Data communication and net

Madhusudanacharyulu Padakandla
Unit 1
Introduction to data communications and
networking models:
1.What is osi model and layers of osi model ?
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It was
developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for Standardization’, in
the year 1984. It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having
specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work
collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another
across the globe.

Physical Layer – Layer 1

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It
is responsible for the actual physical connection between the
devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node
to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal
received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data
Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the

synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls
both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit
level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh
topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data
flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-
duplex.

Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of
the message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data
transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical
layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of
the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into
frames depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface
Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in
the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address
Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP
address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a

way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns
to the beginning and end of the frame.
  Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer
adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else
the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the
amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared
by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps
to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.
Network Layer – Layer 3
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host
to the other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet
routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is

suitable from source to destination. This function of the network
layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The
sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely
and universally.
Transport Layer – Layer 4
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and
takes services from the network layer. The data in the transport
layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End
Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides
the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-
transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted
data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also
implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data
 transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its
header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the

message from the (session) layer, and breaks the message into
smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station
reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address
called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this
address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,
maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures
security.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The

layer allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate a
connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints
that are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is
re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
For example:
Presentation Layer – Layer 6
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data
from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per
the required format to transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the
ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications.
These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over
the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the received
information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote
host.
 FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application
allows a user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and
 manage or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services : Provide email service.
 Directory Services : This application provides distributed database
sources
and access for global information about various objects and
services.

2.Explain TCP/IP reference model?

The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one
device to another. The main condition of this process is to make data
reliable and accurate so that the receiver will receive the same
information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message
reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its
data into packets and combines them at the other end, which helps in
maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from one end to
another end.
Working of TCP/IP model:
TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the
same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the
same data
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer
1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This
layer is responsible for generating the data and requesting
connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access
layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be
talking on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by
the data-link layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided
by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and
Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer
protocols.
3. Internet Layer
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which
is the set of protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is
responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another
across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP
address, which is used to identify the device and determine the route
that packets should take to reach it.
The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering
packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at
the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and
IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But
IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in
number when compared to the number of users.
  ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing
hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find
the hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has
several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse
ARP.
4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt
acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets to ensure that
packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is
referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as
though they were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits
data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission
rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the
connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending
point that closes the connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other
transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving and
sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport
little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it
eliminates the processes of establishing and validating
connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is
responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of
data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of
data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It
is used by the World Wide Web to manage communications
between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure.
It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is
efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations
software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of
its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure
session over a TCP/IP connection.
  NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to
synchronize the clocks on our computer to one standard time
source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume
the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you
carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at
2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can
crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
Other Common Internet Protocols
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP takes care of Web
Browsers and Websites.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP takes care of how the file is to
be sent over the Internet.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is used to send
and receive data.
3.What is Network criteria explain ?
A Network is a group of connected devices capable of
communicating. The device can be a computer, printer, or scanner that
either receives or transmits data. The devices connected in the Network
are called “Nodes,” and the means of connection can be wired or
wireless.
1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Security

Performance

It measures how well a network can support communication between

two nodes in the Network or with nodes of other networks in the global
scope. The two major tasks in a network are the Transmission
and reception of information. We need to focus on how fast a
message is transmitted and how fast a node can receive a
request and find the needed information

Hence, to measure the performance of a network, here are the major

factors to be considered:

 Transit time:
 Response time:
 Throughput:
 Bandwidth:
 Delay/ Latency:
Reliability

It is the degree to which a network is trustworthy, consistent,

and dependable. The Reliability of a network is measured by
the frequency of failures it is undergoing and the time it takes
to recover from the failures. Overall, the Robustness of the
Network at times of catastrophic events is measured to check
how reliable the Network is.

Security

It measures how the Network secures the data amid failures and
attacks and the policies and procedures it implements to protect itself
from damages and unauthorized access. In Reliability, the frequency of
failures is checked. In Security, network attacks and data breaches are
checked.

4.Explain protocol and standards?

Overview of Protocol
In Order to make communication successful between devices , some
rules and procedures should be agreed upon at the sending and
receiving ends of the system. Such rules and procedures are called as
Protocols . Different types of protocols are used for different types of
communication.

Key Element of Protocol

 Syntax : syntax refers to the structure or the format of the data
that gets exchanged between the devices. Syntax of message
 includes the type of data, composition of message and sequencing
of message. The starting 8 bits of data is considered as the address
of the sender. The next 8 bits is considered to be the address of the
receiver. The remaining bits are considered as the message itself.
 Semantics : Semantics defines data transmitted between devices.
It provides rules and norms for understanding message or data
element values and actions.
 Timing : Timing refers to the synchronization and coordination
between devices while transferring the data. Timing ensures at
what time data should be sent and how fast data can be sent. For
example, If a sender sends 100 Mbps but the receiver can only
handle 1 Mbps, the receiver will overflow and lose data. Timing
ensures preventing data loss, collisions and other timing related
issues.
 Flow Control : Flow control regulates device data delivery. It limits
the sender’s data or asks the receiver if it’s ready for more. Flow
control prevents data congestion and loss.
 Error Control : Error control mechanisms detect and fix data
transmission faults. They include error detection codes, data
resend, and error recovery. Error control detects and corrects noise,
interference, and other problems to maintain data integrity.
 Security : Network security safeguards data confidentiality,
integrity, and authenticity. which includes encryption,
authentication, access control, and other security procedures.
Network communication’s privacy and trustworthiness are
protected by security standards.
Standards
Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed
for exchange of information among devices. It is important to follow
Standards which are created by various Standard Organization like
IEEE , ISO , ANSI etc.
Types of Standards
Standards are of two types :
 De Facto Standard.
 De Jure Standard.
 De Facto Standard : The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ”
By Fact ” or “By Convention”.These are the standard s that have
not been approved by any Organization , but have been adopted
as Standards because of it’s widespread use. Also , sometimes
these standards are often established by Manufacturers.
 For example : Apple and Google are two companies which
established their own rules on their products which are different .
Also they use some same standard rules for manufacturing for
their products.
 De Jure Standard : The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By
Law” or “By Regulations”.Thus , these are the standards that
have been approved by officially recognized body like ANSI , ISO ,
IEEE etc. These are the standard which are important to follow if it
is required or needed.
 For example : All the data communication standard protocols
like SMTP , TCP , IP , UDP etc. are important to follow the same
when we needed them.