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Pragmatic
Python
Programming
Learning Python the Smart Way
—
Gabor Guta
Pragmatic Python
Programming
Learning Python the Smart Way
Gabor Guta
Pragmatic Python Programming: Learning Python the Smart Way
Gabor Guta
Budapest, Hungary
Acknowledgments������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv
Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii
v
Table of Contents
vi
Table of Contents
Inheritance����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61
Nested Classes���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64
Special Methods�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65
Classes in Practice����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68
Advanced Details������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������70
Class Variables, Class Methods, and Static Methods������������������������������������70
Abstract Base Classes�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������72
Immutable Objects and Data Classes������������������������������������������������������������73
Methods of Identifying Classes���������������������������������������������������������������������76
Class Diagrams����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������77
Key Takeaways����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78
vii
Table of Contents
viii
Table of Contents
Bibliography�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������189
Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������193
ix
About the Author
Gabor Guta studied and carried out research
at the Research Institute for Symbolic
Computation, Johannes Kepler University,
Linz, to gain an understanding of the formal
meaning of programming languages. He
worked on complex technology transfer,
cheminformatics, and bioinformatics projects
where both strong theoretical background
and practical software development skills were crucial. Currently, he is
developing distributed software for an open data project. Besides his
software development work, he has been continuously training people
both in academic and industrial settings. He has been actively teaching
Python since 2017.
xi
About the Technical Reviewer
Joshua Willman began using Python in 2015
when he needed to build neural networks
using machine learning libraries for image
classification. While building large image
datasets for his research, he needed to build
a program that would simplify the workload
and labeling process, which introduced him
to PyQt. Since then, he has tried to dive into
everything that is Python.
He currently works as a Python developer, building projects to help
others learn more about coding in Python for game development, AI, and
machine learning. Recently, he set up the site redhuli.io to explore his and
others’ interests in utilizing programming for creativity.
He is the author of Modern PyQt: Create GUI Applications for Project
Management, Computer Vision, and Data Analysis and Beginning PyQt:
A Hands-on Approach to GUI Programming, both published by Apress.
xiii
Acknowledgments
I am thankful to István Juhász, my former diploma supervisor; without his
encouragement and enthusiastic support, this book could not have come
into existence. I am grateful to my friend László Szathmáry, who helped
me as an experienced Python developer and trainer with his insightful
feedback.
xv
Introduction
Communication gaps can build up in IT workplaces between developers
and other roles not requiring programming skills. This gap frequently
hurts the project’s progress and makes cooperation between participants
difficult. My intention is to bridge this gap with this book by explaining the
common mental models with which humans think. I will also demonstrate
the way these models are applied during the programming process.
The book is based on more than two decades of training and software
development experience. Python is not only a popular and modern
programming language, but it is also an easy-to-learn and efficient tool to
reach your goals.
I will not provide too many hands-on exercises and technical details
(how an operating system is built, the way a networking protocol works,
etc.). Regrettably, I cannot offer a quick option to acquire these skills, as
the only way to achieve these skills is with extensive amounts of practice
and troubleshooting. This book will give you a strong basis for starting that
practice.
xvii
Introduction
Figures use the UML notation, and a short description of their meaning
is shown at the end of Chapters 1, 3, 4, and 5. In the source code examples,
I deviate sometimes from the Python coding standard due to the page
layout constraints. These appear mostly with short or shortened names
and 40- to 50-character lines. Program code examples are conceptually
independent units, but they assume former examples of the book have
been run, since they may refer to definitions in them. The examples are
based on the most up-to-date Python 3.10.2 version available when writing
the book. Most of the examples can be run in versions 3.8.x and 3.9.x,
which are the most widespread at this time. Results of the examples are
intentionally not published in the book. The source code in the book is
available for download and you can experiment with it.
xviii
Introduction
Source Code
All source code used in this book is available for you to download from
https://github.com/Apress/pragmatic-python-programming.
Installing an Environment
The installation steps for the most widespread operating systems
(Windows 10, macOS, Ubuntu Linux 22.04 LTS) are described here so you
can run the examples in this book. For another operating system, you can
find assistance on the Internet.
Installation on Windows 10
Follow these steps to install and run Python on Windows 10:
xix
Other documents randomly have
different content
Quite by chance, Cyprian glanced at the clock and remarked in startled
tones that it was past eleven.
Her arms were clasped round her knees and her chin resting on them.
Sometimes she rocked herself gently backwards and forwards. He smiled to
himself, remembering the pose since she was seven.
"No she will not. There is no one at home, Cyprian, and I am not
expected back till to-morrow."
"Here, I think," she said with wide eyes on the ruby coals.
"Where to?"
Driving it home that this unexpected arrival on his doorstep had, in very
sooth, been a Ferlie-esque escapade from which he must extricate her; if she
would lend herself to extrication. He was honestly puzzled.
Of course, he realized that, since they were Themselves, and not another
couple, her outlook was perfectly reasonable. Ferlie and he. A law unto
themselves long ago, when she awoke at night to scream because her
surroundings were dark and lonely. A law unto themselves when he
received her at the hands of Martha and Mary, mistrusters of men in
general, but willing to admit him into the fold on account of that farcical
avuncular status. A law unto themselves in their unnaturally unusual
correspondence with its sprawled confidences on one side and its restrained
admissions on the other of his need of her in the background of his life.
That need was within him still, but it must be his part to limit it now that
she was grown up: to take over the reins of friendship and—and normalize
it.
"Well, Cyprian," said Ferlie, quietly watching him, "are you, even now,
an occupant of a cage in the greater Zoological Garden, outside the walls of
which I promised you, a long while ago, that I always intended to remain?"
This was utter nonsense. Ferlie, with her talk of cages at fourteen, was
not to be encouraged, but Ferlie, holding similar views at eighteen, was,
most distinctly, to be brought up short.
"I suppose," she said, "that some buy their freedom in the course of
years with the big price of experience, but others are born free. If you have
not bought yours yet you will some day. But I was born free. Peter, too, I
think. He has the courage of his beliefs; he is no captive to past customs,
nor is the fear of the neighbour the beginning of his wisdom. If we walk
into cages it will be of our own free will, and not because any stale bait can
tempt us from within, nor any pursuing hounds scare us from without."
"Ferlie," said the bewildered man beside her, "will you please tell me
exactly what you mean?"
She shook a tangled lock out of her eyes and, at that moment, in the
gilding firelight, he had an odd fancy that a man might fill his hands with
sovereigns who had the courage to plunge them into her hair. Involuntarily,
he touched the ruffled rebellious head.
"I understand 'What a Young Girl Ought to Know,'" and she bubbled
over with quick mockery. "Curiously enough, the knowledge neither
distresses nor shames me. This isn't the Victorian era. But all that I
understand, or misunderstand, about the threadbare 'Facts of Life,' affects
neither of us with regard to this situation. We have cherished our hours in
the past, scattered here and there, each like a desert oasis. We have come to
another now. Later, very much later, I think I shall probably fall asleep in
this chair and then you may cover me up and depart in peace, yourself, to
bed. And to-morrow we can breakfast somewhere together as if I had just
come upon the morning train and you had met me, and no one need hear
that we spent a happy night, or thereabouts, re-discovering one another."
Stirred to the depths and vexed with himself for his susceptibility to her
moods, Cyprian withdrew his hand into safety.
"You always had a way of making the unnatural seem perfectly natural
and ordinary."
His brain groped around in the dark awhile before he found an answer.
And then, that very daimon, thus invoked, spoke to him in the ensuing
silence.
The same child who had fallen asleep on his shoulder in the past was
beside him now, expectant of the same "crystallized apricot" of comfort. Let
him take heed that it was such comfort as healed and did not merely drug.
What, for all her dreams, could she have grasped of the Powers which spin
the dice for good or evil? Eighteen to thirty-nine! Supposing he yielded to
this childish defiance of the Unwritten Law and anyone came to know? He
got up and crossing to the window, flung it wide. The roar of London traffic
rushed upwards on the rising wind. He stood, his profile directed at the
struggling smoke-befogged stars; his shoulders, so moulded to desk-work, a
little bowed. Far below him, the haunches of a large black draught-horse
lumbered towards a mews. Its heavy deliberation touched a chord of
memory: a fragment of verse—Yeats, wasn't it?—assailed him in warning.
"The years like great black oxen plough the land, While God the
Ploughman gathers in" ... Gathers in ... Gathers in ... The grain?
There had been a clever fantastical novel he believed written round the
theme, and he had seen it filmed.
Someone in it had found the long-desired elixir of Youth.
At the time this had not seemed impossible, but now ... "While God, the
Ploughman..." Anyway, He did not hold back the great black oxen. The
inexorable ploughing, sowing and garnering must go on. Eighteen to thirty-
nine. How possible to take advantage of Ferlie's crystal faith and
unanalysed affection? If her words veiled the faint suggestion that her need
of him was as great as his need of her—wonderingly, reverently, he
repeated it to himself, "his need of her"—he must pretend, for the present at
any rate, that he did not hear it. He must be just to her Youth, that glorious
jewel of Life which she wore with such careless indifference.
"The years like great black oxen tread the world, And God the
Herdsman goads them on behind."
"Cyprian." Her voice brought him down from the clouds and he closed
the window with a slight sense of chill. "Cyprian, look at me."
"Can you tell me, honestly," she asked him, "that you consider it would
be what is called a 'sin' for me to lean upon our friendship in the way I
choose, to-night?"
"Cyprian, look at me." Nor would he do that again. His eyelids blinked
—their old short-sighted trick—over her head, at the sapphire resting
against her white throat, at the dying embers, at the hearth-rug where lay,
kicked free by its owner, a glass-buckled Cinderella shoe.
And she knew that she would be proved helpless against his refusal so
much as to look at his conception of the Forbidden Thing: for every flutter
of his eyelids was the drawing of a shutter which blocked from her another
window of his soul.
* * * * * *
"And now," said Cyprian at last, his voice dry with exhaustion, "Would
you mind going?"
Instantaneously, Ferlie turned her back and thrust her foot into the errant
shoe. In the doorway she faced him, her cloak over her arm.
"You have never asked that of me before," she said, "and you will never
be required to say it again."
Half paralysed he heard the front door bang. In another moment the
wave of reaction set in. What in thunder was he thinking of to allow her to
go out into Jermyn Street at this hour of the night, alone?
He snatched his hat and followed, gaining on her by the fact that he
could take the lift. She was passing under the stone arch leading to the
pavement as he crashed back the gates.
"Ferlie!" he called after her, "Wait." But she did not stop nor turn her
head at the sound of his footsteps hurrying along behind her. A taxi crawled
near with its flag up. He was just too late to prevent her getting into it. With
feverish presence of mind he noted the number. Fortune favoured him, for it
was caught in a block of cars returning from the theatres, as another car
ejected its passenger on the other side of the road.
Cyprian, too fiercely anxious at the moment to see the humour of the
situation, gave his penny-novelette directions. The driver awarded him an
indifferent glance and held out his hand for earnest money. He was used to
minding his own business in his profession.
Once in full pursuit of Ferlie's taxi Cyprian found himself on the verge
of unnatural mirth. His third night in England; and he and Ferlie playing
hide-and-seek, in and out of the London traffic, like any hardened human
satyr and some nymph of the by-streets. And why? What was this
intangible, invisible Thing which had suddenly interposed itself between
them? A silly whim on her part, an instinct-driven refusal on his and the
shadow had assumed these gigantic proportions.
Outside the Carmichaels' town residence, with its Sale-advertising
boards and closed blinds, Ferlie alighted.
From the prompt departure of her driver one might divulge that she paid
him without examining the fare. On her own front door-step, wrestling with
her latch-key, Cyprian reached her.
Her eyes meeting his in the reflection of the street lamp were as hard as
pebbles.
"Only Beckett is here," she said, referring to the old butler, "and he has
put up the chain. Since you must let me in for a silly betrayal of my
unexpected return you had better come down into the basement and see if
you can hoist me through his bedroom window, if he sleeps with it open.
His room is next to the pantry and silver-chest. If I set an alarm going
accidentally, he will only think it is a burglar at last and plunge his head
further under the clothes."
"But, Ferlie——" She was half-way down the area steps and he, less
familiar with the house, followed stumblingly.
Beckett's window was open and quite near it stood a rain-barrel. She
tossed the cloak she had not troubled to put on into Cyprian's arms.
"I can't take that with me," she said, and, before he could recover his
breath to protest, she had reached the summit of the barrel. An instant she
swayed on the edge of it, balancing herself by means of a pipe running
down from the bathroom window. She was now only a shadowy shape
poised above him in the darkness.
CHAPTER VII
Her father said, "Well, if he is a decent chap, and Ferlie likes him, she is
lucky." Adding, a little later, from his pillows, his brow considerably
smoother than it had been for some time past, "At any rate, he will never
leave his wife a pauper."
Her mother said, "Oh, my darling! I always knew you'd come to see." ...
And aye had let the tears down fall in thanksgiving that there existed no
Jock o' Hazeldean to abstract the bride at the last moment.
Peter said, "There will be lots of girls ready to scratch your eyes out
with envy, Old Thing."
Lady Cardew said, "My dear, I thought from the very first that it was
Meant."
While, to Ferlie, Clifford said, "I was perfectly sure you would come
round in the end. I know women!"
And Beckett lost his bet with the cook; perhaps because he was less
inclined to put his head under the clothes at night than one might think.
"Not but that," as Ferlie's mother more than once pointed out to
congratulating friends, "the Carmichaels could hold their heads as high as
the Greville-Mainwarings in that respect." She trusted Lady Cardew had
rubbed it into the Duchess. The Duchess herself, a first cousin of Clifford's
father, emerged presently, from the mist of introductions, as an untidy,
acidly cheerful old lady, much more interested in horse-racing than in
Clifford; though she had been overheard to express a hope that his fiancée
had not bitten off more than she could chew. Which vulgarity reconvinced
Ferlie's mother that everybody in the Peerage had not got in, so to speak, by
the front door.
There was no earthly reason to delay the wedding. The doctors had not
made up their minds as to the date of Mr. Carmichael's operation and the
sooner his wife was free to devote all her energies to this decision the better.
But the Daimon produced nothing to demonstrate that virtue brings its
own reward.
He had made two attempts to see Ferlie and arrive at some sort of an
explanation, but on each occasion she had deliberately frustrated him.
Cyprian bought the apple, caused it to be packed and sealed, and wrote
the address in the shop; whence he despatched it to Ferlie, omitting even to
enclose his card.
She did not acknowledge it but, at least, she did not send it back.
* * * * * *
With the dawning of her wedding day a fatalistic calm descended upon
his tortured mentality, preparing him to see the thing decently through.
Here and there, was a face known to Cyprian through the medium of the
illustrated papers.
"Wild oats. What young man doesn't... No. The Vane girl was older than
he was. The attraction at that establishment was the Samaritan Actress."
"Well, it's the first time I have heard a member of the tribe of Abraham
described as a Samaritan."
"You don't understand. Why, she took in the Vane when all doors..."
Cyprian sat back and opened the hymn-book at random. Did he feel
things more intensely than these folk and was it a disgrace to be thin-
skinned?
Muriel, and now ... Ferlie. "The One before the Last." But Muriel had
figured in the life of a different man from the Cyprian who sat here
watching for Ferlie. If intense desire could be construed by the high gods
and accepted as prayer, he did most intensely desire Ferlie to be happy.
The buzz of conversation thickened into low murmurings and died. The
bridegroom had entered by a side door and was speaking to someone in a
front pew.
From his post at the back Cyprian had not been able to gather more than
that Ferlie's future husband was tall and rather thin but, on turning his head
now, his eyes encountered hers fully. He was startled by the impression that
he was staring into the face of a perfect stranger. How ghastly white she
looked! The fraction of a moment and the eyes dropped, even as his own
had dropped before hers the night she had wished to keep him at her side.
She was passing by on Peter's arm. The pair of them looked as if they
ought still to be going to school.
Peter's face wore precisely the same expression as must have adorned it
when he first took his place at roll-call among the sixth-form "Bloods."
Everybody was standing. Everybody was howling a hymn, what time all
craned their necks and stealthily mounted hassocks to stare at Ferlie ...
Ferlie, who hated people to see her at emotional moments.... He would
wake in a little while to find her beside him, seeking shelter from the Thing
which had whitened her face with terror....
Cyprian felt certain that, whatever God had seen fit to do in Cana of
Galilee, He was not presiding amongst these wedding-guests.
Every now and then a gap in the swaying pews would give him a
glimpse of Ferlie's mother dabbing at her face with a handkerchief, in token
that she must be regarded as bereft of a daughter against her will. At
intervals, she was, doubtless, thanking God that she had done her duty.
The mutterings up at the altar were stilled and various people had
escaped from confinement to wander through the vestry-door in the wake of
the chief actors in this religious farce. Or was it tragedy?
While bitter thought was crowding thus against bitter thought in his
mind, his gaze became involuntarily fixed upon the lines of the hymn the
choir was singing to fill in time:
Then why were they building these barriers deliberately between them
and their united freedom?
It was over. In a dream he had seen her flit by him, glancing neither to
the left nor to the right, but this time she was not clinging to Peter.
With her departure the church became a happy tumult of rising sound.
The organist had pulled out everything in the diapason line that his fingers
could reach, and Cyprian escaped along the flower-strewn carpet, and so to
his taxi, with a great longing upon him for the silence of catacombs.
The philosophic sensations which had followed his sleepless night were
no proof now against his throbbing nerves. Ferlie, also, he remembered,
experienced physical suffering in mental sorrow. The knowledge formed
another of the cobweb-threads binding them to one another.
He could not face Ferlie before all that crowd. He could not.
"Ferlie!"
Her whole appearance shocked Cyprian, who knew the real Ferlie.
The words raced one another to a close, and she ended on the edge of
shrill laughter. He flinched as if she had struck him in the face.
The tale of their years for that instant reversed, he looked back at her
with the eyes of a hurt and bewildered child. Shaded them with his hand
against the pain as he replied:
Half beside himself with the sight of her thus altered, he caught her
wrists and held them.
"Because you have formed a new and all-absorbing tie for the future, is
it necessary to mock at that older discarded friendship which stretches out a
hand to you from the past?"
A slow flush crept up her face and the grey eyes widened on a look of
anger and intense pain.
He saw the thin gleam of a gold chain which lost itself in the folds of
transparent softness near her throat, and was superseded by a visible string
of pearls—"the gift of the Bridegroom."
Then she wrenched herself away and left him there, staring
uncomprehendingly at the goldfish going round and round.
CHAPTER VIII
Cyprian did not return to the flat. He went out into the restless London
streets. Block after block he passed, from the more fashionable quarters to
the outskirts of the park, walking swiftly to escape pursuing Memory, until
at last the damp darkness of the river divided the myriad scintillating eyes
of the city.
Further along the Embankment dead forms lay huddled where the
shadows lay deepest, every now and again to start erect, galvanized into life
by the angry flash of a police-lantern.
"Fit ter drop!" it muttered, still in the throes of uneasy slumber; "Gawd!
fer one bloody night to fergit meself in."
And Cyprian sat and smoked on the deserted seat, still redolent with the
effluvia of rotting rags, until a suspicious arc of light searched him out in
his sins and a voice, hoarse with hectorings, commanded him to move on.
Morning found him so far from home that a sleepy taxi-driver whom he
hailed rolled a jaundiced eye on receiving the directions of this individual
whose damp, crumpled clothes and unclean collar showed unmistakable
evidence of an unusual brand of night-on-the-tiles, and Cyprian was obliged
to disburse half the fare in advance.
His physical exhaustion stood him now in good stead and he slept
deeply on the shabby leather cushions the whole way back to the flat. Slept
again on his undisturbed bed, afterwards, till the scandalized valet roused
him for tea; his first meal in twenty-four hours.
Before he set sail for the East, he made one attempt, and only one, to
renew correspondence with Ferlie.
The letter conveyed nothing to her of the true state of his mind. In
despair he had closed it on a pathetic admission, "I fear I have no gift of
expression." She answered him, but her own methods of expression were,
as usual, fantastic. In the letter she enclosed a small gold key. "A gift for a
gift, Cyprian. I suppose it was inevitable that you should shut the gates
upon me. I send the sign that only you can unlock them."
He placed the key upon his watch-chain, and, with Herculean efforts of
self-control, refrained from any attempts to discover her meaning.
She had always been such a rebel; she had always been so sure of the
light within her and, alas, she had always been so sure of the light within
him.
A few weeks later, when, the honeymoon accomplished, Ferlie and her
husband had returned to town, Mr. Carmichael died.
He smiled with grim satisfaction the afternoon Peter came to see him; a
Peter who had already begun to regard the Human Form Divine in the same
light as the Butcher regards the liver and kidneys which he slaps down upon
the marble slab to dissect for purchasing housewives; a Peter who would be
decidedly happier using the knife than saving the unwary limb that might
stray his way.
Peter's hair was untidy, his eyes bloodshot, his collar unhygienic, and
his finger-nails in half-mourning. His appearance was altogether
unsterilized and self-assured. He cried, with a loud voice. His opinions on
certain experimental operations, his criticisms on those neighbouring
embryo surgeons at work on the same yellow preserved leg as himself, his
versions, punctuated with spasms of hearty merriment, of the latest hospital
yarn, portraying his fellow-students as a set of inquisitive young ghouls
more triumphant over an eminent physician's sponge forgotten in a victim's
intestines than troubled with sympathy for the latter's bereaved relatives.
"And I'll tell you exactly what they did to you, Father; it's old Gumboil's
favourite amusement. First he cuts open the..."
Thus had the path of Peter been made smooth and his way plain by
Ferlie's brilliant marriage.
"I staked little enough on her," said Mr. Carmichael, relishing the jest of
Martha and Mary's antiquated establishment. "Your mother was mistrustful
of education for her own sex; she did quite well for herself without it, didn't
she? Ferlie seems to have justified the conviction that the old-fashioned girl
gets the matrimonial plums. At any rate, you will owe your sister a good
deal. See that she stays happy."
"Impossible to judge them by the young men of my day. This type did
well enough in the War crisis."
He did not leave his wife badly off. With Peter on the way to being
floated, and Ferlie secure, she had her widow's pension to herself, besides a
little private means and the sum the big town-house eventually fetched
when Ferlie bought it, pandering to a dream of her mother's that Peter might
one day practise there and retain the Carmichael traditions in the old setting.
Till that satisfactory day it could nearly always be sub-let.
"No proper tombstone, you see," she complained damply to Ferlie. "The
design should, so obviously, have been a severe cross, quite plain, with
perhaps a weeping angel praying. Then a dove of peace hovering, and
maybe a few lilies. The simpler the better, you know. And a scroll at the
foot, or an open book with one of those grand old texts—Isaiah, is it, or
Ecclesiasticus?—anyway, one of the Prophets—'Fear not for I have
redeemed thee.' So comforting. Or else the one about panting for living
waters that always makes me feel thirsty myself. Your dear father was so
fond of rhetoric."
Ferlie, not quite sure whether the weeping angel was destined to wear a
delicate semblance to the bereaved wife, nor convinced that the cross could
be considered suitably symbolic of the faith of one who had ever regarded it
as the undeserved gibbet, brought upon him by himself, of a well-meaning
Eastern agitator nearly two thousand years ago, was inclined to demur.
"Father never evinced either the slightest fear of his condemnation
hereafter, nor any faith in an ultimate redemption," she protested, "and I
think it would have been rather hypocritical to parade a thirst for living
waters after death in anyone who can hardly be described as having gasped
for them during life."
"I think I never admired Father so much in his life as I did at his death.
He closed his eyes, restfully and unfearingly, upon the consciousness of
work well done and principles truly upheld. What business is it of ours if
they were mistaken principles? So many people, who profess to cling to the
creeds supported by the Churches, live as if they had none, and then drift
out on a tide of terrified remorse and shame. But, personally, I would not
feel fit to intercede for Father's 'forgiveness,' if he really requires to be
forgiven for being true to his lights."
Ferlie's mother was too religious to see it, and, since it seems to follow
that the brighter the hope of Eternal Life, the blacker the garb in which it
must be approached, there was much melodious moaning at the bar when
her husband's ashes were interred upon the shores of that Eternal Sea which
brought us hither and upon which, in imagination, she had safely launched
his sceptical soul.
A week later she was still sewing bands of crepe on to Peter's various
coats and seeking consolation in those little details of mournful respect she
was able to accord her Dead.
* * * * * *