BIO 101 Lecture notes.

STEMS, LEAVES AND ROOTS

THE STEM

A vascular plant possesses two main structural axes namely the stem and the root.
Stems provide the above-ground framework for the plant. It holds the leaves, flowers
and fruits, transports water and nutrients between the roots and the shoots in the xylem
and phloem, stores nutrients, produces new living tissue and can photosynthesize.
The stem can also be called other names such as the culm, stalk, or halm. In most
vascular plants, stems are either above-ground, i.e., are located above the soil surface,
or subterranean i.e., below-ground/underground.
Trunk is the main stem of woody plant species. Most shady large trees have a single
trunk, but smaller ornamental plants may have multi-trunk habit. The term "shoot"
should not be confused with "stem". The term "shoot" generally refers to new fresh
plant growth, including both stems and other structures like leaves or flowers.
In herbaceous dicotyledonous stems, the vascular conducting tissue (xylem and
phloem) is organized into discrete strands or vascular bundles, each containing both
xylem and phloem. The cells between the vascular bundles are thin-walled and often
store starch. The peripheral region of cells in the stem is called the cortex; cells of the
central portion make up the pith. The outermost cells of the stem compose the
epidermis. No bark is formed on the herbaceous stem.
In contrast, woody dicot stems develop an outer layer of dead thick-walled cells called
cork cells, which together with the underlying phloem compose the bark of the tree.
The major portion of the woody stem’s diameter is a cylinder of xylem (wood) that
originates from a region of cell division called the vascular cambium. The water-
conducting cells that make up the xylem are nonliving. The accumulated xylem often
forms annual rings composed of two zones: a relatively wide zone of spring wood
(made up of large cells, characteristic of rapid growth) and a narrower zone of summer
wood (smaller cells). Such rings may be absent in tropical trees that grow all year
round. Xylem rays, radiating like spokes of a wagon wheel, are formed in the xylem
and connect with the peripheral phloem. Stems of monocotyledons are composed of
numerous vascular bundles that are arranged in a seemingly scattered manner within
the ground tissue. Monocot vascular bundles lack a vascular cambium, and monocot
stems thus do not become woody in a manner similar to dicots.
Functions of the Stem
The primary functions of the stem are
(i) holds the leaves and supports the elevation leaves, flowers and fruits;
(ii) conducts water and minerals to the leaves: the stem conducts water and nutrient
minerals from their site of absorption in the roots to the leaves and fruits by means of
certain vascular tissues in the xylem;
(iii) transports photosynthetic products from the leaves to other parts of the plant,
including the roots by the means of the phloem;
(iv) storage of food and water. Food-storing stems include such specialized forms as
tubers, rhizomes, and corms and the woody stems of trees and shrubs. Water storage
is developed to a high degree in the stems of cactus plant, and all green stems are
capable of photosynthesis.
(v) Production of new living tissue. The normal lifespan of plant cells is one to three
years. Stems have cells called meristems that annually generate new living tissue.
(vi) Some green stems also photosynthesize.
Types of Stems and Modifications of stem
In general, the habit of a stem is erect or ascending, but it may lie prostrate on the
ground, as in the sweet potato and strawberry. A stem may climb on rocks or plants
by means of rootlets, as in ivy; other vines have twining stems that twist around a
supporting plant in a spiral manner, as in the honeysuckle and hop. In other cases,
climbing plants are supported by tendrils that may be specialized stems, as in the
grape and passion-flower.
1. Crown: generally found near the surface of the soil, is a region of compressed stem
from which new shoots are produced.
2. Stolon (runner): This is a specialized stem that lies prostrate on the ground (grows
horizontally above the soil surface) and forms a new plant at one or more of its nodes
e.g., sweet potato and strawberry plant stems. A stolon curves toward the ground and,
on reaching a moist spot, takes root and forms an upright stem and ultimately a
separate plant.
3. Rhizome: This is a specialized subterranean stem that grows horizontally below the
ground and acts as a storage organ and means of propagation in some plants e.g.,
Imperata cylindrica.
4. Tuber: This is an enlarged portion of an underground stem for storage of food for
the plant e.g., potato tubers.
5. Corm: This is a compressed or short enlarged underground storage stem usually
with reduced scaly leaves e.g., gladiolus and crocus plants stems.
6. Bulbs: are short vertical underground stem with fleshy storage scales (leaves)
attached at the base, e.g., onion, daffodil, and tulip. Bulbs often function in
reproduction by splitting to form new bulbs or producing small new bulbs termed
bulblets.
7. Spur: This is a short, stubby side stem that arises from the main stem. Spurs
typically contain the flower buds and serve as attachment between the fruit stem and
the branch. Spurs are usually found in fruit trees such as apples and pears.
8. Thorns: These are modified sharp-pointed stems that occur in the leaf axil.
Differences between a monocot stem and dicot stem

Fig. 1. Vascular arrangements (a) in monocot stem: vascular system are arranged in
paired bundles and (b) Dicot stem: vascular system are arranged in continuous rings.

Dicot Monocot

The monocot stem is usually hollow at the

The dicot stem is solid in most of the cases.
centre.

The hypodermis is formed of collenchyma fibres The hypodermis is made of sclerenchyma

which are often green in colour. fibres and they are not green.

The internal tissues are arranged in concentric There is no concentric arrangement of

layers. tissues.

The ground tissue is differentiated as endodermis, The ground tissue is the same and is
cortex, pericycle, medullary rays, pith, etc. composed of a mass of similar cells.

The vascular bundles are scattered

The vascular bundles are formed as broken rings.
irregularly around the ground tissue.

Phloem parenchyma is present. Phloem parenchyma is absent.

Pith is not as well-developed in monocots

Pith is well-developed.
(usually absent in most)
 Epidermal hair may or may not exist. Presence of epidermal hair.

Vascular bundles are less in number and are of There are numerous vascular bundles of
uniform size. different sizes.

The monocot stem has a

The dicot stem does not have a bundle sheath on
sclerenchymatous bundle sheath on the
the outside of a vascular bundle.
outside of a vascular bundle.

The monocot stems do not have

The dicot stems have trichomes.
trichomes.

The vascular bundles always remain open, due to

the presence of cambium within phloem and The vascular bundles are closed.
xylem.

Dicot stem can feature secondary growth as a

No secondary growth is witnessed in case
result of secondary vascular tissues and periderm
of monocots.
formation.

Vessels are of a polygonal shape and are Vessels are rounded or oval and are
arranged in rows or chains. arranged in a Y-shaped formation.

Usually, vascular tissues stop functioning when

Vascular tissues remain the same
they get old. New vascular tissues replace the old
throughout the plant’s life cycle.
ones.

THE LEAF:

The leaf is a green, flat, thin, expanded lateral appendage of the stem. This part is
borne at a node and bears a bud in its axil. It develops from the leaf primordium of
shoot apex. The green colour of the leaf is due to the presence of chlorophyll. This
pigment helps the various plants to synthesize their organic food by photosynthesis.
The growth of leaf is limited. The leaves do not possess any apical bud or a regular
growing point. A leaf has three main parts – Leaf base, petiole and leaf lamina. In
addition, it may possess two lateral outgrowths of the leaf base, called stipules. The
leaf lamina is traversed by prominent vascular strands, called veins.
Venation: This is the arrangement of veins and also the various veinlets in the leaves.
Different plants show different types of venations. There are three types of venations:
reticulate, parallel and dichotomous venation.

(b)
(a) (c)

(a) Parallel venation: In this fashion, the veinlets are arranged parallel to each other.
This is found in monocotyledons such as maize, rice.
(b) Reticulate venation: In a reticulate venation, the veinlets are arranged in a random
fashion to form a complex network of veinlets. Dicotyledonous plants like a rose plant
possess reticulate venation.
(c) Dichotomous venation: One extant plant, the Ginkgo biloba, has dichotomous
venation where the veins fork.

Leaf Structure and Function

The outermost layer of the leaf is the epidermis. It consists of the upper and lower
epidermis, which are present on either side of the leaf. Botanists call the upper side
the adaxial surface (or adaxis) and the lower side the abaxial surface (or abaxis). The
epidermis aids in the regulation of gas exchange. It contains stomata, which are
openings through which the exchange of gases takes place. Two guard cells surround
each stoma, regulating its opening and closing. Guard cells are the only epidermal
cells to contain chloroplasts.
The epidermis is usually one cell layer thick. However, in plants that grow in very hot
or very cold conditions, the epidermis may be several layers thick to protect against
excessive water loss from transpiration. A waxy layer known as the cuticle covers the
leaves of all plant species. The cuticle reduces the rate of water loss from the leaf
surface. Other leaves may have small hairs (trichomes) on the leaf surface. Trichomes
help to avert herbivory by restricting insect movements or by storing toxic or bad-
tasting compounds. They can also reduce the rate of transpiration by blocking air flow
across the leaf surface.
Below the epidermis of dicot leaves are layers of cells known as the mesophyll, or
“middle leaf.” The mesophyll of most leaves typically contains two arrangements of
parenchyma cells: the palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma. The palisade
parenchyma (also called the palisade mesophyll) aids in photosynthesis and has
column-shaped, tightly-packed cells. It may be present in one, two, or three layers.
Below the palisade parenchyma are loosely-arranged cells of an irregular shape.
These are the cells of the spongy parenchyma (or spongy mesophyll). The air space
found between the spongy parenchyma cells allows gaseous exchange between the
leaf and the outside atmosphere through the stomata. In aquatic plants, the
intercellular spaces in the spongy parenchyma help the leaf float. Both layers of the
mesophyll contain many chloroplasts.
Similar to the stem, the leaf contains vascular bundles composed of xylem and phloem.
The xylem consists of tracheids and vessels, which transport water and minerals to
the leaves. The phloem transports the photosynthetic products from the leaf to the
other parts of the plant. A single vascular bundle, no matter how large or small, always
contains both xylem and phloem tissues.
Leaf Arrangement
The arrangement of leaves on a stem is known as phyllotaxy. The number and
placement of a plant’s leaves will vary depending on the species, with each species
exhibiting a characteristic leaf arrangement. Leaves are classified as either alternate,
spiral, or opposite. Plants that have only one leaf per node have leaves that are said
to be either alternate—meaning the leaves alternate on each side of the stem in a flat
plane—or spiral, meaning the leaves are arrayed in a spiral along the stem. In an
opposite leaf arrangement, two leaves arise at the same point, with the leaves
connecting opposite each other along the branch. If there are three or more leaves
connected at a node, the leaf arrangement is classified as whorled.
Shapes of leaves
Acicular: They are needle-shaped.
Linear: They are long and relatively broader as compared to other leaves.
Lanceolate: They are lance-shaped.
Oblong: They are rectangular in their shape and structure.
Reniform: They refer to the leaves with the shape of kidneys.
Cordate: They are heart-shaped and have a deep notch at the base.
Orbicular: They are more or less circular in their shape.
Saggitate: They are shaped like arrow-heads.
Elliptical: They have shapes of ellipses.
Hastate: The shape of these leaves is like saggitate. The two basal lobes are directed
outwards.
Ovate: They are oval or egg-shaped in their structure.
Lyrate: They are in the shape of a lyre.
Spatulate: They have shapes resembling spatulas or spoons.
Centric: They are cylindrical and hollow.
Oblique: The lamina of this leaf has unequal halves.
Cuneate: They are wedge-shaped.
Leaf Forms
Leaves may be simple or compound. In a simple leaf, the blade is either completely
undivided i.e., the lamina is continuous e.g., the banana leaf—or it has lobes, but the
separation does not reach the midrib, as in the maple leaf.
In a compound leaf, the leaf blade is completely divided, forming leaflets, as in the Oil
bean (Pentaclethhra macrophylla) tree. Each leaflet may have its own stalk, but is
attached to the rachis.
A palmately compound leaf resembles the palm of a hand, with leaflets radiating
outwards from one point – the petiole. Examples include the leaves of poison ivy, horse
chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) or the familiar houseplant Schefflera sp. (common
name “umbrella plant”).
Pinnately compound leaves take their name from their feather-like appearance; the
leaflets are arranged along the midrib i.e., the leaflets branch from the midrib, as in
rose leaves (Rosa sp.), or the leaves walnut trees.
Leaf Adaptations
Coniferous plant species that thrive in cold environments, such as spruce, fir, and pine,
have leaves that are reduced in size and needle-like in appearance. These needle-
like leaves have sunken stomata and a smaller surface area, two attributes that aid in
reducing water loss. In hot climates, plants such as cacti have succulent leaves that
help to conserve water. Many aquatic plants have leaves with wide lamina that can
float on the surface of the water; a thick waxy cuticle on the leaf surface that repels
water.
Important notes or features:
(a) The epidermis consists of the upper and lower epidermis; it aids in the regulation
of gas exchange via stomata.
(b) The epidermis is one layer thick, but may have more layers to prevent transpiration.
(c) The cuticle is located outside the epidermis and protects against water loss;
trichomes discourage predation.
(d) The mesophyll is found between the upper and lower epidermis; it aids in gas
exchange and photosynthesis via chloroplasts.
(e) The xylem transports water and minerals to the leaves; the phloem transports the
photosynthetic products to the other parts of the plant.
(f) Plants in cold climates have needle-like leaves that are reduced in size; plants in
hot climates have succulent leaves that help to conserve water.

THE ROOT
Roots are important organs or structures in all vascular plants, consisting of several
types of tissues, that provide a variety of functions. All plants do not have roots. Roots
are absent in plants like mosses and liverworts. Most vascular plants have two types
of roots: primary roots that grow downward and secondary roots that branch out to
the side. Together, all the roots of a plant make up a root system.
Root Systems
There are two basic types of root systems in plants: taproot systems and fibrous root
systems.
Taproot systems: These feature a single, thick or prominent primary root that develops
when the seed germinates and the radicle emerges. From there, secondary or lateral
roots grow. As the secondary roots grow, they can also get thicker and develop further
secondary roots, ending in a highly ramified root system. Taproots are characteristic
of dicots. The taproot may penetrate as many as 60 meters (almost 200 feet) below
the ground surface. It can plumb very deep water sources and store a lot of food to
help the plant survive drought and other environmental extremes. The taproot also
anchors the plant very securely in the ground.
Fibrous root systems: These have many small branching roots, called fibrous roots,
but no large primary root. Fibrous roots are also known as adventitious roots because
the primary root that forms when a seedling germinates does not remain. Instead,
roots grow out of the stem of the plant and are called adventitious. Fibrous roots are
characteristic of monocot. The huge number of threadlike roots increases the surface
area for absorption of water and minerals, but fibrous roots anchor the plant less
securely.
Root Structures
The tip of a root is called the root cap. It consists of specialized cells that help regulate
primary growth of the root at the tip. Above the root cap is primary meristem, where
growth in length occurs. Above the meristem, the rest of the root is covered with a
single layer of epidermal cells. These cells may have root hairs that increase the
surface area for the absorption of water and minerals from the soil. Beneath the
epidermis is ground tissue, which may be filled with stored starch. Bundles of vascular
tissues form the center of the root. Waxy layers waterproof the vascular tissues so
they don’t leak, making them more efficient at carrying fluids. Secondary meristem is
located within and around the vascular tissues. This is where growth in thickness
occurs.

Parts of the root

Root Growth
Roots have primary and secondary meristems for growth in length and width. As roots
grow longer, they always grow down into the ground. Even if you turn a plant upside
down, its roots will try to grow downward. How do roots “know” which way to grow?
How can they tell down from up? Specialized cells in root caps are able to detect
gravity. The cells direct meristem in the tips of roots to grow downward toward the
center of Earth. This is generally adaptive for land plants. As roots grow thicker, they
can’t absorb water and minerals as well. However, they may be even better at
transporting fluids, anchoring the plant, and storing food.
Functions of the root
Roots perform various functions that are necessary for the survival of the plants.
1. Roots serve as anchor: Roots are the reason plants remain attached to the
ground. They support the plant body, ensuring that it stands erect. Root systems
help anchor plants to the ground, allowing plants to grow tall without toppling over.
2. Absorption: Primary function of the roots is to absorb water and dissolved minerals
from the soil. Thin-walled epidermal cells and root hairs are well suited to absorb
water and dissolved minerals from the soil. The roots of many plants also have a
mycorrhizal relationship with fungi for greater absorption.

3. Storage: Plants prepare food and store in the form of starch in the leaves, shoots
and roots. Prominent examples include carrots, radish, beetroot, etc.
4. Reproduction: Even though roots are not the reproductive part of plants, they are
vegetative parts. In some plants, the roots are a means of reproduction. For
instance, new plants arise from creeping horizontal stems called runners (stolons) in
jasmine, grass, etc. This type of reproduction is called vegetative propagation.
5. Ecological Function: They check soil erosion, provide sustenance and also habitat
to various organisms.