nature in addition to particle nature. This is known as de Broglie hypothesis.

East West Institute of Technology

According to this hypothesis, all material particles in motion possess wave character in addition to
COURSE MATERIALS
their particle character.
SUBJECT: Engineering Physics
• “The waves associated with material particles in motion are called matter waves or

Quantum Mechanics de Broglie waves” and their wavelength is called de-Broglie wavelength.

➢ Wave particle dualism, de-Broglie hypothesis, de-Broglie wavelength [Self study by the students]
To derive the expression for de-Broglie wavelength for matter waves
[Q. What are matter waves? Derive an expression for de- Broglie wave length]
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and its physical significance, Applications of Uncertainty
“The waves associated with material particles in motion are called matter waves or de Broglie waves”
principle: non existence of electron in the nucleus.
and their wavelength is called de-Broglie wavelength.
➢ Wave function-Properties, physical significance Probability density and normalization, Eigen According to Planck’s quantum theory, light consists of photons. By treating photon as particles of
values and Eigen functions. Time independent Schrodinger wave equation frequency ‘υ’, its energy is given by
➢ Using time independent Schrodinger wave equation-establish expression for energy Eigen value
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈------------------------------(1)
and Eigen normalized probability density in an infinite height potential well. Numerical problems
According to Einstein, energy of same photon of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘c’ is given by
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 ----------------------(2)
Dual nature of matter OR de-Broglie hypothesis and expression for de-Broglie wavelength. From eqn. (1) and (2) ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑐 𝑐
Dual nature of light: Here 𝜈 = hence ℎ = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝜆 𝜆
Light exhibits the phenomenon of interference, diffraction, polarization, black body radiation,
ℎ
photoelectric effect, atomic spectra; Compton Effect etc. 𝜆= --------------------(3)
𝑚𝑐
The phenomenon of interference, diffraction can only be explained by assuming light travels in is the expression for de Broglie wave length of a photon [ Light wave]
the form of waves.
Extending this concept to a material particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ the de Broglie wave
The same wave theory failed to explain black body radiation, photoelectric effect, atomic spectra,
length is given by
Compton effect etc. and they can only be explained by quantum theory of light.
ℎ ℎ
It means to say that light possess particle nature in addition to its wave nature. This double 𝜆= = ------------------------(4)
𝑚𝑣 𝑃
character of light is called Dual nature of light.
λ is wave property and mv=P=momentum of particle is particle property
Dual nature of matter OR de- Broglie hypothesis Relation (4) is known as de Broglie equation and the wavelength λ is called the de Broglie wavelength.
[Q. Explain conceptual reasoning’s on which dual nature of matter is based on]

de-Broglie wavelength associated with an accelerated charged particle:

In the year 1924, Louis de-Broglie put forward ‘Dual nature of matter’. His theory is based on
If a charged particle, say an electron of mass ‘m’ is accelerated by a potential difference of V volts, then
‘dual nature of light’.
its kinetic energy is given by
He put forward revolutionary hypothesis that “entire universe is made up of only energy and 𝐸𝐾 = 𝑒𝑉
matter” since nature exhibits symmetry; therefore, if light exhibit particle nature in addition to wave
or
motion, then materials particles such as protons neutrons, electrons etc should also exhibit wave 1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2
Page 1 Page 2
 Phase Velocity and Group Velocity:
Multiplying both sides by ’m’ and rearranging we get According to de-Broglie wave theory it is assumed that a material particle in motion is assumed with wave
𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉 The superposition of those waves gives rise wave pocket in such a motion both group velocity and phase
2
𝑃 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉 velocity considered.
Phase velocity:
or 𝑃 = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉---------------------(5) The velocity of de-Broglie wave associated with moving particle is called phase velocity.
Or
Substituting eqn.(5) in (4) gives; Velocity of individual wave in group packet

ℎ Or
𝜆= ---------- (6) is wavelength of accelerated electron in terms of voltage.
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 It is also defined as ratio of angular frequency to wave number
⍵ 2𝜋
By substituting the values of constants h, m and e in eq. (3), we get, 𝑉𝑝 = where 𝐾=
𝑘 𝜆

6.625 × 10−34 1.226 × 10−9 Group velocity:

𝜆= = 𝑚
√2 × (9.11 × 10−31 ) × (1.6 × 10−19 𝑉) √𝑉 Consider the groups of two are more indusial waves with a slight variation in angular frequency or wave motion
Superposition of individual wave takes place, and the resultant wave is as shown.
The amplitude of resultant wave consists of number of components waves with different wavelength. The
1.226
Or 𝜆= 𝑛𝑚 resultant of these waves is called group of waves or wave pocket.
√𝑉
The wave pocket travel with a velocity different from individual wave.
De-Broglie wavelength expressed in terms of kinetic energy EK : Or

If a particle has kinetic energy EK, then, Velocity with which wave pocket moves is called group velocity.
Or
1 𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑃2
𝐸𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = = It is defined as ratio of small difference in angular frequency to the
2 2𝑚 2𝑚
wave number.
Or
𝑃 = √2𝑚𝐸𝐾
𝑑⍵
Hence 𝑉𝑔 =
ℎ 𝑑𝑘
𝜆=
√2𝑚𝐸𝐾
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:
Properties of matter waves: (Q) State and explain Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle. Mention its physical significance
1) Matter waves are waves associated with the moving particle. In classical mechanics, simultaneous and accurate measurement of conjugate quantities like position and
2) The are not electromagnetic in nature. momentum, Energy and time, angular momentum and angular displacement of a particle is possible. This
h h
3) Wavelength of the matter waves is given by λ = = . is not possible in quantum mechanics. This gives rise to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle.
𝑚𝑉 𝑃

4) There is no meaning for phase velocity in case of matter waves. only group velocity has meaning. Statement : “The product of the uncertainties or error inherently present in the simultaneous and accurate

5) The velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity of the material particle. measurement of pair of conjugate quantities like position and the momentum of a particle is at least

6) The phase velocity of matter waves can be greater than that of light. equal to, or greater than h/4π.”

Page 3 Page 4
 Explanation: If ∆ x and P are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of the
x
ℎ 6.63×10−23
particle respectively, Mathematically 𝛥𝑝 ≥ ≥ ≥ 0.527 × 10−20 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
4𝛱𝛥𝑥 4×𝛱×10−14
ℎ
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑝 ≥ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 − − − − − (1) Which is the uncertainty in the momentum of the electron.
4𝛱
Consider the minimum value of momentum; P =0.527× 10-20kgms-1 --------- (4)
Physical significance In classical physics simultaneous and accurate measurement of position and We know, the mass of the electron,
momentum of a pair of quantities is possible but in quantum mechanics it is not possible, since particles m=9.11×10-31kg
are associated with waves and hence they on superposition give rise to wave packet. Inside the wave Now by making use of equation (6) in equation (1), we can write
(0.5 × 10−20 )2
packet particle spreads. If one tries to measure position accurately, uncertainty in measuring momentum 𝐸≥
2 × 9.11 × 10−31
increases and vice versa. Therefore uncertainty principle signifies that, one should not think of exact
value of position or momentum of the particle. Instead one should think of the probable value and not 𝐸 ≥ 1.372 × 10−11 𝐽
accurate value.
Or, expressing in eV, we get,
𝐸 ≥ 1.372 × 10−11 × 6.24 × 1018 𝑒𝑉
======================NOTE===============================================
Similarly Or, 𝐸 ≥ 85𝑀𝑒𝑉
1) The product of the uncertainties in the measurement of energy and time is This means to say that, in order that an electron to exist inside the nucleus, its kinetic energy must be
∆E. ∆t ≥ h/4π where E=energy and t=time -------------------- (2) greater than or equal to 85MeV. But kinetic energy of the electrons measured in beta decay is found to be of
2) The product of the uncertainties present in the measurement Of angular momentum (L) and angular the order of 3 to 4 MeV. Therefore our assumption that electron stays inside the nucleus is wrong. This
displacement (θ) is: ∆L. ∆θ ≥ h/4π -------------------------------- (3) shows that electrons cannot exist inside the nucleus.
===========================NOTE==========================================
Principle of complementarity:

Application of Uncertainty Principle: Statement: Bohr stated as “in a situation where the wave aspect of a system is revealed, its particle

[Q: Show that an electron cannot be found inside the nucleus of an atom] aspect is concealed; and, in a situation where the particle aspect is revealed, its wave aspect is concealed.

Uncertainty principle is used in basic nuclear physics to prove electron do not exist inside the Revealing both simultaneously is impossible: the wave and particle aspects are complementary

nucleus. This is related to the β -ray emission during radio activity. The proof is presented as Or
follows.
It states that a single quantum can exhibit a particle-like or a wave-like behaviour, but never both at
The energy E of a body can be expressed as the same time. These are mutually exclusive and complementary aspects of the quantum system
𝑃2
𝐸= ------------(1) Explanation: We know that the consequences of the uncertainty principle is both the wave and particle
2𝑚
Now let us assume electrons exist inside the nucleus. The average size of a nucleus is of the order of nature of the matter can not be measured simultaneously. In other words, we can not precisely describe

10-14m.=x the dual nature of Light.

Then uncertainty present in the measurement of its position ∆ x will be lesser than 10-14 m.
• If an experiment is design to measure the particle nature of the matter, during this experiment,
i.e. ∆ x ≤ 10-14m
errors of measurement of both position and the time coordinates must be zero and hence the
from Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, the uncertainty in the measurement of momentum increases
ℎ momentum, energy and the wave nature of the matter are completely unknown.
and can be written as 𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑝 ≥ 4𝛱

Page 5 Page 6
 • Similarly, if an experiment is designed for measuring the wave nature of the particle, then the approximation.
errors in the measurement of the energy and momentum will be zero, whereas the position and the
time coordinates of the matter will be completely unknown. b) Normalization The probability of finding a particle at some point inside the volume ‘ dv ’ is finite and

From the above explanation, we can conclude that, when the particle nature of the matter is hence integration of  (v ) 2 over the entire volume must be equated to unity and hence
1
measured or displayed, the wave nature of the matter is necessarily suppressed and vice versa.

0
 ( v )2 d v =1 This process is called normalization ------- (1)

Wave function and its significance If we are not certain that the particle is present in finite volume, then probability of presence of the
[Question: Explain wave function along with its probability density and normalized wave function.] particle will be somewhere in space and therefore probability becomes
Wave Function: A mathematical function which gives state of a quantum particle is a called wave
+∞
function. Wave function at point ‘x’ along X-axis and at time ‘t’ is represented by ‘ψ(x, t)’ and in space ∫ |𝜓(𝑥)|2 𝑑𝑥 = 1`
−∞
it is given by ψ (r, t).
It accounts for the wave nature and particle nature associated with the matter. Wave function is The above process is called normalization.
obtained by solving Schrodinger equation by using following conditions.
1) Potential energy of the particle
2) Initial conditions and
3) Boundary conditions In some cases wave function involves a constant. In such cases probability density function is equated to unity
4) and the value of constant is determined. It is then substituted in the equation for wave function. The wave
Physical significance or interpretation of ψ function with constant value included is called as normalized wave function and the value of constant is called
a) Probability density: normalization factor.
A wave function can be real or complex. If  is complex, then probability of finding the particle becomes (Question: What is a Eigen wave function? Mention properties of Eigen wave function

negative which is meaningless and hence when ‘’ is complex, it is multiplied by its complex conjugate [VTU July 2018- (4M)

*, so that square of the wave function is always positive i.e (x) *(x)=(x)2 . It is called The acceptable wave function which defines state of a particle meaningfully is called Eigen
function or acceptable wave function. For the wave function to be acceptable, it must satisfy following
probability density.
properties
If ‘v’ is the volume in which a particle is present but where it is exactly present is not known, then
probability of finding a particle at certain elementary volume ‘dv’ is given by |𝜓(𝑣)|2 𝑑𝑣. 1) Ψ must be single valued everywhere.
Hence probability density function is given by 𝑃 = |𝜓(𝑣)|2 𝑑𝑣 . At P, Ψ (x) has 3 values Ψ1, Ψ2 and Ψ3 hence it is not eigen
Similarly probability of finding a particle in the entire volume ‘v’ is given by integrating the probability density wave function.
1
function between the limits ‘0’ and ‘1’, which is given by 𝑃 = ∫0 |𝜓(𝑣)|2 𝑑𝑣 .
Similarly Probability of finding a particle between the intervals x1 to x2 ,along X-axis is given by
𝑋2
𝑃 = ∫ |𝜓(𝑥)|2 𝑑𝑥
𝑋1

This interpretation was first given by Max Born in the year 1926 and hence it is called Max Born
Page 7 Page 8
 2) Ψ must be finite everywhere. Probability of finding the Where ‘P’ is momentum of the particle
particle at ‘R’ is infinite, i.e., The wave equation for one dimensional propagation of wave is given by
𝑑2𝜓 1 𝑑2𝜓
Ψ (x)=∞, which is not acceptable. = ----------------------(2)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2

3) Ψ must be continuous everywhere. It’s wave function is given by i.e., 𝜓 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥) −−−−−−−−()

Between A and B, Ψ (x) is discontinuous. At A, Ψ (x) is Here A is amplitude of the wave, ω is angular frequency =2πν, and k is Angular wave
discontinuous and restarts at B, hence wave function is number = 2π/
not acceptable.
By differentiating 𝜓 i.e., equation 3 with respect to t, we get
𝑑𝜓
= 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥) (−𝑖ω)
𝑑𝑡
4) For bound states, Ψ must vanish at infinity. If Ψ is a complex function, then Ψ Ψ*
𝑑2 𝜓
must Vanish at infinity. = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝑘𝑥) (−𝑖ω)((−𝑖ω)
𝑑𝑡 2
The wave function which satisfies the above 4 properties are called Eigen function Substituting equation (3) in the above equation, we get
𝑑2𝜓
= −ω2 𝜓--------(4)
𝑑𝑡 2
=======================Note Starts========================================
Substituting equation (4) in equation (2)
Eigen function, Eigen values, Eigen value equation and quantum mechanical operators
Eigen functions
The wave function which explains physical system meaningfully is called Eigen function. They 𝑑2 𝜓 1
possess the property of single valued, finite and continuous everywhere. = (−ω2 𝜓)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣2
Eigen values: The allowed set of values obtained when Eigen functions are operated by quantum 𝑣
Placing the value of ω=2πν and ν = 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝜈𝜆 in the above equation
mechanical operators are called Eigen values. 𝜆

Quantum mechanical operators

Quantum mechanical operators are operators when operated on wave function gives Eigen values
𝑑2 𝜓 1
For Example. Â Ψ= λΨ (1) = (−(2πν)2 𝜓)
𝑑𝑥 2 (𝜈𝜆)2
Where, A→ Operator, Ψ →Wave function, λ→ Eigen value
Eigen value equation
When quantum mechanical operator, operated on wave function gives eigen value equation. Equation (1) 𝑑2 𝜓 1
is Eigen value equation. = 2 (−4π2 𝜓)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜆
===========================Note Ends========================================
Or
1 𝑑2 𝜓 1
=− 2 − − − − − (5)
𝜆2 𝑑𝑥 4π2 𝜓
1
Time independent Schrödinger’s wave Equation Kinetic energy of the particle is given by 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
(Question: Derive Time independent Schrödinger’s wave Equation ) Or 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑃2
2𝑚
The wave equation which has variations only with respect to position and describes the steady state is called
Time Independent Schrodinger wave equation.
ℎ
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving along positive X-axis with velocity ‘v’. Let ‘λ’ represent its de- From equation (1), 𝑃 = 𝜆
, and replacing in the above equation, we get
ℎ ℎ
Broglie wavelength and is given by 𝜆 = = -----------------(1)
𝑚𝑣 𝑃
Page 9 Page 10
 identical particle in identical circumstances, many possible outcomes are possible and the expectation
1 ℎ2
𝐾. 𝐸 = value of these outcomes is, according to following equation
2𝑚 𝜆2
+∞

Substituting value of 𝜆 form equation (5) we get 〈𝑥〉 = ∫ 𝑥|𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡|2 𝑑𝑥

ℎ2 𝑑2 𝜓 1 −∞
𝐾. 𝐸 = 2𝑚
(− 𝑑𝑥 2 4π2 𝜓
)----------(6)

Let us consider the particle moving with a constant potential energy ‘V’, then its total energy is given by
E= K.E + V.
Application of Schrodinger’s wave equation to particle in a potential well or particle
From equation (6),
in a box
1 ℎ2 𝑑 2 𝜓
𝐸= [− 2 ] 2 + 𝑉
2𝑚 4𝛱 𝜓 𝑑𝑥 Q. What is potential well? Solve Schrodinger wave equation to derive expression for Normalised wave
Function for a particle in a one dimensional potential well.
Q. By Assuming Normalised wave function for a particle in one dimensional potential well; discuss
1 ℎ2 𝑑 2 𝜓 Eigen
𝐸−𝑉 = [− 2 ] 2 wave functions, Eigen values and probability density functions for first three states.
2𝑚 4𝛱 𝜓 𝑑𝑥
Consider a particle of a mass ‘m’ is enclosed in a box which is free to move in one dimensional box
of length ‘a’ along positive X-direction between boundaries; x =0 and x =a. The potential energy ‘V’

8𝜋 2 𝑚 𝑑2 𝜓 outside this box and at the walls is infinite and within the box is zero. Particle is said to be in bound state.
− 2
(𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 =
ℎ 𝑑𝑥 2 Such a configuration of potential in space is called infinite potential well. It is also called particle in a
box.
𝑑 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚 We know that wave function can be found by solving Schrodinger wave equation
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
𝑑2𝜓 8𝛱 2 𝑚
This is the time independent Schroedinger equation 1 dimension. This equation can be extended to three + (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0----------------------------(1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
dimension as,
𝑑 2 𝜓 𝑑 2 𝜓 𝑑 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
+ + + (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧 2 ℎ2

Expectation value:

In quantum mechanics the expectation value is the” probabilistic expected value of the result
(measurement) of an experiment”. It can be thought of as an average of all the possible outcomes of a
measurement as weighed by their likelihood. Expectation value as such is not the most probable value of
a measurement. In the real sense the expectation value may have zero probability of occurring.

Let us consider a particle moving along the x-axis. The result of a measurement of the position x is a
continuous random variable. Consider a wave function 𝜓 (𝑥, 𝑡) . The |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 value is a probability
density for the position observable and |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑥 is the probability of finding the particle between x
and x+dx at time t. Thus, if a measurement of position is repeated many times in an identical way on an
Page 11 Page 12
 Outside the box:
𝑎
V=∞ Outside the box and hence time independent Schrödinger wave equation becomes wave function ∫0 |𝜓𝑛 |2 𝑑𝑣 = 1-------------------------------(8)
Substituting the value of ‘ψn’ from eqn. (7) gives
𝑑2𝜓 8𝛱 2 𝑚
+ (𝐸 − ∞)𝜓 = 0, ----------(2) Where V=∞ 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2 𝑛𝛱 2
∫ [𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥 = 1
Outside ψ = 0 & |ψ|² = 0, this indicates particle cannot be found outside the well and at the walls and therefore
𝑎
0
𝑎
particle is present only inside the box. 𝑛𝛱
∫ 𝐷2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 1
Inside the well : 𝑎
0
Inside the well ,V=0
The Schrodinger’s equation inside the well becomes 𝑎 2𝑛𝛱
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑥
𝑑2𝜓 8𝛱 2 𝑚
𝐷 ∫2 𝑎 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
+ (𝐸)𝜓 = 0, ------------(3) Where V=0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2 2
0

8𝛱 2 𝑚
Put (𝐸) = 𝐾 2 in eqn. (3) 𝑎 𝑎
ℎ2 𝐷2 2𝑛𝛱
[∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥] = 1
2 𝑎
0 0
𝑑2𝜓
+ 𝐾 2 𝜓 = 0,
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑎
𝐷2 𝑎 2𝑛𝛱
[𝑥 − {𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥}] = 1
The general solution of this equation is, ψ = C Cos k x + D Sin k x ----------------------- (4) 2 2𝑛𝛱 𝑎 0

At x=0→ψ=0
𝐷2
0 = C cos 0 + D sin 0 (𝑎 − 0) = 1
2
∴ C=0
2
Also at x= a → ψ = 0 0 = C cos ka + D sin ka 𝐷= √
𝑎
But C = 0
Substituting the value of D in equation (7) gives
∴D Sin ka = 0 ------------------------------ (5)
2 𝑛𝛱
D0 ∴Sinka=0 𝜓 𝑛 = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 -------------------------(9)
𝑎 𝑎
i.e. ka = nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4… (Quantum number)
𝑛𝛱 The equation (7) is called normalized wave function for a particle in one dimensional infinite potential well.
𝑘= --------------(6)
𝑎
Energy Eigen Values:
Using the equation (4), (5) and taking C=0, ψ can be written as
8𝛱 2 𝑚
𝑛𝛱 Using equation (3) (𝐸) = 𝐾 2 ---------------------------------(10)
𝜓 𝑛 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ----------------(7) ℎ2
𝑎
𝜓𝑛 represents permitted wave function.
𝑛𝛱
And 𝑘= --------------(11) from eqn (6)
𝑎
Normalized wave function
Probability of finding the particle inside the box is finite. The value of ‘D’ can be found by normalizing the
Page 13 Page 14
 8𝛱 2 𝑚 𝑛2 𝛱 2
From equation (10) and (11) (𝐸) = -----------------------(12) 𝜓 1 = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 𝛱
𝑥 ------------------------(15)
ℎ2 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎

ψ1 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a and ψ1 is maximum for x = a/2.

𝑛2 ℎ 2
𝐸𝑛 = -----------------------------------(13)
8𝑚𝑎2 The plots of ψ1 versus x and | ψ1|2 verses ‘x’ are shown in the above figure.
Is the expression for Eigen value equation |ψ1|2 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a and it is maximum for x = a/2. i.e. in ground state, the particle cannot be
It gives the energy Eigen values of the particle in an infinite potential well.
found at the walls. The probability of finding the particle is maximum at the middle.
If n = 0, ψn = 0; it means that the particle is not present inside the well which is not true. It is not ℎ2
The energy of the particle in the ground state is 𝐸1 = = 𝐸0
acceptable. 8𝑚𝑎2

Thus the lowest energy value, for n = 1 is called zero point energy value or ground state energy. Case II → n=2

ℎ2 In the first excited state the Eigen function of this state is

i.e. 𝐸𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜−𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ------------------------- (14)
8𝑚𝑎2
2 2𝛱
𝜓 2 = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
The states for which n >1 i.e n=2,3,4--are called exited states. 𝑎 𝑎

𝜓2 = 0 for the values x = 0, a/2, a. Also ψ2 is maximum for the values x = a/4 and 3a/4.

22 ℎ2 4ℎ2
For n=2, 𝐸2 = = = 4𝐸1 -------Energy in first excited state The plots of ψ2 versus x is as shown in the figure.
8𝑚𝑎2 8𝑚𝑎2
|𝜓2 |2 = 0 at x = 0, a/2, a, i.e. particle cannot be found either at the walls or at the center.
32 ℎ2 9ℎ2
For n=3, 𝐸3 = = = 9𝐸1 -------Energy in second excited state
8𝑚𝑎2 8𝑚𝑎2 |𝜓2 |2 = maximum for x=a/4 and x=3a/4

The plots of 𝜓2 versus x and |𝜓2 |2 = verses ‘x’ are shown in the figure.

∴ E1: E2: E3---- =1:2 :3..... i.e Energy values are quantized
Wave functions, probability densities for first three states

Case I → n=1 ψ2 | ψ2|2

a/4 a/4 3a/4
3a/4
x=0 a/2 x=a x=0 a/2 x=a
1 1 2
𝜓3

The energy of the particle in the first excited state 2 3𝛱

x=0 a/2 x=a x=0 a/2 x=a 4ℎ2
= √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
is 𝐸2 = = 4𝐸1 𝑎 𝑎
8𝑚𝑎2
It is the ground state and the particle is normally present in this state.
Case III → n=3;
The Eigen function is
In the second excited state, wave function is given by
For n=1 in eqn. (9) gives

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𝜓3 = 0, for x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 ,a and 𝜓3 is maximum for x = a/6, a/2, 5a/6. VTU Dec 2017/Jan 18

The plots of 𝜓3 versus x and |𝜓3 |2 verses ‘x’ are shown in the figure. 1. Set up time independent one dimensional Schrodinger wave equation. (06 Marks)
2. An electron is bound in one dimensional potential well of width 1A0,but of infinite wall height. Find
|𝜓3 |2 = 0 for x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 and a |𝜓3 |2 =maximum for x = a/6, a/2, 5a/6
its Energy values in the ground state and also in the first excited states.
The plots |𝜓3 |2 verses x is shown in the above figure. (04Marks)
3. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty Principle. Show that electron cannot exist inside the nucleus. (07M)
4. Briefly explain three properties of wave function. (03 Marks)
5. Compute the de-Broglie wavelength for an electron moving with one tenth part of the velocity of
light. (04Marks)
VTU –July 2017
6. What is wave function? Set up time independent Schrodinger’s wave equation one dimensional.
7. A spectral line of wavelength 5896Å has a width of 10-5Å.Calculate the minimum time spent by the
9ℎ2 electrons in the upper energy state between the excitation and excitation processes.
The energy of the particle in the second excited state is 𝐸3 = = 9𝐸1
8𝑚𝑎2
(04Marks)
8. Obtain energy values and normalised wave function, with respect to a particle in an one dimensional
Potential well of infinite height. (07 Marks)
9. Compare energy of a photon with that of a neutron when both are associated with wavelength of
0.25nm, given that the mass of neutron is 1.675x10-27kg. (04Marks)
10. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and Show that electron does not exist inside the nucleus by
thisPrinciple.

11. Find de-Broglie wavelength of a particle of rest mass 0.58 MeV/C2 has kinetic energy of 90eV,where
C is velocity of light. (04Marks)

12. Using Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation obtain eigen values and eigen function for a
particle in a one dimensional potential well of infinite height. (07Marks)

13. The inherent uncertainty in the measurement of time spent by Iridium-191 nuclei in the excited state
is found to be 1.4x10-10 S. Estimate the uncertainty that results in its energy in eV in the excited
state. (04Marks)
17. Obtain normalised wave function, with respect to a particle inside an one dimensional potential well.
(06 marks)
18. An electron is bound in one dimensional potential well of width 0.18nm.Find the energy value in eV
of the second excited state. (04 marks)
19. The first excited state energy of an electron in an infinite well is 240 eV.What will be its ground state

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 energy, when the width of the potential well is doubled Jan 2016 (04marks)
2
20. A particle of mass 940MeV/C has kinetic energy 0.5KeV.Find its de-Broglie wavelength is velocity
of light Jan 2016 (04marks)
************ X ************ X ************ X ************X ************

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