, acoustic
management, and DMA settings

To display information of the hard drive

$ sudo hdparm -I /dev/sda

To display all the options

$ sudo hdparm -h

To test hard disk drive speed

$ sudo hdparm -t /dev/sdb

To measure hard disk cache read speed

$ sudo hdparm -T /dev/sdb

To get current settings

$ sudo hdparm -d /dev/sdb

To set DMA on for a device

$ sudo hdparm -d1 /dev/sdb

To print all settings

$ sudo hdparm -v /dev/sda

 206

#149 help

help - displays the information about the built-in commands

present in the Linux shell

To display information about help command

$ help help

$ help cd

To display short description about commands

$ help -d help

$ help -d ls

$ help -d cd

To display usage in pseudo-manpage format

$ help -m help

$ help -m pwd

To display short usage synopsis for each topic matching PATTERN

$ help -s pwd

$ help -s cd
 207

#150 host

host - DNS lookup utility used for performing DNS lookups. It is

normally used to convert names to IP addresses and vice versa

To print the IP address details of the specified domain

$ host ilugc.in

To display the domain details of the specified IP Address

$ host 54.255.56.197

To specify the query type or enables the verbose output

$ host -a ilugc.in

To specify the type of query

$ host -t ns ilugc.in

To print SOA record

$ host -t SOA ilugc.in

To print txt record

$ host -t txt ilugc.in

To compare the SOA records on authoritative nameservers

$ host -t SOA ilugc.in

 208

To specify the number of retries you can do in case one try fails

$ host -R 3 ilugc.in
 209

#151 hostid

hostid - is used to display the host id in hexadecimal format.

$ hostid

7c787dcd
 210

#152 hostnamectl

hostnamectl - control the system hostname , also used to query and

change the system hostname and related settings

To check the current host name

$ hostnamectl

To change static host name to ilugc

$ hostnamectl set-hostname ilugc --static

To set transient name to klug

$ hostnamectl set-hostname klug --transient

check with

$ hostnamectl

To set pretty hostname to foss

$ hostnamectl set-hostname "foss" --pretty

To verify the change

$ hostnamectl --pretty status

To change the host names remotely

$ hostnamectl set-hostname ilugc-server -H root@server_ip

To display the help

$ hostnamectl --help
 211

#153 hostname

hostname - display the system's DNS name, and to display or

set its hostname or NIS domain name

To display the system hostname

$ hostname

To get alias name of the host system

$ hostname -a

To get all Fully Qualified Domain Name of the host system

$ hostname -A

To always set a hostname, default name is used nothing is

specified

$ hostname -b

To get the domain name if local domains are set. It will not
return anything

if no local domain is set.

$ hostname -d

To get the FQDN , It contains short hostname and DNS domain name

$ hostname -f
 212

To set the hostname specified in a file

$ sudo hostname -F filename

To get the IP addresses , works only if hostname is resolvable

$ hostname -i

To get all IP addresses

$ hostname -I

To get the hostname in short

$ hostname -s

To set the hostname

$ sudo hostname new_hostname

To display the NIS domain name

$ hostname -y
 213

#154 hwclock

hwclock - administration tool for the time clocks

To display the hardware clock date and time

$ sudo hwclock

To set the hardware clock same as system clock

$ sudo hwclock --systohc

or

$ sudo hwclock -w

To set hardware clock date manually

$ sudo hwclock --set --date 9/2/2022

To set hardware clock time manually

$ sudo hwclock --set --date "9/2/2022 13:00:00"

To get the output of the date command, and pass it to the --set
and --date option

$ sudo hwclock --set --date "Friday Sep 02 13:00:00 PDT 2022"

To copy the hardware time to system time

$ sudo hwclock -hctosys

 214

To run hwclock test mode

$ sudo hwclock --systz --test

 215

#155 hwe-support-status

hwe-support-status - Check HWE support status

$ hwe-support-status

Your Hardware Enablement Stack (HWE) is supported until April

2025.

To show help message

$ hwe-support-status -h
 216

#156 id

id - print real and effective user and group IDs

To print your own id without any options

$ id

To find a specific users id

$ id -u ilugc

To find a specific users GID

$ id -g ilugc

To find out UID and all groups associated with a username

$ id ilugc

To find out all the groups a user belongs

$ id -G ilugc

To display a name instead of numbers

$ id -nG ilugc

To display real id instead of effective id

$ id -r -g ilugc

$ id -r -G ilugc
 217

#157 ifconfig

Ifconfig - used to configure the kernel-resident network

interfaces

To display all the interfaces available

$ sudo ifconfig -a

To display a short list

$ sudo ifconfig -s

To run in verbose mode

$ sudo ifconfig -v

To activate the driver for the given interface

$ sudo ifconfig eth0 up

or

$ sudo ifup eth0

To deactivate the driver for the given interface

$ sudo ifconfig eth0 down

or

$ sudo ifdown eth0

To view network settings of Specific Interface

$ sudo ifconfig eth0

 218

To assign an IP address to network interface

$ sudo ifconfig eth0 xx.xx.xx.xx

To assign netmask to network interface

$ sudo ifconfig eth0 netmask 255.255.255.224

To assign a broadcast to network interface

$ sudo ifconfig eth0 broadcast xx.xx.xx.xx

To assign IP, netmask, and broadcast to network interface

$ sudo ifconfig eth0 xx.xx.xx.xx netmask 255.255.255.224 broadcast

xx.xx.xx.xx

To enable promiscuous mode

$ sudo ifconfig eth0 promisc

To disable promiscuous mode

$ sudo ifconfig eth0 -promisc

To add new alias to network interface

$ sudo ifconfig eth0:0 xx.xx.xx.xx

To remove alias to network interface

$ sudo ifconfig eth0:0 down

 219

To change the MAC address of network interface

$ sudo ifconfig eth0 hw ether DD:DF:CW:DQ:EZ:FS

 220

#158 import

import - used for capturing a screenshot for any of the active

pages we have and it gives the output as an image file

To join images into a single multi-image file

$ import -adjoin image.png

To include window border in the output image

$ import -border image1.png

To obtain image by descending window hierarchy

$ import -descend image2.png

To include window manager frame

$ import -frame image3.png

To identify the format and characteristics of the image

$ import -identify image.png

To suppress all warning messages

$ import -quiet image4.img

To monitor the progress

$ import -monitor image5.png

 221

#159 info

info - read Info documents

To use all matching manuals and display them for a particular

command

$ info -a ls

To look up STRING in all indices of all manuals and then display

the same

$ info -k cat

To display DIR to INFOPATH

$ info -d ls

To go to command-line options node

$ info -O du

To print physical location of Info file

$ info -w df

To print help message

$ info --help
 222

#160 init

init - to create processes from script stored in the file

/etc/inittab which is a configuration file which is to be used by
initialization system.

To restart the system

$ init 6

To shut down system

$ init 0
 223

#161 insmod

insmod - Simple program to insert a module into the Linux Kernel

To insert the LinuxKernelModule file (.ko) into the Linux Kernel

$ sudo insmod sample.ko

to check

$ dmesg | tail -1

or

$ sudo lsmod | grep sample

To pass the string parameter “user” and prints a message which

includes the passed parameter.

$ sudo insmod sample.ko user="ilugc"

$ dmesg | tail -2

or

$ sudo lsmod | grep sample

 224

#162 install

install - copy files and set attributes

To move the files from one location or another location or

directory

$ install sample.txt data/

to check

$ ls data/

To copy the data from one location to another location with the
comparison

$ install -C /file/* data/

$ ls data/

To use install command to change the ownership of the file

$ install -D -o ilugc file.txt /data/

To change the permission mode

$ install -D -m 777 file1.txt /data/

To get help

$ install --help
 225

#163 ip

ip - show / manipulate routing, network devices, interfaces and

tunnels

To displays info about all network interfaces

$ sudo ip a

$ sudo ip -4 a

$ sudo ip -6 a

$ sudo ip a show eth0

$ sudo ip a list eth0

$ sudo ip a show dev eth0

To show running interfaces

$ sudo ip link ls up

To assign the IP address to the interface

$ sudo ip a add xx.xx.xx.xx/255.255.255.0 dev eth0

To remove / delete the IP address from the interface

$ sudo ip a del xx.xx.xx.xx/255.255.255.0 dev eth0

To check

$ sudo ip addr show

 226

To enable network interface

$ sudo ip link set eth1 up

To disable network interface

$ sudo ip link set eth1 down

To check route table

$ sudo ip route show

To add default gateway

$ sudo ip route add default via xx.xx.xx.xx

 227

#164 iptables

iptables - administration tool for IPv4/IPv6 packet filtering and

NAT

To check all IPtables firewall rules

# iptables -L -n -v

To block specific IP Address in IPtables firewall

# iptables -A INPUT -s xx.xx.xx.xx -j DROP

To unblock IP address in IPtables firewall

# iptables -D INPUT -s xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx -j DROP

To block outgoing connections on a specific port

# iptables -A OUTPUT -p tcp --dport xxx -j DROP

To allow incoming connections

# iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport xxx -j ACCEPT

To allow multiple ports on IPtables using multiport

# iptables -A INPUT -p tcp -m multiport --dports 22,80,443 -j

ACCEPT

To allow specific network range on particular Port on IPtables

# iptables -A OUTPUT -p tcp -d xx.xx.xx.xx/24 --dport 22 -j ACCEPT

 228

To block twitter on IPtables firewall

# host twitter.com

twitter.com has address 104.244.42.65

$ whois 104.244.42.65 | grep CIDR

CIDR: 104.244.40.0/21

# iptables -A OUTPUT -p tcp -d 104.244.40.0/21 -j DROP

To setup port forwarding in IPtables

# iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -i eth0 -p tcp --dport 22 -j

REDIRECT --to-port 2222

To block access to specific MAC address on IPtables

# iptables -A INPUT -m mac --mac-source aa:bb:cc:dd:ee:ff -j DROP

To flush IPtables firewall chains or rules

# iptables -F

To save IPtables rules to a file

# iptables-save > ~/iptables.rules

To restore IPtables rules from a file

# iptables-restore < ~/iptables.rules

To block connection on network interface

# iptables -A INPUT -i eth0 -s xx.xx.xx.xx -j DROP

 229

#165 isoinfo

isoinfo - utility programs for dumping and verifying iso9660

images.

To list the content of ISO file

$ isoinfo -i ubuntu-20.04-server-amd64.iso -l

To extract a single file from an ISO image

$ isoinfo -i ubuntu-20.04-server-amd64.iso -x MD5SUM.TXT >

MD5SUM.TXT
 230

#166 isosize

isosize - output the length of an iso9660 filesystem

To view the length of the iso

$ isosize Centos.iso

To show sector number and sector size

$ isosize -x Centos.iso

To display the device size in a block of 1024 bytes

$ isosize -d 1024 Centos.iso

 231

#167 iwconfig

iwconfig - configure a wireless network interface

To display all the wireless interfaces

$ iwconfig

To displays help

$ iwconfig --help
 232

#168 iwlist

iwlist - Get more detailed wireless information from a wireless

interface

To list options

$ iwlist

To list frequency of wireless interface

$ iwlist wlp2s0 frequency

To list the bitrate of wl interface

$ iwlist wlp2s0 bitrate

To display power mode

$ iwlist wlp2s0 power

To list authentication

$ iwlist wlp2s0 auth

 233

#169 jobs

jobs - used to list the jobs that you are running in the
background and in the foreground

$ ping google.com

CTRL+Z

To lists jobs running in background

$ jobs

[1]+ Stopped ping google.com

To display the process ID or jobs for the job whose name begins
with “p”

$ jobs %p

To display PIDs only

$ jobs -p

To display jobs with process id

$ jobs -l

To display only running jobs

$ jobs -r
 234

To make the job to run in foreground

$ fg %1
 235

#170 journalctl

journalctl - used to query the contents of the systemd

To display newest log entries first

$ journalctl -r

To display specific number of recent log entries

$ journalctl -n 4

To display log entries of specific priority

$ journalctl -p [ debug, info, notice, warning, err, crit, alert,

and emerg ]

$ journalctl -p debug

$ journalctl -p info

To display log entries only for specific systemd unit

$ journalctl -u ntpd

$ journalctl -u ftpd

To format the output

$ journalctl -o verbose

To combine all the options

$ journalctl -n 3 -p debug

$ journalctl -n 4 -p info
 236

#171 join

join - join lines of two files on a common field , join combines

lines of files on a common field

$ cat file1.txt

1 andhra

2 tamilnadu

3 kerala

4 karnataka

5 pondicherry

$ cat file2.txt

1 101

2 102

3 103

4 104

5 105

To join the 2 files

$ join file1.txt file2.txt

To create a new file with the joined contents

$ join file1.txt file2.txt > file3.txt

 237

#172 kill

kill - used to terminate processes manually. kill command sends a

signal to a process which terminates the process

To display all the available signals

$ kill -l

To use PID with the kill command

$ kill pid

To send a kill signal to process ID 9898

$ kill 9898

To kill multiple processes at once

$ kill 8282 9898 7474

To forcefully kill single process

$ kill -9 7890

To forcefully kill multiple process

$ kill -9 6789 7890

 238

To find signal name

$ kill -l 3

$ kill -l 9

$ kill -l 15

To specify name of signal sending to other process with kill

command

$ kill -s KILL 6789

$ kill -s

To send the signal to interrupt the process 5656

$ Kill -2 5656

To send the signal to hang up the 8181 process

$ kill -1 8181
 239

#173 killall

killall - kill processes by name, killall sends a signal to all

processes running any of the specified commands

To killall a program name sample

$ killall example

To killall sshd

$ killall sshd

To send kill signal instead of default term signal

$ killall -9 sshd

killall is case sensitive, To killall a program to ignore case

$ killall -I Example

To get a list of signals that killall can send

$ killall -l

To send different signals to kill processes

$ killall -s SIGINT example

To Kill multiple processes interactively

$ killall -i example1 example2

 240

#174 kmod

kmod - Program to manage Linux Kernel modules

To view all the modules currently loaded in the system.

$ sudo kmod list

To list the information of static device nodes

$ sudo kmod static-nodes

 241

#175 last

last - show a listing of last logged in users

To list last five users logged in

$ last -5

To display without the host-name field

$ last -R user_name

To display the login and logout time including the dates

$ last -F

To display the host-name in the last column

$ last -a

To display within a specific time period.(-s) since and (-t) until

$ last -s yesterday -t today

To display information like system down entries and run level

changes

$ last -x
 242

#176 lastlog

lastlog - reports the most recent login of all users or of a given

user

To print the last login of all the users

$ sudo lastlog

To print the records of specified days older ex. 7days older

$ sudo lastlog -b 7

To print the last login records of specified user

$ sudo lastlog -u user_name

 243

#177 lastb

lastb - is the same as last, except that by default it shows a log

of the /var/log/btmp file, which contains all the bad login
attempts

To show a list of all failed login attempts

$ sudo lastb

To show a list of failed login attempts since a given time

$ sudo lastb --since YYYY-MM-DD

To show a list of failed login attempts until a given time

$ sudo lastb --until YYYY-MM-DD

To show a list of all failed login attempts at a specific time

$ sudo lastb --present hh:mm

 244

#178 ldd

ldd - prints the shared objects (shared libraries) required by

each program or shared object specified on the command line

To display the dependencies of cp command

$ ldd /bin/cp

To display dependencies of the command with details

$ ldd -v /bin/cp

To display unused direct dependencies of the command

$ ldd -u /bin/cp

$ ldd -u /bin/grep
 245

#179 link

link - call the link function to create a link to a file

$ link FILE1 FILE2

$ vim file1.txt

1 andhra

2 tamilnadu

3 kerala

4 karnataka

5 pondicherry

link file1.txt to file2.txt

$ link file1.txt file2.txt

it would create the file file2.txt linked to the file file1.txt

 246

#180 less

Less - utility that can be used to read the contents of a text

file one page(one screen) at a time

$ less filename

$ dmesg | less

To display the specified text file with line numbers

$ dmesg | less -N

To make less to start at first occurrence of pattern

“keyword_name” in the file.

$ dmesg | less -p "KERNEL"

$ less -p ERROR /etc/init/mysql.conf

To remove multiple blank lines

$ less -s file_name

To open multiple files

$ less filea.txt fileb.txt

To keep content on screen after quitting

$ dmesg | less -X
 247

#181 ln

ln - command creates the hard and symbolic links between the

files.

To create hard link with the name sample_link_file.txt

$ ln sample_file.txt sample_link_file.txt

To create symbolic or soft link to a file

$ ln -s file.txt link_file.txt

To display the created soft link

$ ls -l link_file.txt

To create a symlink to a directory

$ ln -s /home/ilugc/project ~/ilugc_project

To view the created soft link

$ ls -l ~/ilugc_project

To overwrite an existing symbolic link forcefully

$ ln -sf file.txt link_file.txt

 248

#182 locale

locale - displays information about the current locale, or all

locales, on standard output

To view system locale in linux

$ locale

To view more information about an environmental variable which

store date and time

$ locale -k LC_TIME

To display a list of all available locales

$ locale -a
 249

#183 localectl

localectl - used to query and change the system locale and

keyboard layout settings

To change or set system local

$ localectl set-locale LANG=en_IN.UTF-8

To configure a specific locale parameter

$ localectl set-locale LC_TIME=en_IN.UTF-8

 250

#184 logger

logger - is used to log messages in the system log or syslog.

To log the message to standard error and system logs

$ logger -s "This is sample message"

To log to message to the specified file

$ logger -f file "This is a sample message"

To log the message with specified priority

$ logger -p 1 "This is sample message"

To mark every line with specified tag

$ logger -t TAG "This is sample message"

To allow the message to start with a hyphen

$ logger -- "This is sample message"

To specify log size

$ logger --size 10 this is a sample log message for testing

purpose……

view by

$ tail -1 /var/log/syslog
 251

To ignore empty lines

$ logger -e -f file1.txt
 252

#185 login

login - used when signing onto a system. It can also be used to

switch from one user to another

To log in to the system

# login

To log in to the system as user ilugc

# login -p ilugc

To login to a domain

# login ilugc.in

To skip the second login authentication

# login -f -h host_name -f user_name

# login -f -h ilugc -f user1

To display help

# login --help
 253

#186 loginctl

loginctl - The loginctl command can be used to check and control

the status of systemd, and to view the messages of logged-in users

To Show all sessions and attributes

$ loginctl -a

To display session configuration message

$ loginctl show-session

To list currently logged in users

$ loginctl list-users

To show concise runtime status information about one or more

logged in users

$ loginctl user-status USER_NAME

To show properties of one or more users

$ loginctl show-user USER_NAME

 254

#187 logname

logname - print the name of the current login user

To display user’s login name

$ logname
 255

#188 logout

logout - it performs the task of logging out the logged-in user

from the system in that session. Logout only works in logon
shells, not in the non-logon shells

To logout the user from the current session from logon shell

$ logout
 256

#189 logrotate

logrotate - it allows automatic rotation, compression, removal,

and mailing of log files

To force the log rotation

$ sudo logrotate -f /etc/logrotate.conf

To test the log rotation

$ sudo logrotate -d /etc/logrotate.conf

To set to verbose mode

$ sudo logrotate -v /etc/logrotate.conf

To display help

$ sudo logrotate --usage

 257

#190 logsave

logsave - it will execute cmd_prog with the specified

argument, and save a copy of its output to logfile

$ sudo logsave [filename] [command]

To save the output of free -h command

$ sudo logsave log_file.txt free -h

$ cat log_file.txt

To append the output of the df -Th command to an already existing

file log_file.txt

$ sudo logsave log_file.txt df -Th

$ cat log_file.txt

To save the output of du -hs /home/ilugc in /tmp/output.txt

$ sudo logsave /tmp/output.txt du -hs /home/ilugc

To save the output of ls in /tmp/log_output.txt

$ sudo logsave /tmp/log_output.txt ls

 258

#191 look

look - display lines beginning with a given string. it also uses

binary search if the file is sorted. If file is not specified, the
file /usr/share/dict/words is used

$ cat words.txt

files

Files

fiction

fig

fix

find

Find

To search for the given string fil in a specified file words.txt

$ look fil words.txt

files

To search for the given string fi in a specified file words.txt

$ look fi words.txt

files

fiction

fig

fix

find
 259

To search for the given string in a specified file

$ look "#include" program.c

# include <stdio.h>

# include <string.h>

# include <stdlib.h>

To ignore case of alphabetic character use -f option

$ look -f fil words.txt

files

Files

To verify the spelling of the word

$ look apple

$ look ban

$ look cat

To use binary search on the given word list

$ look -bf fi words.txt

files

Files

fiction

fig

fix

find

Find
 260

#192 lsattr

lsattr is used to list the attributes of a file or directory

The syntax of the lsattr command

$ lsattr [options] [file/Dir]

To display all the files and directories in the current directory

along with their file attributes

$ lsattr

$ lsattr file.txt

To Recursively list attributes of directories and their contents

$ lsattr -R /etc/ssh/

To List the file's version/generation number

$ lsattr -v

To display the program version

$ lsattr -V

To list all files in directories

$ lsattr -a

$ lsattr -a ~
 261

To display all the contents of the directory along

with its file attributes

$ lsattr /etc/ssh/

To list directories like other files, rather than listing their

contents

$ lsattr -d /etc/ssh/
 262

#193 ls

ls - list directory contents

To list files and directories

$ ls

To long listing of files

$ ls -l

To view hidden files

$ ls -a

To list files with human readable format

$ ls -lh

To add the / character at the end of each directory.

$ ls -F

To list files in reverse order

$ ls -r

recursively list Subdirectories

$ ls -R
 263

To sort files by file size

$ ls -lS

To display Inode number of file or directory

$ ls -i

To display UID and GID of files

$ ls -n

To order files based on last modified time

$ ls -lt

To order files based on last modified time in reverse order

$ ls -ltr

To make visual classification of files with special characters

/ - directory.

nothing - normal file.

@ - link file.

* - Executable file

$ ls -F
 264

#194 lshw

lshw - used to generate the detailed information of the system’s

hardware configuration from various files in the /proc directory

To display full hardware information

$ lshw

To list hardware in a compact format

$ lshw -short

To lists all disks and storage controllers in the system

$ lshw -class disk -class storage

To lists all network interfaces in HTML file

$ lshw -class network

To check hardware information without the serial number or

any other sensitive information

$ lshw -sanitize

To check numeric IDs of class disk.

$ lshw -class disk -numeric

To print hardware information in html format

$ lshw -html
 265

To print hardware configuration details in xml format

$ lshw -xml

To enable the speed parameter

$ lshw -enable spd

To disable the speed parameter

$ lshw -disable spd

To get help

$ lshw --help
 266

#195 lsb_release

lsb_release - print distribution-specific information

lsb_release is part of a software package LSB core

which may not be installed by default

for debian/ubuntu $ sudo apt-get install lsb-core

for centos $ sudo yum install redhat-lsb-core

for fedora $ sudo dnf install redhat-lsb-core

for opensuse $ sudo zypper install lsb-core

To display all information about OS installed

$ lsb_release -a

To display the distributor's ID

$ lsb_release -i

To display description of the OS

$ lsb_release -d

To display the release number of the currently installed

distribution

$ lsb_release -r

To display the code name of the currently installed distribution

$ lsb_release -c
 267

#196 lscpu

lscpu - is used to get CPU information of the system

To display the complete info about the processor

$ lscpu

To display in Human Readable Format

$ lscpu -e

$ lscpu -e=cpu

To display the processor information in a parsing-friendly format

$ lscpu -p

To display output in hexadecimal

$ lscpu -x

To print the CPU info in json format

$ lscpu -J

To print a help message

$ lscpu --help

To display sizes in bytes

$ lscpu --bytes
 268

To display both online and offline CPUs

$ lscpu -a -e

$ lscpu -a -p

To display only offline CPUs

$ lscpu --offline -p

To display only online CPUs

$ lscpu --online -e

or

$ lscpu --online -p

To display information about caches

$ lscpu -C

To print output to a text file

$ lscpu | tee /home/ilugc/cpu_info.txt

 269

#197 lsblk

lsblk - to display details about block devices

To display block devices

$ sudo lsblk

To display empty block devices

$ sudo lsblk -a

To print size information in bytes

$ sudo lsblk -b

To print zone model for devices

$ sudo lsblk -z

To skip slave entries

$ sudo lsblk -d

To print information about device owner, group, and mode of block

devices

$ sudo lsblk -m

To print selected columns of block-devices

$ sudo lsblk -o SIZE, NAME, MOUNTPOINT

 270

To display help

$ sudo lsblk --help

To produce output in the form of a list

$ sudo lsblk -l

To list information about a particular block device

$ sudo lsblk /dev/sdb1/

To display SCSI devices only

$ sudo lsblk -S
 271

#198 lspci

lspci - is a utility on linux systems used to find out information

about the PCI busses and devices connected to the PCI subsystem

To list all PCI devices

$ sudo lspci

To dump PCI Info in different format

$ sudo lspci -m

$ sudo lspci -mm

To display the output in tree format

$ sudo lspci -t

To get detailed device Information

$ sudo lspci -v

To get info in very verbose mode

$ sudo lspci -vv

To get info in more verbose mode

$ sudo lspci -vvv

To show PCI vendor and device codes as numbers

$ sudo lspci -n
 272

To show PCI vendor and device codes as both numbers and names

$ sudo lspci -nn

To display info of a specific device

$ sudo lspci -s [device_number]

$ sudo lspci -s 00:02.0

To show kernel drivers handling each device

$ sudo lspci -k

To get hexadecimal dump of the whole PCI configuration space

$ sudo lspci -xxx

To get bus centric view

$ sudo lspci -b

To get PCI domain numbers

$ sudo lspci -D
 273

#199 lsof

lsof - it provides a list of files that are opened by which

process

To list out all the files that are opened by any process in the
system

$ sudo lsof

To list all files opened by a specific user

$ sudo lsof -u USER_NAME

To list all open files by a particular Process

$ sudo lsof -c mariadb

To list all open files that are opened by a particular process

$ sudo lsof -p process_ID

To find out the list of files opened by parent process Id

$ sudo lsof -R

To lists out the files which are opened by a particular directory

$ sudo lsof -D path/to/directory

To find out files opened by network connections

$ sudo lsof -i
 274

To find out files opened by processes running on specific port

$ lsof -i TCP:22

To list only IPv4 and IPv6 open files

$ sudo lsof -i 4

$ sudo lsof -i 6

To list all the running processes of open files of TCP Port ranges
from 1-1024

$ sudo -i TCP:1-1024

To find what files and commands a specific user used

$ sudo lsof -i -u USER_NAME

 275

#200 lslocks

lslocks - lists information about all the currently held file

locks in a Linux system

$ sudo lslocks [options]

To list all file locks

$ sudo lslocks

To print the SIZE column in bytes

$ sudo lslocks -b

To print the all file locks in json format

$ sudo lslocks -J

To display the PID of all file locks

$ sudo lslocks --output PID

To display the COMMAND of file locks

$ sudo lslocks --output COMMAND

To display only the locks held by the process with specific pid

$ sudo lslocks -p <PID>

 276

#201 lsmem

lsmem - it lists the ranges of available memory with their online

status

To list the available online memory status

$ lsmem

To List each individual memory block, instead of combining

memory blocks with similar attributes
$ lsmem -a

To print the SIZE column in bytes

$ lsmem -b

To print the output in json format

$ lsmem -J

To print output without header line

$ lsmem -n

To get help options

$ lsmem -h

To print output of specific column

$ lsmem -o RANGE
$ lsmem -o SIZE
$ lsmem -o STATE
$ lsmem -o REMOVABLE
$ lsmem -o BLOCK
 277

To print all available columns

$ lsmem --output-all

To Produce output in the form of key="value" pairs

$ lsmem --pairs
 278

#202 lsns

lsns - lists information about all the currently accessible

namespaces or about the given namespace

To display information about all the currently accessible

namespaces
$ sudo lsns

To print info about all currently accessible namespaces in JSON

output format
$ sudo lsns -J

To print the output without header line

$ sudo lsns -n

To print only namespace identifier (inode number)

$ sudo lsns -o NS

To print only kind of namespace

$ sudo lsns -o TYPE

To print only the path to the namespace

$ sudo lsns -o PATH

To print the number of processes in the namespace

$ sudo lsns -o NPROCS

To print the lowest PID in the namespace

$ sudo lsns -o PID
 279

To print the PPID of the PID

$ sudo lsns -o PPID

To print the command line of the PID

$ sudo lsns -o COMMAND

To print the UID of the PID

$ sudo lsns -o UID

To print the username of the PID

$ sudo lsns -o USER

To print the namespace ID as used by network subsystem

$ sudo lsns -o NETNSID

To print the nsfs mountpoint

$ sudo lsns -o NSFS

To display all output columns

$ sudo lsns --output-all

To display only the namespaces held by the process with specific

PID
$ sudo lsns -p <PID>

To use the raw output format

$ sudo lsns -r
 280

To display the specified type of namespaces only

$ sudo lsns -t mnt
$ sudo lsns -t net
$ sudo lsns -t ipc
$ sudo lsns -t user
$ sudo lsns -t pid
$ sudo lsns -t uts
$ sudo lsns -t cgroup

To display output not in columns

$ sudo lsns -u

To print help options

$ sudo lsns --help
 281

#203 lsinitramfs

lsinitramfs - lists the content of given initramfs images

To list initramfs content of current running kernel

$ sudo lsinitramfs /boot/initrd.img-$(uname -r)

To display long and more verbose listing of initramfs content

$ sudo lsinitramfs -l /boot/initrd.img-$(uname -r)
 282

#204 lsipc

lsipc- show information on IPC facilities currently employed in

the system

To show the information on IPC in the system

$ lsipc

To drite information about active shared memory segments

$ lsipc -m

To print information about active message queues

$ lsipc -q

To print information about active semaphore sets

$ lsipc -s

To print the output data in the format of NAME=VALUE

$ lsipc -e

To print the output data in the JSON format

$ lsipc -J

To list the output format

$ lsipc -l

To display each information on a separate line

$ lsipc -n
 283

To print without header line

$ lsipc --noheadings

To print raw output

$ lsipc -r

To Print size in bytes

$ lsipc -b

To print specific output columns

$ lsipc -o RESOURCE
$ lsipc -o DESCRIPTION
$ lsipc -o LIMIT
$ lsipc -o USED
$ lsipc -o USE%
 284

#205 lslogins

lslogins - display information about known users in the system

To display information about known users in the system

$ lslogins

To Display data about the date of last password change and the
account expiration date
$ sudo lslogins -a

To print separate info about each user with a colon instead of a

newline
$ lslogins -c

To print output data in the format of NAME=VALUE

$ lslogins -e

To display data about the users' last failed login attempts

$ lslogins -f

To show information about supplementary groups

$ lslogins -G

To print data of users belonging to groups

$ lslogins --groups=<group_name>

To display help
$ lslogins --help
 285

To print data containing information about the users' last login

sessions
$ lslogins -L

To display each piece of information on a separate line

$ lslogins -n

To print without header line

$ lslogins --noheadings

To print specific output columns

$ lslogins -o USER
$ lslogins -o PROC
$ lslogins -o GECOS
$ lslogins -o UID
$ lslogins -o USER

To print all available columns

$ lslogins --output-all

To display information related to login by password

$ lslogins --pwd

To print raw output

$ lslogins -r

To show system accounts

$ lslogins -s

To show user accounts

$ lslogins -u
 286

To display the users' security context

$ lslogins -Z
 287

#206 lsmod

lsmod - Show the status of modules in the Linux Kernel

$ lsmod
Module Size Used by

it has three columns

1 module name
2 shows the size of the module in bytes
3 indicates how many instances of the module are currently used
and what is using the particular module

$ lsmod | grep kvm

kvm_intel 282624 0
kvm 663552 1 kvm_intel

$ lsmod | grep realtek

realtek 24576 1
 288

#207 lsusb

lsusb - utility for displaying information about USB buses in the

system and the devices connected to them

To print usb devices connected

$ sudo lsusb

To display detailed information about usb devices in verbose mode

$ sudo lsusb -v

To display physical USB device hierarchy as a tree

$ sudo lsusb -t
 289

#208 man

man - an interface to the system reference manuals

it shows the section numbers of the manual and types of pages they
contain

1 Executable programs or shell commands

2 System calls (functions provided by the kernel)
3 Library calls (functions within program libraries)
4 Special files (usually found in /dev)
5 File formats and conventions, e.g. /etc/passwd
6 Games
7 Miscellaneous (including macro packages and conventions),
e.g.
man(7), groff(7)
8 System administration commands (usually only for root)
9 Kernel routines [Non standard]

$ man [COMMAND NAME]

To display the whole manual of the command

$ man ls
$ man df

To display only a specific section of a manual

$ man 1 ls
$ man 1 ps
$ man 8 modprobe
$ man 8 modinfo
 290

To display the section in which the given command is present

$ man -f modprobe
$ man -f modinfo
$ man -f ls
$ man -f df

To search by Considering Input command as a Regular Expression

$ man -k ls
$ man -k cd
$ man -k df

To display all available intro manual pages contained in each

section, one at a time
$ man -a intro

To display location of man pages

$ man -w ls
$ man -w du
$ man -w df
$ man -w cat

To search for manual pages using case-sensitivity

$ man -I Ls
$ man -I ls
 291

#209 mandb

mandb - used to initialize or manually update/create the index

database cache that is usually maintained by man

$ sudo mandb

To print debugging information

$ sudo mandb -d
$ sudo mandb -d unzip

To do mandb without warnings in quiet mode

$ sudo mandb -q

To force mandb to delete previous databases and recreate them

from scratch, and implies --no-purge
$ sudo mandb -c

To Create user databases with write permissions to create system

db
$ sudo mandb -u

To perform correctness checks on manual pages

$ sudo mandb -t

To specify the configuration file to use

$ sudo mandb --config-file=file

To update the index cache of the top command

$ sudo mandb top
 292

#210 manpath

manpath - determine search path for manual pages

To print the search path for man pages

$ sudo manpath

To Specify the configuration file to use , default is

/etc/manpath.config
$ sudo manpath -C config_file

To print debugging information

$ sudo manpath -d

To produce a manpath consisting of all paths named as

"global" within the man-db configuration file
$ sudo manpath -g

To produce a catpath as opposed to a manpath

$ sudo manpath -c
 293

#211 md5sum

md5sum - it is designed to create, read, and check file integrity

using MD5

$ cat example.txt
this is line one
this is line two

To display the file hash value alongside the filename

$ md5sum [filename]
$ md5sum example.txt

To read the file in binary mode

$ md5sum -b example.txt

To read the file in text mode

$ md5sum -t example.txt

To create a BSD-style checksum with -tag

$ md5sum --tag example.txt

To check a file by comparing its hash value with the value

provided in a hash file
$ cat example.txt
this is line one
this is line two

To store the MD5 checksum for example.txt in file checkmd5.md5

$ md5sum example.txt > checkmd5.md5
 294

To check the contents of file

$ md5sum -c checkmd5.md5
example.txt: OK

After changing the contents of file

$ echo "Hai" >> example.txt
$ md5sum -c checkmd5.md5
example.txt: FAILED
md5sum: WARNING: 1 computed checksum did NOT match

To create a BSD-style checksum with tag option

$ md5sum --tag test.txt

To validate multiple files

$ md5sum file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt > hashfile

To check the integrity of above multiple files

$ md5sum -c hashfile

change the content of any one above file for eg. file2.txt and
check
To display only modified files
$ md5sum --quiet -c hashfile
 295

#212 mesg

mesg - it allows to control write access to your terminal by other

users.

To display the current write status of your terminal

$ mesg

To allow write access to your terminal

$ mesg y

To disallow write access to your terminal

$ mesg n
 296

#213 mkdir

mkdir - make directories

mkdir [options...] [directories ...]

To display the version number

$ mkdir --version

To display the help options

$ mkdir --help

To display verbose message for every directory created.

$ mkdir -v directory_1 directory_2 directory_3

To create multiple directories

$ mkdir {dir1,dir2,dir3}

To create directory without verbose

$ mkdir directory_4

To create parent directories

$ mkdir -p /dir_1/dir_2/dir_3
$ mkdir -p -v /dir_1/dir_2/dir_3

To set permissions for the directories

$ mkdir -m a=rwx [directories]
$ mkdir -m777 dir_1
$ mkdir -m755 dir_2
$ mkdir -m766 dir_3
 297

#214 mkswap

mkswap - set up a Linux swap area

To make the swap

$ sudo mkswap /dev/sdb

To check the device for bad blocks before creating the swap area
$ sudo mkswap -c /dev/sdb

To create swap area larger than the file or partition it resides

on
$ sudo mkswap -f /dev/sdb

To specify the page size (in bytes) to use, mkswap reads the size
from the kernel
$ sudo mkswap -p PAGESIZE

To specify a label for the device, to allow swapon by label

$ sudo mkswap -L LABEL

To specify the swap space version

$ sudo mkswap -v1

To specify the UUID to use. The default is to generate a UUID

$ sudo mkswap -U UUID
 298

#215 modinfo

modinfo - Show information about a Linux Kernel module

To list available modules

$ less /proc/modules
$ lsmod

To show the information on a module

$ modinfo <module_name>
$ modinfo bluetooth
$ modinfo ath10k_pci
$ modinfo snd
$ modinfo thermal_sys

To print the help options

$ modinfo --help

To print version
$ modinfo -V

To information about a kernel other than the running one

$ modinfo -0 ath10k_pci
 299

To print shortcuts used for the –field flag’s author, description,

license, parm
and filename arguments
$ modinfo ath10k_pci -a
$ modinfo bluetooth -n
$ modinfo bluetooth -d
$ modinfo ath10k_pci -l
$ modinfo ath10k_pci -p

To print only provided FIELD

$ modinfo -F parm ath10k_pci
$ sudo modinfo -F parm bluetooth
$ sudo modinfo -F parm snd
 300

#216 modprobe

modprobe - Add and remove modules from the Linux Kernel

To find the available modules

$ find /lib/modules/$(unam -r) -type f -name ‘*.ko’ | more

To load a Linux Kernel Module using modprobe

$ sudo ln -s /path/to/kernel-module /lib/modules/`uname -r`
$ sudo depmod -a
$ sudo modprobe kernel-module

To add a module into the kernel

$ sudo modprobe <module name>
$ sudo modprobe soundcore
$ sudo modprobe torture

To Check if module is added to the kernel

$ sudo modprobe soundcore --first-time
$ sudo modprobe torture --first-time

To Remove a module from the kernel

$ sudo modprobe -r soundcore
$ sudo modprobe -r torture

To check the module has been successfully removed

$ sudo modprobe -r torture --first-time
$ sudo modprobe -r soundcore --first-time
 301

To make a dry run for debugging

$ sudo modprobe -vn module_name
$ sudo modprobe -vn soundcore
$ sudo modprobe -vn torture

To suppress the error information

$ sudo modprobe lk
$ sudo modprobe -q lk

To dump out the effective configuration from the config directory

and exit
$ sudo modprobe -c
 302

#217 mke2fs

mke2fs - create an ext2/ext3/ext4 filesystem

To list the available mkfs* commands in a system.

$ ls mkfs*

To create a filesystem in a specific device

$ sudo mke2fs -t ext4 /dev/sda3

To create a filesystem with Journal

$ sudo mke2fs /dev/sda3 -j

To create an ext4 filesystem with 7500 bytes per inode,

with a volume label MYDATA
$ sudo mke2fs -t ext4 -L MYDATA -i 7500 /dev/sdb1
to check the inode
$ df -i /dev/sdb1

To check for bad blocks on a device

$ sudo mke2fs -c /dev/sda3

To force to create a filesystem on a mounted partition

$ sudo mke2fs -F /dev/sda3

To set the volume label for partition

$ sudo mke2fs -L MYVOL /dev/sd3

To view the label name

$ sudo e2label /dev/sda3
 303

To simulate a filesystem creation

$ sudo mkfs -t ext4 -n /dev/sda3

To create a filesystem with specific number of inodes

$ sudo mkfs ext4 -v -N 600000 /dev/sda3

To check the above created filesystem inode

$ tune2fs -l /dev/sda3 | grep -i inode
 304

#218 mkfs.ext4

mkfs.ext4 - is used to create filesystem (ext2, ext3, ext4, etc)

on Linux system

To format the disk as a ext4 partition

$ sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/sdb

To check the partition for bad blocks before formatting

$ sudo mkfs.ext4 -c /dev/sdc

To quietly create an ext4 partition

$ sudo mkfs.ext4 -q /dev/sdb

To create an ext4 filesystem with label backup

$ sudo mkfs.ext4 -L backup /dev/sdc

To create an ext4 filesystem with detail verbose output

$ sudo mkfs.ext4 -v /dev/sdb
 305

#219 mkfs.ntfs / mkfs.vfat

mkfs.ntfs - create an NTFS file system

mkfs.vfat - create a vfat file system

To create a NTFS file system

$ sudo mkfs -t ntfs /dev/sdb

To create a vfat file system

$ sudo mkfs.vfat /dev/sdc
 306

#220 mkinitramfs

mkinitramfs - low-level tool for generating an initramfs image

To create an initramfs for current running kernel

$ mkinitramfs -o ~/tmp/initramfs-$(uname -r)

To create an initramfs for specific kernel and keep builddirs

$ mkinitramfs -k -o ~/tmp/initramfs-2.6.21-686 2.6.21-686

To get help options

$ mkinitramfs --help
 307

#221 mkisofs

mkisofs - is a utility that creates an ISO 9660 image from files

on disk

To create an ISO that can be used to back up another ISO file

$ mkisofs -o [filename.iso] [directory_path]
$ mkisofs -o bootiso.iso /boot

To create ISO image of a folder in Linux

$ mkisofs -J -allow-lowercase -R -V "BootCD" -iso-level 4 -o
BootCD.iso ~/BootCD

To list content of ISO file

$ isoinfo -l -i bootiso.iso
 308

#222 more

more - is used to view the text files in the command prompt,

displaying one screen at a time in case the file is large

To help the user to navigate the long files , Press space to

continue,
‘q’ to quit. and display Press ‘h’ for instructions.
$ more -d file.txt

To display as it is and not to wrap the lines

$ more -f file.txt

To clear the screen and then displays the text

$ more -p file.txt

To display the pages on the same area by overlapping the

previously displayed text.
$ more -c file.txt

To compress multiple blank lines into one single blank line

$ more -s file.txt

To omit the underlines in a file

$ more -u file.txt

To search the string inside file

$ more +/<string> file.txt
$ more +/default file.txt
 309

To display the text after the specified number of lines of the

file
$ more +20 file.txt
$ more +50 file.txt

To display first N lines of a file

$ more -10 file.txt

To use pipe to see long outputs

$ cat file.txt | more
 310

#223 mount

mount - is used to mount the filesystem

syntax
$ mount -t type device dir

To list mounted file systems

$ mount

To list information about specific file systems

$ sudo mount -l -t ext4

To mount file systems

$ sudo mount /dev/sdb4 /media/ilugc

To mount ISO files

$ sudo mount /file.iso /media/iso-file -o loop

To mount an NFS
$ sudo mkdir /media/nfs
$ sudo mount /media/nfs

To mount all the /etc/fstab entries

$ sudo mount -a
 311

To mount only specific filesystem from /etc/fstab

$ sudo mount /backup_data
or
mount with device name
$ sudo mount /dev/sda3

To bind mount points to a new directory

$ sudo mount -B /backup_data /mnt

To access contents from new mount point

$ sudo mount -M /backup_data /mnt/

To mount without writing entry into /etc/mtab

$ sudo mount -n /dev/sda5 /backup_data

To mount partition as read only

$ sudo mount /dev/sda4 /backup_data -r

To remount the mounted filesystem

$ sudo mount -o remount,rw /backup_data
 312

#224 mdadm

mdadm (Multiple Disk and Device Management) - manage MD devices

aka Linux Software RAID

$ sudo apt-get install mdadm

syntax
$ sudo mdadm [mode] <raiddevice> [options] <component-devices>

To create RAID 0 array https://www.acnc.com/raid/?raid-level=0

$ sudo mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=0 --raid-devices=2
/dev/sdc1 /dev/sdd1

To create RAID 1 array https://www.acnc.com/raid/?raid-level=1

$ sudo mdadm --create /dev/md1 --level=1 --raid-devices=2
/dev/sdc1 /dev/sdd1

To create RAID 5 array https://www.acnc.com/raid/?raid-level=5

$ sudo mdadm --create /dev/md5 --level=5 --raid-devices=3
/dev/sdc1 /dev/sdd1 /dev/sde1

To create RAID 10 array https://www.acnc.com/raid/?raid-level=10

$ sudo mdadm --create /dev/md2 --level=10 --raid-devices=3
/dev/sdc1 /dev/sdd1 /dev/sde1

To check if it is an md device or a component of an md array

$ sudo mdadm -Q /dev/md0

To print detail of md devices

$ sudo mdadm -D /dev/md0
 313

To add the RAID arrays to the configuration file

$ sudo mdadm -D -s > /etc/mdadm.conf

To create a file system on a RAID drive

$ sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/md0

To mount the RAID device

$ sudo mkdir /mnt/raid
$ sudo mount /dev/md0 /mnt/raid

To deactivate or delete a RAID array

first stop the RAID device
$ sudo mdadm -S /dev/md0
then
$ sudo mdadm --zero-superblock /dev/sdc1 /dev/sdd1

To add a disk to an existing array

$ sudo mdadm --add /dev/md0 /dev/sdc1

To remove a disk from an array

$ sudo mdadm /dev/md0 --fail /dev/sdb1 --remove /dev/sdb1

To assemble and start all arrays listed in the standard config

file
$ sudo mdadm -A -s

To print help
$ sudo mdadm --help
$ sudo mdadm --create --help
$ sudo mdadm --assemble --help
$ sudo mdadm --build --help
 314

$ sudo mdadm --manage --help

$ sudo mdadm --misc --help
$ sudo mdadm --grow --help
$ sudo mdadm --incremental --help
$ sudo mdadm --monitor --help
 315

#225 mv

mv - move or rename files

syntax:
$ mv [Option] source destination

To rename a file1.txt to file2.txt

$ mv file1.txt file2.txt
$ mv file1.txt /home/Documents/file2.txt

To interactively rename file1.txt to file2.txt

$ mv -i file1.txt file2.txt

To forcefully rename or move the files , not prompt before

overwriting
$ mv -f file1.txt file2.txt

To prevent overwrite an existing file

$ mv -n file1.txt /home/ILUGC/Documents/

To create a backup of existing destination file that will be

overwritten
$ mv -b file1.txt /home/ILUGC/Documents/

To move only If source file Is newer than destination

or when the destination file is missing
$ mv -u file1.txt ~/Documents/

To move multiple directories from one location to another

$ mv dir1 dir2 dir3 /path/to/destination_directory/
 316

To move multiple files from one location to another

$ mv file1 file2 file3 /path/to/destination_dir/

To set SELinux security context of destination file to default

type
$ mv -Z file1.txt /path/to/destination_dir/
 317

#226 nice

nice - run a program with modified scheduling priority

To check all nice values of all processes

$ top

To check the nice value of vlc process

$ ps -el | grep vlc

To check the nice value of terminal

$ ps -el | grep terminal

To check the nice value of top process

$ ps -el | grep top

To set the priority of a process

$ nice -n <number><process name>
$ nice -10 vlc
$ nice -10 gnome-terminal
$ nice -n 5 bash
$ nice -n 5 top

To set the negative priority for a process

$ nice --n <number><process name>
$ nice --10 vlc
$ nice --10 gnome-terminal
$ nice --10 top
 318

#227 nmap

nmap - tool for network exploration and security auditing

To scan a system with hostname and IP address

$ nmap www.ilugc.in
$ nmap 18.140.226.100

To get more detailed information about the remote machines

$ nmap -v www.ilugc.in

To scan multiple hosts

$ nmap 157.240.16.35 104.244.42.193 18.140.226.100

To scan whole subnet

$ nmap 18.140.226.*

To scan to detect firewall settings

$ nmap -sA 18.140.226.100

To scan from a file

$ cat input.txt
157.240.16.35
104.244.42.193
18.140.226.100

$ nmap -iL input.txt

To scan multiple servers using last octet of IP address

$ nmap 172.10.0.101,102,103
 319

To scan IP address range

$ nmap 172.10.0.101-110

To scan network excluding remote hosts

$ nmap 172.10.0.* --exclude 172.10.0.100

To scan OS information and traceroute

$ nmap -A 18.140.226.100

To enable OS detection with nmap

$ sudo nmap -O ilugc.in

To scan a host to check its protected by firewall

$ nmap -PN 18.140.226.100

To find out Live hosts in a network

$ nmap -sP 18.140.226.*

To perform a fast scan

$ nmap -F 18.140.226.100

To print host interfaces and routes

$ nmap --iflist

To scan for specific port

$ nmap -p 80 www.ilugc.in
$ nmap -p 443 www.ilugc.in

To scan a TCP port

$ nmap -p T:443,80 www.ilugc.in
 320

To scan a UDP Port

$ nmap -pU 22 www.ilugc.in

To scan multiple ports

$ nmap -p 80,443,22,53 18.140.226.100

To scan ports by range

$ nmap -p 80-450 18.140.226.100

To find host services version numbers

$ nmap -sV 18.140.226.100
 321

#228 networkctl

networkctl - Query the status of network links

first check
$ sudo systemctl start systemd-networkd
$ sudo systemctl enable systemd-networkd
$ sudo systemctl status systemd-networkd

To get the status information about network links

$ networkctl

To display all network links and their status

$ networkctl -a
or
$ networkctl list

To display information type, state, kernel module driver, hardware

and IP address, configured DNS
$ networkctl status
$ networkctl status wlp2s0
$ networkctl status virbr0
$ networkctl status docker0

To show Link Layer Discovery Protocol (LLDP) status

$ networkctl lldp

To prevent the networkctl output piped into a pager

$ networkctl status --no-pager
 322

To print output without headers and footers

$ networkctl --no-legend

To show detailed link statics

$ networkctl -s

To get help commands

$ networkctl --help

To show current address label entries in the kernel

$ networkctl label

To reload .network and .netdev files

$ networkctl reload
 323

#229 netstat

netstat - netstat - Print network connections, routing tables,

interface statistics, masquerade connections, and multicast
memberships

To show both listening and non-listening sockets.

$ netstat -a | more

To List all tcp ports

$ netstat -at

To List all udp ports

$ netstat --au

To List only listening ports

$ netstat -l

To List only listening TCP ports

$ netstat -lt

To List only listening UDP ports

$ netstat -lu

To List only the listening UNIX ports

$ netstat -lx

To List the statistics for all ports.

$ netstat -s
 324

To List the statistics for TCP ports

$ netstat -st

To List the statistics for UDP ports

$ netstat -su

To display the PID and program names

$ netstat -pt

To print the netstat information continuously

$ netstat -c

To get the kernel routing information

$ netstat -r

To get the port on which a program is running

$ netstat -ap | grep <program_name>
$ netstat -ap | grep ftp
$ netstat -ap | grep ssh

To get the process which is using the given port

$ netstat -an | grep ':<port_number>'
$ netstat -an | grep ':443'
$ netstat -an | grep ':80'
$ netstat -an | grep ':53'

To get the list of network interfaces

$ netstat -i

To display extended information on the interfaces

$ netstat -ie
 325

To print the selected information every second continuously

$ netstat -c
 326

#230 nisdomainname

nisdomainname - show or set the system's NIS/YP domain name

To print alias name

$ nisdomainname -a

To print all long host names (FQDN)

$ nisdomainname -A

To set default hostname if none available

$ nisdomainname -b

To print DNS domain name

$ nisdomainname -d

To display long host name (FQDN)

$ nisdomainname -f

To read host name or NIS domain name from given file

$ nisdomainname -F

To print ip addresses for the host name

$ nisdomainname -i

To print all addresses for the host

$ nisdomainname -I

To print short host name

$ nisdomainname -s
 327

To print NIS/YP domain name

$ nisdomainname -y
 328

#231 nano

nano - is a user-friendly, simple text editor

To create and open a new file

$ nano file.txt
This is line 1
This is line 2
This is line 3

To save the above file

press Ctrl+o
it asks File Name to Write: file.txt
hit ENTER

To exit a file
press Ctrl+x

To cut a line move to the line and

Ctrl+k

To paste the above cut line hit

Ctrl+u

To cut a select word, select the word by

SHIFT + right arrow
and cut by
Ctrl+k
and paste by
Ctrl+u
 329

To search a word in a file

Press Ctrl+w
Search: <keyword>
It will place the cursor in the first letter of the first
occurrence of the word.

To do spell check
$ sudo apt install spell
press Ctrl+t

To replace a word with another word

Ctrl+\
Search (to replace): line1
Replace with: line2
Replace this instance?
It will ask to replace first instance of the word press : Y
to replace all the occurrences of the word press : A

To show the current cursor position in the text

Ctrl + c

To Justify the current paragraph

Ctr l+ J

To go to the specified line and column number in a file

Ctrl + _
Enter line number, column number:
To go to beginning of paragraph
Ctrl + W
 330

To go to end of paragraph
Ctrl + o

To go to first line
Ctrl + y

To go to last line
Ctrl + v

To cancel
Ctrl + c

To get help
Ctrl + g

To exit from nano editor

Ctrl + x

To go to beginning of current line

Ctrl + a

To go to end of current line

Ctrl + e

To go to previous line
Ctrl + p

To go to next line
Ctrl + n
 331

To go one screenful up
Ctrl + y

To go one screenful down

Ctrl + v
 332

#232 nmcli

nmcli - command-line tool for controlling NetworkManager

To check networkmanager is running

$ nmcli -t -f RUNNING general

To get general status of networkmanager

$ nmcli general

To list all the available device

$ nmcli dev status

To list all the available connections

$ nmcli con show

To list all the configuration of interface

$ nmcli con show <network_interface>
$ nmcli con show eth0
$ nmcli con show docker0
$ nmcli con show virbr0

To check physical network device status

$ nmcli dev status

To change hostname using nmcli

check
$ nmcli general hostname
then update the hostname
$ nmcli general hostname server.example.com
 333

To reload connection
$ nmcli con reload

To Interactively add or edit a connection

$ nmcli con edit eth0

To display selected fields with values of connection

$ nmcli -g ip4.address connection show eth0
$ nmcli -g ipv4.dns connection show eth0

To activate a connection
$ nmcli con up eth0

To deactivate a connection
$ nmcli con down eth0

To delete connection
$ nmcli con del <interface_name>
 334

#233 nl

nl - is used for numbering lines, accepting input either from a

file or from STDIN

$ cat file.txt
Apache
Squid
Samba
DNS
DHCP

To display a file with line numbers

$ nl file.txt

To number all lines including empty lines

$ nl -b a file.txt

To make line number increment at each line

$ nl -i 2 file.txt
$ nl -i 3 file.txt

To make the starting line number different

$ nl -v 5 file.txt

To add a string lafter line numbers

$ nl -s "..." file.txt
$ nl -s "###" file.txt
 335

To change column for line numbers

$ nl -w2 file.txt
$ nl -w3 file.txt

To print the lines using a different number format

$ nl -n ln file.txt
$ nl -n rn file.txt
$ nl -n rz file.txt
 336

#234 netcat

netcat - is a networking , security or network monitoring tool,it

can perform any operation in Linux related to TCP, UDP, or UNIX-
domain sockets.

To scan a single port (port no. 22)

$ nc -v -w 2 z 192.168.122.10 22

To scan multiple ports 22 , 80 , 53

$ nc -v -w 2 z 192.168.122.10 22 80 53

To scan range of ports (20-85)

$ nc -v -w 2 z 192.168.122.10 20-85

To find service running on port

$ nc -v -n 192.168.122.10 443
$ nc -v -n 192.168.122.10 8080

To transfer files using nc

on receiving server
$ nc -l -p 9899 > file.txt

on sending server
$ nc -w 2 192.168.122.10 9899 < file.txt
 337

#235 newgrp

newgrp - is used to change the current group ID (GID) during a

login session for a user

$ newgrp [-] [group]

$ newgrp ilugc
Attempts to log in to the group ilugc

Attempts to log in to the group ilugc , if successful re-

initializes the user environment.
$ newgrp - ilugc

To change the real group ID back to your original login group

$ newgrp
 338

#236 newusers

newusers - update and create new users in batch

create users details in a file

$ sudo vim users.txt
ilugc:123:1002:1002:Foss Admin:/home/ilugc:/bin/bash
klug:123:1003:1003:Foss:/home/klug:/bin/bash
:x save and exit

set the required permissions

$ sudo chmod 0600 users.txt

run the newusers command to add the users in the users.txt

$ sudo newusers users.txt
check for the users added
$ cat /etc/passwd
 339

#237 nohup

nohup - run a command immune to hangups, with output to a non-tty

create example.sh
$ sudo vim example.sh
#!/bin/bash
echo "hello!!!"
:x

To run example.sh with nohup

$ nohup bash example.sh
$ cat nohup.out

To run a process in the background with nohup

$ nohup [command] &
$ nohup bash example.sh &
$ nohup ping -i 10 google.com &
to bring the process to foreground
fg

To run multiple processes in the background with nohup

$ nohup bach -c '[command1] && [command2]'
$ nohup bash -c 'date && cal && ls && free'
$ cat nohup.out

To redirecting output to different file

$ nohup [command] > /path/to/output/file.txt
$ nohup bash -c 'date && cal && ls && free' > myfile.txt
 340

#238 nproc

nproc - print the number of processing units available

To print the number of processing units available in the system or

to the current process
$ nproc

To print total installed processing units

$ nproc --all

To exclude some processing units

$ nproc --ignore=4

To display the help

$ nproc --help
 341

#239 nslookup

nslookup - query Internet name servers interactively

To find out “A” record (IP address) of Domain

$ nslookup ilugc.in

To find out reverse domain lookup

$ nslookup 34.87.59.92

To Query MX (Mail Exchange) records.

$ nslookup -query=mx www.ilugc.in

To query NS(Name Server) record.

$ nslookup -query=ns www.yahoo.com

To query SOA (Start of Authority) record.

$ nslookup -type=soa www.yahoo.com

To query all Available DNS records.

$ nslookup -query=any facebook.com

To enable debug mode

$ nslookup -debug facebook.com
 342

#240 nstat

nstat - simple tools to monitor kernel snmp counters and network

interface statistics

To Dump absolute values of counters

$ nstat -a

To format output in JSON

$ nstat -j

To make pretty print

$ nstat -p -j

To reset history
$ nstat -r

To not update the history

$ nstat -s

To show entries with zero activity

$ nstat -z
 343

#241 on_ac_power

on_ac_power - test whether computer is running on AC power

$ on_ac_power
0 (true) System is on mains power
1 (false) System is not on mains power
255 (false) Power status could not be determined

run system on mains power

$ on_ac_power
$ echo $?
0

run system on battery power

$ on_ac_power
$ echo $?
1
 344

#242 openssl

openssl - is an open-source command line tool that is commonly

used to generate private keys, create CSRs, install your SSL/TLS
certificate, and identify certificate information.

To generate private key and certificate signing request

$ openssl req -out ilugc.csr -newkey rsa:2048 -nodes -keyout
ilugc.key

To create a self-signed certificate

$ openssl req -x509 -sha256 -nodes -days 365 -newkey rsa:2048 -
keyout ilugc_selfsigned.key -out ilugc_cert.pem

To verify CSR file

$ openssl req -noout -text -in ilugc.csr

To create RSA private key

$ openssl genrsa -out private.key 2048

To remove passphrase from key

$ openssl rsa -in certkey.key -out nopassphrase.key

To verify private key

$ openssl rsa -in certkey.key –check

To verify certificate file

$ openssl x509 -in certfile.pem -text –noout

To verify the Certificate Signer Authority

 345

$ openssl x509 -in certfile.pem -noout -issuer -issuer_hash

To check hash value of a certificate

$ openssl x509 -noout -hash -in ilugc_cert.pem

To Convert DER (Distinguished Encoding Rules) to PEM (Privacy

Enhanced Mail) format
$ openssl x509 –inform der –in sslcert.der –out sslcert.pem

To convert PEM(Privacy Enhanced Mail) to DER(Distinguished

Encoding Rules) format
$ openssl x509 –outform der –in sslcert.pem –out sslcert.der

To create CSR using an existing private key

$ openssl req –out certificate.csr –key existing.key –new

To test SSL certificate of particular url

$ openssl s_client -connect myurl.com:443 –showcerts

To check PEM file certificate expiration date

$ openssl x509 -noout -in certificate.pem -dates

To check certificate expiration date of SSL url

$ openssl s_client -connect myurl.com:443 2>/dev/null | openssl
x509 -noout –enddate
 346

#243 od

od - dump files in octal and other formats

$ cat file.txt
This is test message1
This is test message2
This is test message3

To print file.txt file content in octal format

$ od -b file.txt

To print file.txt file content in character format

$ od -c file.txt

To display files in hexadecimal bytes format

$ od -t x1 file.txt

To print in character format but with no offset information

$ od -An -c file.txt

To print with customize the width of hexadecimal format

$ od -w1 -c -Ad file.txt

To display the result as a decimal integer

$ od -i file.txt

To display the result as octal 2-byte units

$ od -o file.txt
 347

To print the result as hexadecimal 2-byte units

$ od -x file.txt

To print help
$ od --help

To accept input from the command line.

$ od -c -
ilugc
give the input then ENTER , then Ctrl+d gives the od output
 348

#244 banner

banner - print large banner

To install banner
$ sudo apt install sysvbanner

syntax
$ banner text
$ banner 12345
$ banner ilugc
$ banner klug
By default it prints in Upper case letters only
It will print only alphanumeric not special characters.
 349

#245 parted

parted - is a program to manipulate disk partitions

To list linux disk partitions

$ sudo parted
(parted) print
or
$ sudo parted -l

To select different hard disk with parted

(parted) select /disk_name
(parted) select /dev/vda

To create a primary partition

$ sudo parted /dev/sda mkpart primary ext4 start end

To create a logical partition

(parted) mkpart
partition type: extended
start ?
end ?
or
$ sudo parted /dev/sda mkpart extended start end

To resize disk partition

(parted) resizepart partition_number end

To change the FLAG on partition

(parted) set partition_number flag state
 350

To toggle the state of FLAG on partition

(parted) toggle

To delete the partition

(parted) rm partition_number
or
$ sudo parted /disk/name rm partition_number

To create a partition without knowing disk size

$ sudo parted /dev/sda mkpart primary 10000 100%

To set the flag on partition

$ sudo parted /dev/sda set partition_number Flag State

To rescue a lost partition

(parted) rescue
or
(parted) rescue start end

To set the name of partition

(parted) name
or
(parted) partition_number name
 351

#246 partprobe

partprobe - is a program that informs the operating system kernel

of partition table changes

To reload partition table in linux

$ sudo partprobe <device_name>
$ sudo partprobe /dev/sdc

To show a summary of devices and their partitions

$ sudo partprobe -s

To make a dry run and not to update the kernel

$ sudo partprobe --dry-run
or
$ sudo partprobe -d

To show a summary of devices and their partitions but don’t notify

the kernel
$ sudo partprobe -sd
 352

#247 partx

partx - tell the kernel about the presence and numbering of

on-disk partitions

To list the partition table of disk

$ sudo partx --show <device_name>
$ sudo partx --show /dev/vda

To lists the length in sectors and human-readable size

$ sudo partx -o SECTORS,SIZE /dev/vda

To remove the last partition on /dev/sdd

$ sudo partx -d --nr :-1 /dev/sdd

To Print the SIZE column in bytes

$ sudo partx -b /dev/vda

To add the specified partitions, 3 to 5 (inclusive) on /dev/sdc

$ sudo partx -a --nr 3:5 /dev/sdc

List the partitions using the raw output format

$ sudo partx -r /dev/vda

List supported partition types and exit

$ sudo partx --list-types /dev/vda

To update the specified partitions

$ sudo partx -u /dev/vda
 353

#248 passwd

passwd - change user password

$ passwd [options] [username]

To change system user’s password

$ passwd

To change password for root

$ sudo passwd root

To display user status Information

$ sudo passwd -S ilugc

To display information of all users

$ sudo passwd -Sa

To delete user’s password

$ sudo -d ilugc

To force expire the password to the user , force the user to

change the password in the next login
$ sudo passwd -e ilugc

To lock a user password

$ sudo passwd -l ilugc
to check
$ sudo passwd -S ilugc
 354

To unlock user password

$ sudo passwd -u ilugc

To set Inactive days after password expiry

$ sudo -i 10 ilugc
to check
$ sudo passwd -S ilugc

To force system users to change its password in 100 number of days

$ sudo passwd -n 100 ilugc

To set warning days before password expiry

$ sudo passwd -w 15 ilugc
to check
$ sudo passwd -S ilugc
 355

#249 paste

paste - used to join files horizontally (parallel merging) by

outputting lines consisting of lines from each file specified,
separated by tab as delimiter, to the standard output

$ cat name
apache
nginx
mysql
ftp
jenkins

$ server
webserver
webserver
db server
file server
integration server

To merge the files in parallel with default delimiter as tab

$ paste name server

To merge files with delimiter as any character

$ paste -d "|" name server
$ paste -d "\n" name server
 356

To paste one file at a time instead of in parallel

$ paste -s name server
$ paste -s name
$ paste -s server

To merge the contents in a column

$ paste - - - < name
$ paste - - < server

To specify a delimiter for sequential merging of files

$ paste -s -d ":" name server

To merge N consecutive lines from a file into a single line

with 2 hyphens
$ cat name | paste - -
with 3 hyphens
$ cat name | paste - - -
 357

#250 patch

patch - is used for adding patch files to source code or text

files. It takes input as a patch file and applies differences to
original files

$ cat first.py
#!/usr/bin/python3
print ("hello ILUGC")

copy the content of first.py in the new_first.py

$ cp first.py new_first.py

do some changes in the newly-created file new_first.py

$ vim new_first.py
#!/usr/bin/python3
print ("hello ILUGC")
print ("hello KLUG")
:x

Check Difference
create a patch file named as myfile.patch
$ touch myfile.patch

$ diff -u first.py new_first.py >myfile.patch

$ cat myfile.patch

To apply patch
$ patch < myfile.patch
 358

To take backup before applying patch

$ patch -b < myfile.patch

To set backup file version

$ patch -b -V numbered < myfile.patch

To make a dry run

$ patch --dry-run < myfile.patch

To reverse a patch that is already applied

$ patch < myfile.patch
$ ls -l first.py
$ cat first.py
$ patch -R < myfile.patch
to check
$ ls -l first.py
$ cat first.py
 359

#251 pdf2ps

pdf2ps - Ghostscript PDF to PostScript translator

$ pdf2ps options input.pdf output.ps

$ pdf2ps file.pdf file.ps
 360

#252 pdffonts

Pdffonts - lists the fonts used in a Portable Document Format

(PDF) file
along with various information for each font

$ pdffonts input.pdf
$ pdffonts file.pdf

To find out which fonts are used in range of pages of a document

for example pages 10-20 pages
$ pdffonts -f 10 -l 20 file.pdf

To extract fonts from a password-protected PDF

$ pdffonts -opw password
$ pdffonts -upw password

-opw - owner password

-upw - user password
 361

#253 pdfinfo

pdfinfo - Portable Document Format (PDF) document information

extractor

To find info of pdf file

$ pdfinfo file.pdf

To print metadata of pdf file

$ pdfinfo -meta file.pdf

To print the page bounding boxes

$ pdfinfo -box file.pdf

To list available encodings

$ pdfinfo -listenc file.pdf

To print all JavaScript in the PDF

$ pdfinfo -js file.pdf

To print the undecoded date strings directly from the PDF file
$ pdfinfo -rawdates file.pdf
 362

#254 pdftotext

pdftotext - Portable Document Format (PDF) to text converter

syntax
$ pdftotext PDF-file text-file

To convert file.pdf to file.txt

$ pdftotext file.pdf file.txt

To convert range of pages(10-20) from file.pdf to file.txt

$ pdftotext -f 10 -l 20 file.pdf file.txt

To convert a pdf file protected and encrypted by owner password

$ pdftotext -opw 'password' file.pdf file.txt

To convert a pdf file protected and encrypted by user password

$ pdftotext -upw 'password' file.pdf file.txt

To generate a simple HTML file, including the meta information

$ pdftotext -htmlmeta file.pdf file.html
 363

#255 pgrep

pgrep - look up or signal processes based on name and other

attributes

syntax
$ pgrep [OPTIONS] <PATTERN>

To find the PID of the SSH

$ pgrep sshd

To print the PID with delimiter for sshd process

$ pgrep -d "|" sshd
$ pgrep -d ":" sshd

To use a space as a delimiter

$ pgrep ssh -d' '

To show the process name along with its ID

$ pgrep ssh -l

To list PID and full command line

$ pgrep -a sshd

To list all ThreadID

$ pgrep -w sshd

To match case insensitively

$ pgrep -i sshd
 364

To print count of matching processes

$ pgrep -c sshd

To display most recently started process id

$ pgrep -n sshd

To display least recently started

$ pgrep -o sshd

To match only child processes of the given parent

$ pgrep -P <PID_sshd>

To match exactly with the command name

$ pgrep -x sshd

To print help
$ pgrep --help
 365

#256 pidgin

pidgin - start Instant Messaging client in command line

To start pidgin instant Messaging client

$ pidgin

To print debugging messages to stdout

$ pidgin -d

To force online, regardless of network status

$ pidgin -f

To not automatically login

$ pidgin -n

To enable specified account

$ pidgin -l

To display this help

$ pidgin -h
 366

#257 pidof

pidof - find the process ID of a running program

syntax
$ pidof [OPTIONS] PROGRAM_NAME

To find the PID of the SSH

$ pidof sshd

To force pidof to display only one PID

$ pidof -s sshd

To return only the PIDs of the processes that are running with the
same root directory
# pidof -c pid sshd

To print PIDs of shells running scripts with a matching name

$ pidof -x sshd

To List zombie and I/O waiting processes

$ pidof -z sshd
 367

#258 ping

ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network hosts

syntax
$ ping [option] [hostname] or [IP address]

To check whether a remote host is up

$ ping google.com
$ ping ilugc.in

To request IPv6
$ ping -6 hostname/IPv6
To request IPv4
$ ping -4 hostname/IPv4

To change time Interval between ping packets

$ ping -i 0.5 ilugc.in
$ ping -i 5 ilugc.in

To change ping packet size

$ ping -s 1000 google.com
$ ping -s 512 google.com

To flood network using ping to test performance

$ sudo ping -f hostname-IP

To limit the number of pings

$ ping -c 5 google.com
$ ping -c 10 ilugc.in
 368

To set time limit for ping command

$ ping -w 10 google.com
$ ping -w 20 ilugc.in

To print only summary statistics

$ ping -c 5 -q google.com
$ ping -c 10 -q ilugc.in

To add timestamp before each line in ping output

$ ping -D google.com
 369

#259 pip , pip3

pip - A tool for installing and managing Python packages

To print version of pip3

$ pip3 --version

To upgrade pip3
$ python -m pip3 install --upgrade pip

To downgrade pip3
$ python -m pip3 install pip==19.0

To install a Python package

$ pip3 install <package_name>

To install the package of a specific version

$ pip3 install package_name==version

To display package information

$ pip3 show <package_name>
$ pip3 show numpy

To list of locally installed Python modules

$ pip3 list

To uninstall packages
$ pip3 uninstall <package_name>
$ pip3 uninstall numpy
 370

To search packages
$ pip3 search <package_name>
$ pip3 search numpy

Install packages from requirements.txt

$ vim requirements.txt
numpy
botocore
future
:x

$ pip3 install requirements.txt

To list packages that don’t come pre-installed with Python

$ pip3 freeze

To upgrade packages
$ pip3 install --user --upgrade package_name
$ pip3 install --user --upgrade numpy

To Downgrade packages
$ pip3 install --user package_name==version
$ pip3 install --user pip install numpy==1.22.2

To check that installed packages are compatible

$ pip3 check
 371

To manage local and global configuration

$ pip3 config list
$ pip3 config edit
$ pip3 config get
$ pip3 config set
$ pip3 config unset

To Install package from a Git repository

$ pip3 install git+https://github.com/psf/requests.git

To Install package from a directory

$ pip3 install /home/user/src/requests

To Download a package and all of its dependencies

$ pip3 download <package_name>

To debug
$ python3 -m pip debug
 372

#260 pkcon

pkcon - is the command line client for PackageKit

To search for a package type

$ sudo pkcon search <characters to be searched for>

To install a package type

$ sudo pkcon install <package to be installed>

To Install a downloaded package using pkcon

$ sudo pkcon install-local <package to be installed>

To remove a package using pkcon

$ sudo pkcon remove <package to be removed>

To refresh the package cache of pkcon

$ sudo pkcon refresh

To update packages with pkcon

$ sudo pkcon update

To List all available packages

$ pkcon get-packages

To List all configured package repositories.

$ pkcon repo-list

To List available updates

$ pkcon get-updates
 373

To List the available filters.

$ pkcon get-filters

To List the available package groups

$ pkcon get-groups

To List the roles that a transaction can have

$ pkcon get-roles

To Print information about the PackageKit backend in use

$ pkcon backend-details
 374

#261 pkexec

pkexec - Execute a command as another user

$ pkexec <command>
$ pkexec pwd
$ pkexec ls
$ pkexec df

To run the command as some other user

$ pkexec --user <username> <command>
 375

#262 pkg-config

pkg-config - Return metainformation about installed libraries

To Print the Link Flags

$ pkg-config openssl --libs

To Print Compile Flags

$ pkg-config openssl --cflags

To get a version of the library

$ pkg-config openssl --modversion

To print errors
$ pkg-config openssl --print-errors

To display variables in a package

$ pkg-config --print-variables openssl

To list packages
$ pkg-config --list-all

To get the value of a variable declared in a package’s .pc file

$ pkg-config --variable=libdir openssl

To get help messages

$ pkg-config --help
 376

#263 grpck

grpck - verify integrity of group files

$ grpck [option] [files]

To verify the group account file

# grpck /etc/group

To verify the shadow file

# grpck /etc/gshadow

Exit Codes
0: Success.
1: Syntax error.
2: One or more bad group entries found.
3: Could not open group files.
4: Could not lock group files.
5: Could not write group files.
 377

#264 pkill

pkill - is used to kill the current or running process on the

environment

syntax
$ pkill [OPTIONS] <PATTERN>

To stop the process gracefully

$ pkill -15 docker
$ pkill -15 firefox

To reload any “X” process

$ pkill -HUP X

To Kill the Process Starts and Ends With Specific Expression

$ pkill '^ssh$'

To Kill Process Based on Full Command

$ pkill ping
$ pkill -9 -f "ping google.com"

To send a different signal to kill a process

$ pkill --signal SIGKILL ping

To make the pkill case insensitive

$ pkill -i [process-name]
$ pkill -i PING
 378

To kill match the processes being run by a specific user

$ pkill -u user1

To kill match the processes being run by multiuser

$ pkill -u user1, user2, user3

To send KILL signals to all processes under the user1 and patterns
matching X process
$ pkill -9 -u user1 X

To kill only the oldest (least recently started) of the matching

processes
$ pkill -9 -o chrome

To kill only the newest (most recently started) of the matching

processes
$ pkill -9 -n chrome
 379

#265 pmap

pmap - report memory map of a process

syntax
$ pmap [options] pid [...]

To display the memory map of chrome process

$ pidof chrome
$ pmap <pid_chrome>

To display the memory map in an extended format

$ pmap -x <pid_chrome>

To display the full path to the files

$ pmap -p <pid_chrome>

To display the device format

$ pmap -d <pid_chrome>

To ignore the column names while displaying the report of the

memory map
$ pmap -q -d <pid_chrome>

To display everything the kernel provides

$ pmap -xx <pid_chrome>

To create a new configuration

$ pmap -n
 380

To read the default configuration

$ pmap -c <pid_chrome>

To print in quiet mode and to hide header and footer lines

$ pmap -q <pid_chrome>

To display pmap of multiple processes

$ pmap <PID1> <PID2> <PID3>
 381

#266 popd

popd - is used to remove directories from the directory stack

syntax
$ popd [OPTIONS] [DIRECTORY]

$ dirs -l -v
0 /home/ilugc/Templates
1 /home/ilugc/Pictures
2 /home/ilugc/Videos
3 /home/ilugc/Music
4 /home/ilugc/Downloads
5 /home/ilugc/Documents
6 /home/ilugc/Desktop
7 /home/ilugc

To delete directories in the directory stack

$ popd

To Delete a directory from the stack without changing the current

directory
$ popd -n
 382

To remove a directory from any position

+N is used, the Nth directory is deleted from the top
$ popd +N
$ popd +1
-N is used, the Nth directory is deleted from the bottom
$ popd -N
$ popd -1
where N is numerical parameter
 383

#267 poweroff

poweroff - Instructs the system to power down.

To Power off the system

$ sudo poweroff

To Halt the system

$ sudo poweroff --halt

To Reboot the system

$ sudo poweroff --reboot
 384

#268 pr

pr - is used to prepare a file for printing by adding suitable

footers, headers, and the formatted text.

Syntax:
$ pr [options][filename]

To print k number of columns

$ pr -k file.txt

To print 2 number of columns

$ pr -2 file.txt

To print 3 number of columns

$ pr -3 file.txt

To suppress the headers and footers

$ pr -t file.txt

To Double the paces input, reduces clutter

$ pr -d file.txt

To provide number lines which helps in debugging the code

$ pr -n file.txt

To omit page headers and trailers, eliminate any pagination

$ pr -T file.txt
 385

To print help
$ pr -h
 386

#269 printf

printf - format and print data

Syntax
$ printf [-v var] format [arguments]

To print the message

$ printf "%s\n" "Hello, ILUGC"

To print the string value

$ printf "%s" "Hello, ILUGC"

To display output with new line

$ printf "Welcome to ILUGC \n"

To Print integer values

$ printf "%d\n" "1234567890"

To Print float values

$ printf "%f\n" "10.25"

To Print environmental variable

$ printf "The shell environment is: ""$SHELL \n"

To print date and time

$ printf "%(%D-%m-%Y %H:%M)T" $(date +%s)
 387

#270 printenv

printenv - print all or part of environment

To print HOME variable value

$ printenv HOME

To Display all variables

$ printenv

To display the values of SHELL environment variables

$ printenv SHELL
$ printenv LANG
 388

#271 prtstat

prtstat - print statistics of a process

To print the statistics of sshd

$ pidof sshd
$ prtstat -r <PID_sshd>
 389

#272 ps

ps - report a snapshot of the current processes.

To display processes for the current shell

$ ps

To print all processes in different formats

$ ps -A

To Display processes in BSD format

$ ps aux

To display full-format listing

$ ps -ef

To print user running processes

$ ps -x

To print user processes by real user ID or name

$ ps -fU ilugc

To display user processes by effective user ID or name

$ ps -fu ilugc

To display all processes running as root

$ ps -U root -u root

To print group processes

$ ps -fG docker
 390

To display all processes owned by effective group name

$ ps -fg docker

To print processes by PID

$ ps -fp <PID>

To list process by PPID

$ ps -f --ppid <PPID>

To list process using a PID list

$ ps -fp PID1, PID2, PID3

To display processes by TTY

$ ps -t pts/0
$ ps -ft tty1

To print process tree

$ ps -e --forest

To print a process tree for a given process

$ ps -f --forest -C sshd

To print all threads of a process

$ ps -fL -C sshd

To list all format specifiers

$ ps L

To display the PID, PPID, user name, and command of a process.

$ ps -eo pid,ppid,user,cmd
 391

To display file system group, nice value, start time, and elapsed
time of a process.
$ ps -p 1154 -o pid,ppid,fgroup,ni,lstart,etime

To find a process name using its PID.

$ ps -p <PID> -o comm=

To display parent and child processes

$ ps -C sshd

To print all PIDs of all instances of a process

$ ps -C sshd -o pid=

To check the execution time of a process

$ ps -eo comm,etime,user | grep sshd

To print top running processes by highest memory

$ ps -eo pid,ppid,cmd,%mem,%cpu --sort=-%mem | head

To print top running processes by highest cpu

$ ps -eo pid,ppid,cmd,%mem,%cpu --sort=-%cpu | head

To display security context

$ ps -eM
$ ps --context

To display security information in a user-defined format

$ ps -eo euser,ruser,suser,fuser,f,comm,label
 392

#273 pstree

pstree - is used to display the parent-child relationship in a

hierarchical format

To print pstree without any option

$ pstree

To Display the tree hierarchy of a user processes

$ pstree -p ilugc

To display the process tree

$ pstree <PID>

To show the command line arguments

$ pstree -a

To Use ASCII characters to draw the tree

$ pstree -A

To Disable compaction of identical subtrees

$ pstree -c

To Use VT100 line drawing characters

$ pstree -G

To print the current process and its ancestors

$ pstree -h
 393

To print the specified process instead

$ pstree -H

To Display long lines

$ pstree -l

To Sort processes with the same ancestor by PID instead of by name

$ pstree -n

To show PIDs
$ pstree -p

To show the uid transactions

$ pstree -u

To Use UTF-8 (Unicode) line drawing characters

$ pstree -U

To show the security context

$ pstree -Z
 394

#274 ps2pdf

ps2pdf - Convert PostScript to PDF using ghostscript

$ ps2pdf sample.ps
$ ps2pdf file.ps file.pdf

To embed fonts
$ ps2pdf -dEmbedAllFonts=true sample.ps

To compress the PDF

$ ps2pdf -dUseFlateCompression=true sample.ps
 395

#275 pvck

pvck - Check metadata on physical volumes

syntax
$ sudo pvck [options]

To scan the physical volume metadata

$ sudo pvck PhysicalVolume /dev/sda3

To specify the starting sector from where it should scan

$ sudo pvck --labelsector sector

To debug the physical volume metadata

$ sudo pvck -d

To print help
$ pvck -h

To operate in verbose mode

$ sudo pvck -v
 396

#276 pwconv

pwconv - used to recover shadow file from passwd file , if shadow

file is deleted by any means replace the encrypted password in
/etc/shadow with an x.

from root user delete /etc/shadow

# rm /etc/shadow
check with
# cat /etc/shadow
To recover /etc/shadow file from the /etc/passwd file
# pwconv
and check with
# cat /etc/shadow
 397

#277 pwd

pwd - print name of current/working directory

To get working directory path

$ pwd

To print the physical working directory and avoid listing symbolic

links it prints the actual path.
$ pwd -P

To print the working directory path, including any symlinks

it prints the symbolic path.
$ pwd -L

To print $PWD Variable Contents

$ echo $PWD
 398

#278 pwdx

pwdx - report current working directory of a process

syntax
$ pwdx pid
$ pwdx pid1 pid2 pid3

for example change directory to /opt

$ cd /opt
$ sleep 100
check for pidof sleep
$ pidof sleep
66135

then check for dir with

$ pwdx <pid_sleep>
$ pwdx 66135
66135: /opt
 399

#279 qemu-img

qemu-img - used to create, convert and modify images offline by

Xen and KVM

syntax
$ qemu-img subcommand [options]

To get help
$ qemu-img -h

To create disk image

$ qemu-img create ubuntu.img 25G

To create qcow2 disk image

$ qemu-img create -f qcow2 -o size=25G ubuntu.img

To create VMDK disk image

$ qemu-img create -f vmdk -o size=20G debian.img

To get Information about disk image

$ qemu-img info ubuntu.img
$ qemu-img info debian.img
$ qemu-img info fedora.img

To shrink disk image

$ qemu-img convert -O qcow2 centos.qcow2 centos_shrink.qcow2

To compress disk image

$ qemu-img convert -O qcow2 -c fedora.qcow2 fedora_compress.qcow2
 400

To check disk image for errors

$ qemu-img check ubuntu.qcow2
$ qemu-img check debian.qcow2
$ qemu-img check centos.qcow2

To increase disk image size

$ qemu-img resize ubuntu.qcow2 +5GB
$ qemu-img resize debian.qcow2 +5GB

To create a new disk image on the file system.

$ qemu-img create -f raw ubuntu.img 25G
$ qemu-img create -f vmdk ubuntu.vmdk 25G

To converts an existing disk image from one format to another

$ qemu-img convert -O qcow2 ubuntu.vmdk ubuntu.qcow2
$ qemu-img convert -O qcow2 debian.vmdk debian.qcow2

To manage snapshots of an existing disk image

$ qemu-img snapshot -c ubuntu_snap1 ubuntu.qcow2
$ qemu-img snapshot -c centos_snap1 centos.qcow2

To list snapshots of VM
$ qemu-img snapshot -l ubuntu.qcow2
$ qemu-img snapshot -l centos.qcow2

To restore the state of the saved snapshot

$ qemu-img snapshot -a 1 ubuntu.qcow2
$ qemu-img snapshot -a 1 centos.qcow2
 401

To delete snapshot
$ qemu-img snapshot -d 1 ubuntu.qcow2
$ qemu-img snapshot -d 1 centos.qcow2

To create a new base image based on an existing disk image

$ qemu-img rebase -b ubuntu.raw ubuntu.qcow2
$ qemu-img rebase -b centos.raw centos.qcow2
 402

#280 rcp

rcp - is used to copy files from one networked computer to another

syntax
$ rcp options source destination

To send a file from local host to remote host

$ rcp /home/ilugc/file.txt remotehost:/home/remote_home/file.txt

To receive a file from a remote host

$ rcp remote_host:/home/remote_home/file.txt .

To have the modification times, access times, modes and ACLs if

applicable as the original file
$ rcp -p remote_host:/home/remote_home/file.txt

To copy directories
$ rcp -r localdir remote_host:

To copy two files from local host to remote host

$ rcp a.txt b.txt c.txt remote_host:/var/www/
 403

#281 renice

renice - alter priority of running processes

To change the priority of the running process.

$ sudo renice -n <nice_value> -p <pid_of_the_process>
$ renice -n 10 -p <PID>

To change the priority of all programs of a specific group with

group id 5 to 15
$ renice -n 15 -g 5

To change the priority of all programs of a specific user 3 to 15

$ sudo renice -n 15 -u 3
 404

#282 reboot

reboot - is used restart or reboot the system

syntax
$ reboot [OPTIONS...]

To restart system
$ sudo reboot
$ sudo shutdown -r now

To scheduled a restart after a specific time ex. 10 minutes

$ sudo shutdown -r +10
reboot system after 06:00 A.M
$ sudo shutdown -r 06:00

To cancel restart
$ sudo shutdown -c "message"
$ sudo shutdown -c "scheduled shutdown is cancelled"

To restart remote server

$ ssh root@remote-server /sbin/reboot
$ ssh [email protected] /sbin/shutdown -r now

To print help options

$ reboot --help

To force immediate reboot

$ sudo reboot -f
 405

To just write wtmp record and not reboot

$ sudo reboot -w

To restart with the Init command

$ sudo init 6

To don't write wtmp record

$ sudo reboot -d

To don't send wall message before reboot

$ sudo reboot --no-wall

To reboot system using systemctl

$ sudo systemctl reboot
 406

#283 realpath

realpath - print the resolved path

syntax
$ realpath /path/to/file

$ ls -l /etc/os-release
$ realpath /etc/os-release

To display each output line with NUL, not newline

$ realpath -z /etc/os-release

To suppress most error messages

$ realpath -q /etc/os-release

To print the resolved path relative to DIR

$ realpath --relative-to=DIR /etc/os-release

To print absolute paths unless paths below DIR

$ realpath --relative-base=DIR /etc/os-release

To resolve symlinks as encountered

$ realpath -P /etc/os-release

To resolve '..' components before symlinks

$ realpath -L /etc/os-release
 407

#284 rev

rev - reverse lines characterwise

$ vim file.txt
This is sample test file
:x
$ rev file.txt

$ rev
linux
foss
ilugc

$ echo This is sample file | rev

 408

#285 replace

replace - makes modifications to strings of text in files or the

standard input.replace command is provided by mariadb-server

$ cat example.txt
This is paragraph one
This is paragraph two
This is paragraph three

To replace string with other string

$ replace paragraph line -- example.txt
it will be converted and renamed

To print output to stdout

$ replace paragraph line < example.txt

To save output to a new file name

$ replace paragraph line < example.txt > new_example.txt

To Print more information about what the program does

$ replace -v line paragraph -- example.txt
$ replace -v line paragraph < example.txt > new_example.txt
 409

#286 reset

reset - is used to initialize the terminal

To wipe everything that is currently in the terminal, including

the scrollback buffer and initialize the terminal
$ reset
 410

#287 resize2fs

resize2fs - is used to enlarge or shrink an ext2/3/4 file system

on a device

syntax
$ resize2fs [options] {device/file system name} [desired size]

To resize a extended file system

$ sudo resize2fs /dev/vda1

To forcefully resize the file system

$ sudo resize2fs -f /dev/vda1

To flush the filesystem device’s buffer caches

$ sudo resize2fs -F /dev/vda1

To shrink the filesystem to the minimum size

$ sudo resize2fs -M /dev/vda1

To prints out a percentage completion bars for each resize2fs

operation
$ sudo resize2fs -p /dev/vda1

To print the minimum size of the filesystem

$ sudo resize2fs -P /dev/vda1
 411

#288 resizepart

resizepart - tell the kernel about the new size of a partition

$ sudo parted
(parted) resizepart
Partition number? 2
End? [20.0GB]? 30000

To check the results

(parted) print
 412

#289 return

return - is used to exit from a shell function

syntax
$ return [N]

$ function add { add=$(($1+$2)); return $add; }

$ add 4 4
$ echo $?
 413

#290 rfkill

rfkill - tool for enabling and disabling wireless devices

To list all the available wireless interfaces on a system

$ sudo rfkill
$ sudo rfkill list

To print ID, TYPE-DESC, SOFT and HARD columns in the output

$ sudo rfkill -o ID,TYPE-DESC,SOFT,HARD

To print JSON-formatted output

$ sudo rfkill -o ID,TYPE-DESC,SOFT,HARD -J
$ sudo rfkill -J

To Block an interface by ID
$ sudo rfkill block 0
$ sudo rfkill block 1

To Block interfaces by type

$ sudo rfkill block bluetooth

To unblocking interfaces
$ sudo rfkill unblock 0

To unblock all bluetooth devices

$ sudo rfkill unblock bluetooth
 414

To toggle the status of an interface

$ sudo rfkill toggle <interface_id>
$ sudo rfkill toggle 0
 415

#291 rlogin

rlogin - remotely logs in to a system.

To login remote host

$ rlogin 192.168.122.55

To Specify the user login name remote host

$ rlogin <remote_host> -l <username>
$ rlogin 192.168.122.55 -l ilugc
 416

#292 rm

rm - remove files or directories

To remove or delete file

$ rm file.txt

To delete the files interactively

$ rm -i file.txt

To delete a directory recursively

$ rm -r old_data/

To delete the files and sub-directories interactively

$ rm -ir old_data/

To Delete files forcefully

$ rm -f file.txt

To prompt once before deleting more than three files or recursive

delete
$ touch file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt file4.txt file5.txt
$ rm -I file*
rm: remove 5 arguments? y

To delete all the .txt files or .mp4

$ rm -f *.txt
$ rm -f *.mp4
 417

To remove multiple files

$ rm file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt

To remove everything from current directory

$ rm -v *
 418

#293 rmdir

rmdir - remove empty directories

To remove a single empty directory

$ rmdir ~/Downloads/files

To remove multiple directories using rmdir

$ rmdir ~/Downloads/old_data1 old_data2 old_data3

To print verbose output

$ rmdir -v ~/Downloads/files

To suppress fail on non-empty message

$ rmdir -v --ignore-fail-on-non-empty old_data1 old_data2
old_data3

To remove directory and its parent directories

$ rmdir -v -p files/data/project/

To remove multiple directories with dir-

$ rmdir -v dir-*
 419

#294 rmmod

rmmod - Simple program to remove a module from the Linux Kernel

syntax
$ rmmod [options] module_name

To remove a module
$ rmmod bluetooth
$ rmmod ath10k_core

To delete multiple modules

$ rmmod module_1 module_2 module_3
$ rmmod bluetooth ath10k_core

To print verbose output

$ rmmod -v bluetooth

To send errors to syslog instead of standard error

$ rmmod -s bluetooth
 420

#295 route

route - show / manipulate the IP routing table

To display the IP/kernel routing table.

$ route

To display routing table in full numeric form

$ route -n

To add a default gateway

$ sudo route add default gw 192.168.122.1

To list kernel’s routing cache information

$ route -Cn

To reject routing to a particular host or network

$ sudo route add -host 192.168.122.101 reject

To get details of the kernel/IP routing table using ip command

$ ip route

To delete the default gateway

$ route del default

To get the details of the local table with destination addresses

assigned to the localhost
$ ip route show table local
 421

To get output related to IPv4

$ ip -4 route

To get output related to IPv6.

$ ip -6 route
 422

#296 rsh

rsh command executes commands on a remote shell.

syntax
$ rsh remote-machinename/ip command

To run a command on remote-host

$ rsh remote-host ls
$ rsh remote-machine/ip mkdir ~/Desktop/testfolder
$ rsh remote-machine/ip mv -v ~/Desktop/*.txt
~/Desktop/tesffolder/
$ rsh 192.168.122.50 hostname

To run command on remote-host as different user

$ rsh -l user2 192.168.122.50 whoami

To run multiple commands in the remote computer

$ rsh -l user2 192.168.122.50 "pwd ; ls"

To run commands with sudo privileges on the remote system

$ rsh -l user2 192.168.122.50 sudo -S deluser user3

To run local scripts on the remote system

$ rsh -l user2 192.168.122.50 bash test-script.sh

To save the remote system’s output to the local system

$ rsh -l user2 192.168.122.50 ps > running_process.txt
 423

#297 rsync

rsync - a fast, versatile, remote (and local) file-copying tool

syntax
$ rsync options SOURCE DESTINATION

To copy a single file locally

$ rsync -v /home/ilugc/Desktop/file.txt
/home/ilugc/Documents/backup/

To copy multiple files locally

$ rsync -v /home/ilugc/Desktop/sample.txt
/home/ilugc/Desktop/sample2.txt /home/ilugc/Documents/backup
$ rsync -v file1.txt file2.txt /home/ilugc/Documents/backup

To copy a directory and all subdirectories locally (Copy Files and

Directories Recursively)
$ rsync -av /home/ilugc/Desktop/Linux /home/ilugc/Documents/backup

To copy a file or directory from local to remote machine

$ rsync -av /home/ilugc/Desktop/test
192.168.122.50:/home/ilugc/Documents/backup
$ rsync -av /home/ilugc/Desktop/test
[email protected]:/home/ilugc/Documents/backup
$ rsync -av /home/ilugc/Desktop/file.txt
[email protected]:/home/ilugc/Documents/backup

To copy multiple files or directories from local to remote machine

$ rsync -av /home/ilugc/Desktop/test/ /home/ilugc/Music
192.168.122.50:/home/ilugc/Desktop/backup
 424

To specify rsync protocol for remote transfers

$ rsync -e ssh /home/ilugc/Desktop/sample.txt
192.168.122.50:/home/ilugc/Desktop

To copy a file or directory from a remote to a local machine

current directory
$ rsync -av 192.168.122.50:/home/ilugc/Desktop/Test_Dir .

To show rsync progress during data transfer

$ rsync -av --progress /home/ilugc/Desktop/Test_Dir
192.168.122.50:/home/ilugc/Desktop/backup

To delete source files after transfer

$ rsync -v --remove-source-files /home/ilugc/backup/monthly.zip
192.168.122.50:/home/ilugc/Desktop/backup/

To make rsync dry run

$ rsync -av --dry-run --delete /home/ilugc/Desktop/Test_Dir1
192.168.122.50:/home/ilugc/Desktop/backup

To set maximum file size for transfer

$ rsync -av --max-size=1024k /home/ilugc/Desktop/Dir1
192.168.56.100:/home/ilugc/Desktop/backup/

To set minimum file size for transfer

$ rsync -av --min-size=50k /home/ilugc/Desktop/
192.168.122.50:/home/ilugc/Desktop/backup/

To set the maximum transfer speed to 100KB/s

$ rsync -av --bwlimit=100 --progress /home/ilugc/Desktop/Test_Dir1
192.168.122.50:/home/ilugc/Desktop/backup/
 425

To copy specific file type

$ rsync -v /home/ilugc/Documents/*.txt /home/ilugc/Desktop/backup/
$ rsync -v /home/ilugc/Documents/*.mp4 /home/ilugc/Desktop/backup/
$ rsync -v /home/ilugc/Documents/*.pdf /home/ilugc/Desktop/backup/

To show the difference between the source and destination files

$ rsync -avi /home/ilugc/Desktop/Test_Dir1/
/home/ilugc/Desktop/backup/
 426

#298 rsyslogd

rsyslogd - rsyslogd is used to log messages and it is based on

syslogd

To start the rsyslog service

$ sudo rsyslogd

To suppress the warnings

$ sudo rsyslogd -w

To Turn on Debugging
$ sudo rsyslogd -d

To disable the DNS for remote messaging

$ sudo rsyslogd -x

To send UDP messages to all the targets

$ sudo rsyslogd -A

To make rsyslogd to listen to IPv4 addresses only

$ sudo rsyslogd -4

To make rsyslogd to listen to IPv6 addresses only

$ sudo rsyslogd -6

To selects the desired backward compatibility mode

$ sudo rsyslogd -c 4.2
 427

To specify the alternative configuration file

$ sudo rsyslogd -f /etc/myconfigfile

To specify the hostnames to be logged

$ sudo rsyslogd -l remote_host.com

To specify the alternate pid file

$ sudo rsyslogd -i /var/

To do a config check
$ sudo rsyslogd -N 1
 428

#299 runlevel

runlevel - Print previous and current SysV runlevel

0 - Halt
1 - Single-user mode
2 - Not used (user-definable)
3 - Full multi-user mode
4 - Not used (user-definable)
5 - Full multi-user mode (with an X-based login screen)
6 - Reboot

To see the current runlevel of the system

$ runlevel
N 3
Full multi-user mode in CLI mode

To temporarily change the runlevel to 5 (Full multi-user mode with

an X-based login screen) from 3
$ init 5

To permanently change the runlevel to 5 from 3

$ sudo vim /etc/default/grub
GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX="5"
:x
$ sudo update-grub
$ sudo reboot
 429

#300 runuser

runuser - run a command with substitute user and group ID

runuser cannot be used by non-root users

Syntax:
# runuser - username -c [commands...]

# runuser - user1 -c 'mkdir -p ~/sample.txt'

# runuser - user1 -c 'ls -l'
# runuser - user1 -c 'df -Th'

To run multiple commands

# runuser -user1 -c 'mkdir -p ~/sample.txt; ls -l; df -Th '