ATMO 305 Lecture 8 Hygrometry
Besides for weather observing, hygrometers are also used in
greenhouses, industrial spaces, saunas, humidors, and museums.
In residential settings, hygrometers are used to aid humidity control
(too low humidity damages human skin and body, while too high
humidity favors growth of mildew and dust mite).
ATMO 305 Lecture 8 Hygrometry
Hygrometry objectives:
– Understand how water vapor pressure is estimated
– Know the different definitions associated with humidity
– Learn the different methods for measuring humidity
– Appreciate various factors in choosing a humidity sensor
Hygrometry – Challenge
The interior of a Stevenson screen showing a motorized psychrometer
• The measurement of atmospheric humidity in the field
has been and continues to be a challenge
• Low cost, low power consumption, and reliability
requirements make it especially difficult for automatic
weather stations
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
The Clausius-Clapeyron relation (1834), named
after Rudolf Clausius and Émile Clapeyron, is a
way of characterizing the phase transition
between two phases of matter, such as solid
and liquid. On a pressure-temperature (P-T)
diagram, the line separating the two phases is
known as the coexistence curve. The Clausius-
Clapeyron relation gives the slope of this curve.
Phase Diagram
A typical phase diagram. The dotted line gives the anomalous behavior of water.
The Clausius-Clapeyron relation can be used to (numerically) find the relationships
between pressure and temperature for the phase change boundaries.
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
• The Clausius-Clapeyron equation describes the
dependence of saturated water vapor pressure on
temperature.
• Its solution predicts exponential behavior of saturation
water vapor pressure (and, therefore water vapor
concentration) as a function of temperature.
– In turn, because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, it might lead
to further increase in the SST leading to a runaway greenhouse
effect.
– Debate on future climate change depends in part on the
“Clausius-Clapeyron” solution.
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
For typical atmospheric conditions the
Clausius-Clapeyron equation is given
as
des Lv es
= 2
dT Rv T
where:
es is saturation water vapor pressure
T is a temperature
Lv is latent heat of evaporation
Rv is water vapor gas constant.
Saturation Vapor Pressure vs Temp.
Integration of the Clausius-Clapeyron equation gives:
⎡L ⎛ T − T ( ⎞ ⎤
0)
⎛ T ⎞ a T − T
es = es0 ⎢ ⎜ 0 0
+ α ln⎜ ⎟ − ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ Rv ⎝ TT0 ⎝ T0 ⎠ T ⎠⎥⎦
The pressure exerted by pure water vapor es(T) is a
function of the temperature of the vapor and liquid
phases. T0 = 273.15K, L0 = latent heat of water vapor
at T0, es0 = saturation vapor pressure at T0.
Saturation Vapor Pressure vs Temp.
Buck (1981):
⎛ 17.502T ⎞
es = 6.1121exp⎜ ⎟
⎝ 240.97 + T ⎠
Correction for the air pressure
“enhancement effect”:
⎛ 17.502T ⎞
es = 6.1365exp⎜ ⎟
⎝ 240.97 + T ⎠
This equation form is nice because it is easier to invert to
obtain the dew-point temperature given the vapor pressure
[Link]
Saturation Vapor Pressure vs Temp.
Equilibrium vapor pressure over a plane surface of liquid water
⎛ 17.502T ⎞
es = 6.1365exp⎜ ⎟
⎝ 240.97 + T ⎠
Equilibrium vapor pressure over a plane surface of ice
⎛ 22.452T ⎞
ei = 6.1359exp⎜ ⎟
⎝ 272.55 + T ⎠
Neglecting the weak variation of (T+240.97) at normal
temperatures, one observes that saturation water vapor
pressure changes exponentially with T.
Saturation Vapor Pressure vs Temp.
Neglecting the weak variation
of (T+240.97) at normal
temperatures, one observes
that saturation water vapor
pressure changes
exponentially with T.
⎛ 17.502T ⎞
es = 6.1365exp⎜ ⎟
⎝ 240.97 + T ⎠
Equilibrium vapor pressure varies
over two orders of magnitude in the
normal temperature range, one might
expect the accuracy of almost any
humidity instrument to decrease with
decreasing temperature.
Saturation Vapor Pressure vs Temp.
The difference in vapor pressure curves over ice and water
results in supersaturation, producing rapid growth of ice
crystals in mixed-phase clouds.
Saturation Vapor Pressure vs Crystal Shape
Snow crystal shapes depend on the temperature and the degree of supersaturation.
Expressing the Air’s Water Vapor Content
• Mixing ratio – mass of water vapor/mass of dry air (g/kg)
• Dew point temperature – temperature to which an air parcel
must be cooled for condensation to take place.
• Wet bulb temperature – temperature to which evaporation
will cool a wet thermometer.
Expressing the Air’s Water Vapor Content
• Relative Humidity (RH) is ratio of actual vapor
pressure e to saturation vapor pressure es in %.
– 100 * e/es
– Range: 0-100% (+)
– Air with RH > 100% is supersaturated
• RH can be changed by
– Changes in water vapor content.
– Changes in temperature, which alter the saturation vapor pressure.
Saturation Vapor Pressure vs Temp.
Humidity relationships
– Starting point (A)
– Saturation vapor pressure (B)
– Dew-point temperature (D)
– Wet-bulb temperature (C)
Methods for Measuring Humidity
– Removal of water vapor from moist air
– Addition of water vapor to moist air
– Equilibrium sorption of water vapor
– Attainment of vapor-liquid or vapor-solid
equilibrium
– Measurement of physical properties of
moist air
– By chemical reactions
Hygrometry
• Methods – removal of water vapor from moist air
– Use a desiccant* to absorb water
– Freeze out water vapor
– Separate moist air constituents using a semi permeable membrane
• After removal – determine mass of water vapor and of
remaining sample and calculate humidity
✴ a substance that promotes drying (e.g., calcium oxide absorbs
water and is used to remove moisture)
Psychrometer
Method – addition of water vapor to air
Psychrometer
Addition of water vapor to air – psychrometry
– Dry bulb sensor measures ambient air temperature
– Wet bulb sensor is covered with a wick moistened with water and
measures a lower temperature, caused by evaporation of water into
the ambient air stream
– Forced ventilation is required for optimum performance
Psychrometer
Sources of error in a psychrometer
– A lack of sensitivity and accuracy in wet- and dry-bulb thermometers
– Low ventilation rate
– Radiation incident on the temperature sensors
– Size, shape, material, and wetting of the wick
– Air flow from wet- to dry-bulb thermometer
– Dirty water used to moisten the wick
Automated Psychrometer
Automated psychrometry is constrained by cost, power
requirements, and reliability.
Sorption Hygrometers
Equilibrium sorption of water vapor
– The process of sorption
(absorption and/or adsorption*)
causes a material to expand or
contract, and alters electrical
resistance or capacitance.
– To be useful, the material must
exhibit a change that is reversible
and reproducible and detectable
*The accumulation of molecules of a gas to form a thin film on the surface of a solid.
Mechanical Hygrometer
Equilibrium sorption of water
vapor - mechanical hygrometers
– Made from dimensionally variable
materials (e.g. hair, skin, cotton, silk,
nylon, paper, wood) mechanically
coupled to an indicator or transducer
In 1783 Saussure built the first
practical hygrometer utilizing a
human hair to measure humidity
Mechanical Hygrometer
Mechanical hygrometers - defects
– Drift
Sasquatch
– Large hysteresis
– Large lag times
Electric Hygrometers
Sorption sensors that take up water which causes a change in
an electrical parameter such as resistance or capacitance*
(middle row) (top row)
A capacitor has the ability to hold a charge of electrons. The number of electrons it can hold under
a given electrical pressure (voltage) is called its *capacitance or capacity. A simple capacitor can
be made with two metallic plates separated by a non-conducting substance between them.
Electric Hygrometer
– Probe capacitance is converted to frequency and then to a
voltage by electronics in the sensor probe.
– Non-linearity in probe capacitance translates to nonlinearity in
the transform plot (slope of line is not constant).
Sources of Drift
– Aging of electronic components
– Dust accumulation
Resistance Hygrometer
Electric hygrometers– sensor resistance
– Bulk polymer resistance where resistance decreases with increasing RH
– Difficult to maintain
– Difficult to measure the very high resistance for low values of RH (less
accurate at RH values of below 20%)
Electric Hygrometer
Electric hygrometers– carbon hygristor
– Experiences a dimensional change in response to a change in RH
– Dimension (X) increases with increasing RH
– Increasing X also increases the distance between the carbon particles
(increasing resistance)
– Subject to quite high drift rates
– Used only on radiosondes
Electric Hygrometers
Summary
– Small and relatively inexpensive
– Sensitive to certain contaminants
– Output is proportional to RH
– Require calibration
– Long lag times
– Significant hysteresis
Questions?
