CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

CHAPTER 1
Overvoltages & Insulation
Coordination in Electric Power
Systems

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Why HV in Power Systems?

Why HV in Power Systems?

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Voltage Classes

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

and India
China

11

 Egypt-KSA
Interconnection
1500 km long
 500 kV OHTL /
UGC (submarine)

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

 Egypt-KSA
Interconnection
1500 km long
 500 kV OHTL /
UGC (submarine)

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KisU

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

500 kVa.c.

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Values for transmission voltage, transmittable power and transmission distance:

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

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 HVDC has the ability to transmit large

amounts of power over long distances
with lower capital costs and lower
losses than AC.
 HVDC can carry more power per
conductor. The power delivered in an
AC system is defined by the root mean
square (RMS) of an AC voltage, but
RMS is only 70.7% of the peak
voltage. The peak voltage of AC
determines the actual insulation
thickness and conductor spacing.
HVDC operates at a constant
maximum voltage, with equally sized
conductors and insulation to carry
more power into an area.
18

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

 For used AC cable

transmission, additional
current flows in the cable to
charge the cable
capacitance, which
generates additional losses
(dielectric and copper
losses) in the cable. For
HVDC, the cable
capacitance is charged only
when the cable is first
energized or when the
voltage is changed; there is
no steady-state additional
current required.
19

 HVDC does not suffer from the skin effect; hence it needs fewer,
thinner conductors, simpler line construction, ground as a return
path, and each conductor operated as an independent circuit.
 Increasing the capacity of an existing power grid in situations
where additional wires are difficult or expensive to install.
 Connecting a remote generating plant to the distribution grid and
power transmission and stabilization between asynchronized AC
distribution systems, e.g. nuclear or hydro “waterfall” power plants.
 Stabilizing a predominantly AC power-grid, without increasing
prospective short circuit current.
 Both AC and DC transmission lines can generate coronas, in the
former case in the form of oscillating particles, in the latter a
constant wind. Due to the space charge formed around the
conductors, an HVDC system may have about half the corona
loss per unit length of a HVAC system carrying the same
amount of power. 20

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

 Less radio interference, especially in foul weather, for a certain

conductor diameter and rms voltage.
 Increase system stability by preventing cascading failures from
propagating from one part of a wider power transmission grid to
another.
 Synchronous operation is not required in HVDC. The magnitude
and direction of power flow through a DC link can be directly
commanded, and changed as needed to support the AC networks at
either end of the DC link.
 Cables can be worked at a higher voltage gradient and the line
power factor is always unity.
 The frequency and the intermediate reactive components cause
stability problems in AC line. On the other hand, HVDC
transmission does not have the stability problem because of absence
of the frequency. As HVDC has constant voltage, it does not
generate reactive power.
21

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Key factors of HVDC are in conversion, switching,

control, availability, maintenance and the scope of
applications is limited by the following factors:

1. Converters are expensive and require much reactive power.

2. They generate harmonics, hence AC and DC filters are
required.
3. The difficulty of breaking DC currents results in high cost
of DC breakers.
4. High voltage DC circuit breakers are difficult to build.
5. Multiterminals or network operation is not easy.
6. Inability to use transformers to change the voltage levels.
7. Complexity of control.
23

Global Energy Interconnection

Global energy interconnection refers to the development of a globally
interconnected, ubiquitous robust smart grid, supported by backbone
UHV grids (channels), and dedicated primarily to the transmission of
clean energy. Comprising of transnational and transcontinental backbone
grids and ubiquitous smart power grids in different countries covering
the transmission/distribution of power at different voltage grades, the
globally interconnected energy network is connected to large energy
bases in the Arctic and equatorial regions, as well as different continents
and countries. It can adapt to the need for grid access for distributed
power sources with the capability to deliver wind, solar, ocean, and other
renewables to different types of end users. Generally speaking, a global
energy interconnection is in effect a combination of "UHV grids plus
ubiquitous smart grids plus clean energy," forming a green, low-carbon
platform for global allocation of energy with extensive coverage, strong
allocation capability, and a high level of security and reliability.
24

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Global Energy Interconnection

GEI is a globally interconnected strong and smart grid with UHV grid as the
backbone, which will serve as a platform for extensive development,
deployment and utilization of clean energy globally. In essence, GEI is "Smart
Grid + UHV Grid + Clean Energy". Smart grid is the foundation, UHV grid is
the key, and clean energy is the priority.
Smart grid is the foundation
Smart grid possesses the features of informatization, automization and
interaction, which enable the integration and control of large-scale clean energy
generation, and meet the demand for flexible access of distributed power supply
and smart equipment.
UHV grid is the key
UHV grid is the backbone grid of Global Energy Interconnection and the carrier
of long-distance transmission and optimization allocation of clean energy.
Clean energy is the priority
The wind power in arctic region, solar power generation in equatorial region,
centralized and distributed clean energy generation of all continents and
countries will be the leading energy in the future.
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Global Energy Interconnection

26

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Global Energy Interconnection

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GCC Electricity Grid System Interconnection

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Saudi Arabia – Egypt Interconnection (SEI):

USD 1.6 billion (60% KSA+40% Egypt) and
Payback 8 Years, Operated in 2024

f = 50Hz
V = 500kV 21 km HVDC UGC:
P = 3GW Gulf of Aqaba and
Suez Canal
V = 500 kV
l  1500 km

f = 60Hz
Three hours V = 380kV
time difference P = 3GW
in peak loads of
both countries

29

EuroAfrica Interconnector is an interconnector between Greek, Cypriot,

and Egypt power grids via submarine power cable. It will have a capacity
to transmit 2 GW of electricity in either direction (DC voltage ±500 kV,
and No. of poles = 2) with an annual transmission capacity is 17.5 TWh.
Operated in 2020/2021.

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Power Handling Capacity and Losses of Long AC OHTLs

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Surge/Characteristic/Intrinsic Impedance (Zo or Zs)

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33

Typical overhead transmission line parameters

Nominal
230 kV 345 kV 500 kV 765 kV 1,100 kV
Voltage (Vs)
R (W/km)
0.050 0.037 0.028 0.012 0.005

XL = wL
0.488 0.367 0.325 0.329 0.292
(W/km)
1/Xc=bc = wC
3.371 4.518 5.200 4.978 5.544
(S/km)

Zs (W) 380 285 250 257 230

SIL (MW) =
140 420 1,000 2,280 5,260
Vs2/Zs
Thermal
400 1,200 2,600 5,400 24,000
Rating (MW)

Most of the EHV transmission lines are not loaded to their thermal limit.
They are loaded to lower limits due to voltage and stability considerations. 34

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Types Of Overvoltages
 The voltage stresses on transmission network insulation are
found to have a variety of Origins.
 In normal operation AC (or DC) voltages do not stress the
insulation severely.
 Overvoltage stressing a power system can be classified into two
main types:
1. Internal overvoltages: generated by changes in the
operating conditions of the network. Internal over voltages
can be divided into
a. temporary overvoltages
b. switching overvoltages

2. External overvoltage: generated by atmospheric

disturbances of these disturbances, lightning is the most
common and the most severe.
39

Overvoltage Classes, Cont’d

    

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Overvoltage Classes

&

Not a concern 
(EMI and EMC only) 

Voltage–time characteristics
41

ORIGIN & CLASSIFICATIONS

OF VOLTAGE STRESSES

VOLTAGE
STRESSES

Power Temporary Slow- Fast- Very Fast-

Frequency Overvoltages Front Front Front

Voltages TOV Overvoltages Overvoltages Overvoltages

Sinewaves Impulses

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

(1) Continuous ( Power Frequency ) Voltages

• Under normal operation conditions power –

frequency voltage can be expected to vary in
magnitude and to differ from one point of the
system to another.

• It can vary from 2-5% of the rated voltage for

EHV and UHV, and up to 10% of the rated
voltage for LV, MHV and HV, i.e. up to 1.1
pu.
43

Continuous ( Power Frequency ) Voltages

Reference Values of Voltage Limits
in AC 50Hz Networks

(All values are in RMS line-to-line)

Class Vs Max. Min. Comment
LV 240V 264V 216V Domestic and industrial loads
LV 415V 457V 347V
MV 3.3kV 3.6kV 3kV High-voltage loads, e.g. motors
±10 %

6.6kV 7.2kV 6kV and old distribution systems

11kV 12kV 10kV Distribution
22kV 24kV 20kV
33kV 36kV 30kV
HV 66kV 72.5kV 60kV Sub-transmission
132kV 145kV 120kV Transmission
220kV 245kV 200kV
EHV 400kV 420kV 380kV
±5 %

500kV 525kV 475kV

UHV 760kV 800kV 750kV
1100kV 1155kV 1085kV
44

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

For insulation co-ordination purposes, the voltage shape can be considered

to be the same as that of the power frequency voltage and it may extend for
few cycles. It can vary up to 40% of the rated voltage based on the power
system grounding, i.e. up to 1.4 pu.

TOV

Earth Faults Load Rejection

Resonance & Charging Unloaded

Ferro-Resonance Lines, where Vr>Vs

Saturation Effects Self Excitation

In Transformers
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 Temporary overvoltages (sustained overvoltages) differ

from transient switching overvoltages in that they last for
longer durations, typically from a few cycles to a few
seconds.
 They take the form of undamped or slightly damped
oscillations at a frequency equal or close to the power
frequency.
 The classification of temporary overvoltages as distinct
from transient switching overvoltages is due mainly to the
fact that the responses of power network insulation and
surge arresters to their wave shapes are different.

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Events leading to the generation of

temporary overvoltages
1. Load Rejection:
 When a transmission line or a large inductive load that is fed
from a power station is suddenly switched off, the generator
will speed up and the bus bar voltage will rise.
2. Ferranti Effect:
 The Ferranti effect on an uncompensated transmission line is
given by:

Where Vr and Vs are the receiving end and sending end voltages,
respectively, and ℓ is the line length (km). o has a value of
about 6º per 100 km at normal power frequency.

47

In electrical engineering, the Ferranti effect is the increase in voltage occurring at the
receiving end of a very long (> 200 km) AC electric power transmission line, relative to
the voltage at the sending end, when the load is very small, or no load is connected.

For Vs = 345 kV, Zs = 285 W

Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
= (Vs)2/Zs
 420 MW

Power delivered = SIL sin 

= 420  sin 30
= 210 MW

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Events leading to the generation of

temporary overvoltages
2. Ferranti Effect, Cont’d

Calculated reactive power for transmission systems in a country.

49

Events leading to the generation of

temporary overvoltages

3. Ground Fault:
 A single line-to-ground fault will cause the voltages to ground
of the healthy phases to rise.
 In the case of a line-to-ground fault, systems with neutrals
isolated or grounded through high impedance may develop
overvoltages on healthy phases higher than normal line-to-line
voltages.
 Solidly grounded systems will only permit phase-to-ground
overvoltages well below the line-to-line value.
 An earth fault factor (Ce) is defined as the ratio of the higher of
the two sound phase voltages to the line-to-neutral voltage at
the same point in the system with the fault removed. 50

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

• Slow overvoltages have front duration of some

tens to some thousands of s [20 s – 5000
s]and tail less than 20,000 s (20 ms).

V (kV)
peak FRONT TIME (t F )
EXPRESSED AS
TAIL TIME (tT )

0.5 peak

Front Tail t ( S )
time tF time tT
51

Fast Front
Overvoltages

LIGHTNING SWITCHING
1.2/50 s 250/2500 s

CAUSED BY CAUSED BY

Direct strokes Strokes to Connecting or

to Phase earth very close Disconnecting
Conductor to the line Via Short Connection
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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

• Originate from disconnect or operation or faults

within gas-insulated switchgear (GIS).
• Its overvoltage shape has a front time below
0.1s.

Gas-Insulated
Switchgear (GIS)

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

++ + + +
+ Cloud+

Earth

55

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57

Lightning is a sudden electrostatic discharge that occurs during an electrical storm. This discharge occurs
between electrically charged regions of a cloud (called intra-cloud lightning or IC), between two clouds (CC
lightning), or between a cloud and the ground (CG lightning. The charged regions in the atmosphere
temporarily equalize themselves through this discharge referred to as a strike if it hits an object on the ground,
and a flash, if it occurs within a cloud. In general, cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning flashes account for only 25%
of all total lightning flashes worldwide. 58

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Lightning is produced in an attempt by nature to

maintain a dynamic balance between the positively
charged ionosphere and the negatively charged earth.
Over fair-weather areas there is a downward transfer of
positive charges through the global air-earth current.
This is then counteracted by thunderstorms, during
which positive charges are transferred upward in the
form of lightning.
During thunderstorms, positive and negative charges
are separated by the movements of air currents forming
ice crystals in the upper layer of a cloud and rain in the
lower part.
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 The cloud becomes negatively charged and has a larger layer of

positive charge at its top.
 As the separation of charge proceeds in the cloud, the potential
difference between the centers of charges' increases and the vertical
electric field along the cloud also increases.
 The total potential difference between the two main charge centers
may vary from l00 to 1000 MV.
 Only a part of the total charge-several hundred coulombs-is
released to earth by lightning; the rest is consumed in inter-cloud
discharges.
 The height of the thundercloud dipole above earth may reach 5 km
in tropical regions.

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

 The channel to earth is first established by a stepped discharge

called a leader stroke.
 The leader is initiated by a breakdown between polarized water
droplets at the cloud base caused by the high electric field, or a
discharge between the negative charge mass in the lower cloud
and the positive charge pocket below it. (Figure 14.1)
 As the downward leader approaches the earth, an upward leader
begins to proceed from earth before the former reaches earth.
 The upward leader joins the downward one at a point referred to as
the striking point.
 This is the start of the return stroke, which progresses upward like
a travelling wave on a transmission line

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

At the earthing point a heavy impulse current reaching

the order of tens of kilo amperes occurs, which is
responsible for the known damage of lightning.
The velocity of progression of the return stoke is very
high and may reach half the speed of light.
The corresponding current heats its path to temperatures
up to 20,000°C, causing the explosive air expansion that
is heard as thunder.
The current pulse rises to its crest in a few micro
seconds and decays over a period of tens or hundreds of
microseconds.
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 A strike can average 100 million volts of electricity

 Current of up to 200,000 amperes (200 kA)
 Can generate 54,000 oF
 50 Lightning strikes somewhere on the earth every second:
average 44±5 times every second over the entire earth
 The primary earth’s resonance is at a frequency of about 7.83
hertz—eight trips around the planet per second. “It’s like sitting
inside a ringing bell,” said Harrison. The resonance is maintained
by the combined effect of all the lightning flashes on Earth—
between 40 and 50 per second.
 Kills hundreds of people every year.
 Lightning can strike ground up to ten miles from a storm
 There is an average of 2-3 miles between strikes 66
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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

In power systems, ground wire is provided in overhead

transmission lines having voltages of 110kV and above.

(1)
Ground wire
Stroke

(2)

Conductor Wires

Tower

Earth

(a) (b)
(a): (1) Ground wire & (2) Direct stroke on the phase conductor of OHTL
(b): Stroke to tower (Back flashover)

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Lightning strike to shield wire

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

The most severe lightning stroke is that which strikes a

phase conductor on the transmission line
It produces the highest overvoltage for a given
stroke current.
The lightning stroke injects its current into a
termination impedance Z, which in this case is half the
line surge impedance Zo since the current will flow in
both directions as shown in Figure 14.2. Therefore,
the voltage surge magnitude at the striking point is

V =( ½) I Zo

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The lightning current magnitude is rarely less than 10 kA.

For typical overhead line surge impedance Zo of 300 Ω, the
lightning surge voltage will probably have a magnitude in excess
of 1500 kV.
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 Lightning voltage surge will have the same shape characteristics.

 In practice the shapes and magnitudes of lightning surge waves

get modified by their reflections at points of discontinuity as they
travel along transmission lines.

 Lightning strokes represent true danger to life, structures, power

systems, and communication networks.

 Lightning is always a major source of damage to power systems

where equipment insulation may break down, under the resulting
overvoltage and the subsequent high-energy discharge.
73

Lightning Protection Using Shielding Wire

α: Shielding angle
α=30o-40o

Shielding wire creates a shielding zone around the phase conductors as a tent!

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Produces Protected by

the highest overvoltage placing the earth wire

for a given stroke current above the phase conductors

hence Thus

the severest case shielding them from

of lightning stroke lightning strikes

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Device Where applied Remarks

Rod gaps a) Across insulator string. - Difficult to co-ordinate.

b) Across bushing insulators. - Create dead short
circuit.
- Cheap.

Overhead-ground a) Above OHTL Provide effective

wires (earthed) b) Above substation. protection against direct
In power systems, ground/shielding strokes online
wire is provided in overhead conductors, towers, and
transmission lines having voltages of substation equipment.
110kV and above.
Protection angle (30°: 40°)
Vertical masts In substation Alternative to overhead
shielding wires.

Lightning masts/ Above tall building Protect building against

rods (earthed) direct strokes. Angle of
protection (30°: 40°)
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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Rod Gap “Horn”

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Lightning/surge a) On incoming lines in each - Divert overvoltages to

arresters substation. earth without causing
b) Near terminal of short circuit.
transformers and - Used at every voltage
generators. in every substation and
c) Near motors terminals. for each line.

Surge absorber Near rotating machine or RC-combination

switchgears. absorbs the overvoltage
surge and reduces the
steepness.

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With the increase in transmission voltages needed to

fulfill the required increase in transmitted powers,
switching surges have become the governing factor in
the design of insulation for EHV and UHV systems?!
In the meantime, lightning overvoltages come as a
secondary factor in these networks.
There are two fundamental reasons for this shift in
relative importance from lightning to switching surges
as higher transmission voltages are called for:

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

1. Overvoltages produced on transmission lines by lightning

strokes are only slightly dependent on the power system
voltages.
As a result, their magnitudes relative to the system peak
voltage decrease as the latter is increased.
2. External insulation has its lowest breakdown strength
under surges whose fronts fall in the range 50-500 s,
which is typical for switching surges.
Hint: According to the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC 60071-2) recommendations, all
equipment designed for operating voltages above 220/300
kV should be tested under switching impulses (i.e.,
laboratory-simulated switching surges).
81

 There is a great variety of events that would initiate a

switching surge in a power network.
 The switching operations of greatest relevance to
insulation design can be classified as follows:
1. Energization of transmission lines and cables. The
following specific switching operations are some of the
most common in this category:
a. Energization of a line that is open circuited at the far end
b. Energization of a line that is terminated by an unloaded
transformer
c. Energization of a line through the low-voltage side of a
transformer

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

2. Re-energization of a line. This means the energization

of transmission line carrying charges trapped by
previous line interruptions when high-speed reclosures
are used.

3. Load rejection. This is affected by a circuit breaker

opening at the far end of the line.

This may also be followed by opening the line at the sending

end in what is called a line dropping operation.

83

4. Switching on and off of equipment. All switching

operations involving an element of the transmission
network will produce a switching surge.
a. Switching of high-voltage reactors
b. Switching of transformers that are loaded by a reactor on
their tertiary winding
c. Switching of a transformer at no load .

5. Fault initiation and clearing.

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• Slow (switching) overvoltages have front

duration of some tens to some
thousands of s [20 s – 5000 s] and
tail less than 20,000 s (20 ms).

 Spatial length of the front of slow-front switching overvoltage

surge ( 5000 µs): 1500 km 87

Events leading to the generation of

temporary overvoltages
2. Ferranti Effect, Cont’d

Calculated reactive power for transmission systems in a country.

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Methods of reducing switching overvoltages

 Lightning/surge arresters

 High-voltage shunt
reactors connected to
line to reduce the power
frequency overvoltages
for EHV and UHV long
OHTLs

 Line shunting after R

opening the CB.
R can be used in transmission lines
rather than distribution ones.
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Methods of reducing switching overvoltages

 Opening resistors in the
R

CB (resistance
switching).
R

 a) Single-stage pre-
closing resistance
R1
insertion.
R2

 b) Two-stage pre-closing
resistance insertion. CB

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Methods of reducing switching overvoltages

1

 a) Synchronous switching 2

of three poles of the CB. 3

 b) Simultaneous
operation of CBs at both
ends of transmission lines
(TLs).

93

PSCAD Demo

SA existence and location

Switching overvoltages: some mitigation means 94

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

 What Is A Surge Arrester?

Surge Arresters are one of the most effective devices in protection
against lightning and switching surges.

95

Classes of AC Surge Arresters

1. Secondary Class
Arresters
(ratings up to 650 V)
2. Distribution Class
Arresters
(ratings up to 144 kV)

3. Intermediate Class
Arresters
(ratings up to 42 kV)
4. Station Class Arresters
(ratings up to 1200 kV)

porcelain-housed surge arrester

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

https://www.inmr.com/arrester-technology-today-lessons-
learned-and-developments-to-watch-video/ 97

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99

Types of Surge Arresters

1. Silicon Carbide (SiC): These have a series of air gaps to withstand normal system
voltage and the SiC element has a negative resistance characteristic to clamp the
voltage after the air gaps flashover.
2. Gapless Metal Oxide (MOV): Gapless MOV types have no air gaps. The MOV
element is a constant voltage element with a set breakdown voltage. Because there are
no gaps, some current flows in the MOV at all times and this can cause thermal
runaway in some circumstances.
3. Gapped Metal Oxide: Gapped MOV types use the same MOV elements (but less
of them) in series with air gaps. The air gaps and MOV element share the system
voltage normally, but once the gaps breakdown the MOV element limits the voltage
(to a lower level than the gap less type).

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Varistor Composition
For a varistor, to have an extremely high non-linearity in the voltage-current
(V-I) characteristics and an excellent energy absorbing capability,
a typical composition is 97 mole% ZnO, 1 mole% 0.5 mole% each of B2O3,
MnO, & CO

The microstructure of a
typical ZnO varistor.
ZnO = Doped ZnO grains
with the metal composition:
ca Zn98.5Ni0.4Co0.2Mn0.2
L and traces of Al .
SP = Spinal grains with
rg ZnO Grain
the metal composition of
the oxide: ca
Zn69Sb18.5Ni6.8Co1.6Mn2.
5Cr1.6
Intergranular Material
ri Layers Bi = Bi-rich network,
Ci mainly Bi2O3-ZnO

101

Typical voltage current characteristics of one specific metal oxide disc

(80 mm diameter, 20 mm height)

L 10 Ic
Voltage (kV)

rg ZnO Grain
5 IR

5
I = kVa
44 DC 20 C
o
4
Intergranular Material o
C
3 C1
00 o

ri Ci Layers D
AC
20
C o
10
0C
AC
2
Region1 Regoin2 Regoin3

5 4 1
103 10 2
1 2 3
10 10 10 100 10 10 10 104 105
Current (A)

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Common Ratings Associated with Surge Arresters

1.Rated Voltage: The arrester shall have a “Maximum Continuous
Operating Voltage” (MCOV) that equals or exceeds the normal system
maximum line-to-earth voltage is made.
1.1V s
MCOV  Vc  TOV  1.2Vc  1.2MCOV Vr  TOV  1.2Vc
3
Arrester Ratings Commonly Used on Three-Phase Systems
Arrester Ratings (kVrms)
System Voltages L-L (kVrms)
Nominal Maximum System Grounded High Impedance/
System Voltage (kV) Voltage (kV) Circuits Ungrounded Circuits
(Reduced (Full insulation)
insulation)
11.0 12.0 9-10 12-15
33.0 36.3 27-30 36-39
66.0 72.0 54-60 66-84
132 145 108-120 132-144
220 245 180-198 204-240
400 420 312-360 -
103

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If = [200-1200]A If  10A

105

Neutral Grounding/Earthing Reactor and Resistance

6.05-mH, 630-A, 33-kV neutral 10 s, 100 A and 80 W up to 1000A and

grounding reactors, air-cored/air- 8 W neutral grounding resistance
cooled/aluminum wound/epoxy rated 8 kV line-to-neutral (13.8 kV
resin impregnated. system).
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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Common Ratings Associated with Surge Arresters

2. Discharge Current: This is the discharge current having a designated crest value
and waveshape, which is used to classify a surge diverter with respect to durability
and protective characteristics. The standard waveform for the discharge current is
taken as 8/20 µs. The nominal value of discharge current is selected from the
standard values. The highest ratings are used for the protection of power stations,
while the lowest ratings are used in distribution systems.
Secondary class arrester 1.5 kA Systems with highest voltages up to 5 or 10 kA
52.5kV
Distribution class arresters 2.5 kA
Systems with highest voltages from 5 or 10 kA
Intermediate class arresters 10 kA 72.5 to 420kV

Station class arresters 10 kA Systems with highest voltages of Preferable

525kV and 765kV 20 kA

3. Discharge Voltage (Residual Voltage): is the voltage that appears between the
line and earth terminals of the surge diverter during the passage of discharge
currents. The discharge voltage of the selected arrester should be below the
BIL of the protected equipment by a suitable margin (generally selected
between 15% and 25%). 107

Requirements of Surge Arrester Protection

 The current should be negligible during power frequency
condition.
 The breakdown strength should be above the normal power
frequency faults and permissible overvoltages.
 The transient overvoltages of value more than insulation flashover
or breakdown level should be diverted to earth.
 The discharge current and absorbed energy should not damage the
arrester.
 The voltage across the arrester during discharge (residual voltage)
should not exceed the system basic insulation level. Normal
condition should be restored soon after the surge has diverted.

All colored items can be explained in the

Insulation Coordination section.

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

 Surge arrester Location :

1) As the first protector for each incoming line in the substation.

2) Near the terminals of the high voltage, low voltage and tertiary (?)
sides of a transformer.
3) Between transformer neutral and earth (option). Phase to phase across
delta connected transformer winding
4) Parallel to the transformer tape changers.

Schematic diagram of a conventional plant with step-up transformer: 1)

Generator, 2) generator circuit breaker, 3) surge arrester, 4) step-up
109
transformer, and 5) circuit breaker.

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

 Important Points Should be considered before installing Surge Arrester:

• Arresters should be located as

close as possible to the protected
equipment .
• A surge capacitor is located at the
equipment terminals for the
purpose of slowing the front of
the surges and diverting very fast
overvoltage spikes.
• Both arresters and capacitors
require the connections to line
and ground to be short as
possible.
• Arresters should be rated for the
full line to line voltages except
when the neutral is effectively
grounded.
111

The blowout space of radius R; a: connecting lead, 1: phase arrester for high-
voltage side, 2: phase arrester for low-voltage side, and 3: neutral arrester.

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Typical arrangement of an arrester in a 420-kV substation

SA 113

?
Watch
video!

For l = 30 m
For l = 300 m
VTr = 960 kV << BIL (LIW =
VTr = 2400 kV >> BIL (LIWV =
1425 kV) of Transformer: No
1425 kV) of Transformer: Failure
failure (proper protection)
(improper protection)
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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

For l = 30 m
VTr = 280 kV >> BIL (LIW = 145 kV) of Transformer
115

BIL

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117

Surge Arrester (SA) Classification

Surge arresters are classified by the standard nominal
discharge current (In). The arrester currents can be defined
as follows:
• In: the peak value of discharge current having an 8/20 s impulse
shape.
• ILightning: high current impulse of the arrester, defined as peak value of
discharge current having a 4/10 s impulse shape, which is used to test
the thermal stability of the arrester on direct lightning strokes.
• Iswitching: the peak of the discharge current having a virtual front ranging
from 30 to 100 s, and a virtual tail of twice the front time.
• Energy class: the energy dissipated in kJ per kV of rated voltage or
MCOV of the arrester.

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

• Classification current 8/20s (kA) 5 10 20

• Peak current shape 4/10s (kA) 65 100 100

• Energy class( kJ/kV) 4 8 16

For heavy duty SA, the energy class > 16

119

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121

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

For Vs = 400 MCOV = 254

kV (rms) MCOV  1.1Vs / 3 kV (rms),

Based on the system earthing conditions

Vr  ( 1.2) * MCOV
Vr = 312, 336 , 360, 384,
408, 432 kV(rms).

123

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125

132-kV Station Class Porcelain Surge Arrester:

Protective Characteristics

Classification current
8/20 s

For solidly grounded circuits, Vr = [108-120] kV

Selected for high temporary overvoltages because Rg  0
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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Typical Technical Data of Station Class SA

For heavy duty SA, the energy class > 16

127

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Typical Technical Data of Distribution Class SA

Vr > 1.2MCOV Lightning Classification Switching

129

Typical Technical Data of Distribution Class SA

>

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Insulation Coordination of Power Systems

 Insulation Coordination is the process of determining the proper insulation
levels of various components in a power system as well as their
arrangements.
 It is the selection of an insulation structure that will withstand voltage
stresses to which the system or equipment will be subjected to, together
with the proper surge arrester.
 Insulation Coordination is required to ensure:
 Insulation shall withstand all normal and majority of abnormal voltages.
 Efficient discharge of overvoltages due to internal/external causes
 Breakdown shall be only due to external causes
 Breakdown shall be at such places where least damage is caused
 Safety of operating personnel and public
 The overvoltages that need to be considered when doing insulation
coordination study are:
• Temporary Overvoltages
• Switching “Internal” Overvoltages for Vs  300 kV.
• Lightning “External” Overvoltages
131

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Terminologies used in Insulation Coordination

BIL : BASIC IMPULSE LEVEL ( LIGHTNING): is the crest voltage of the
1.250 (1.2/50 µs) standard lightning impulse wave that will not cause flashover of
the insulation. Equipment insulation as tested shall be equal or above the BIL.

BSL: BASIC SWITCHING LEVEL (SWITCHING): is the crest voltage of the

2502500 (250/2500 µs) standard switching impulse wave that will not cause flashover
of the insulation. Equipment insulation as tested shall be equal or above the BSL.

V (kV)

Switching
Lightning

t ( s)
133

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135

Some manufacturers start to

consider BSL for 245 kV equipment.

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Temporary Overvoltages/Insulation Coordination

Without SA
6
BIL
5

BSL
4
Voltage (pu)

With SA
3

2 Normal TOV
Operating  1.4
Voltage
1

t (ms)
137

Overvoltage Classes

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SA must not work

under Vt and Vc

Voltages and overvoltages in high-voltage electrical power systems.

141

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143

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Transformer Bushings
Porcelain Silicon Rubber

145

Selection of Transformer Bushings Ratings

HV Bushing R/Y/B

HV Bushing R/Y/B

LV Bushing R/Y/B

HV Bushing Neutral
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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Conventional Method of Insulation Coordination

 To avoid insulation failure, the insulation level of different types
of equipment connected to the system has to be higher than the
magnitude of transient overvoltages that appear on the system.
 The magnitudes of transient overvoltages are usually limited to a
protective level by protective devices.
 Thus the insulation level has to be above the protective level by
a safe margin. Normally the impulse insulation level is
established at a value 15-25% above the protective level (Ci and
Cs = [1.15-1.25] pu).

147

Protective Margin of Lightning Surge Arresters

Protective margin of SA = (Equipment BIL- SA discharge voltage) 100
SA discharge voltage

A–Lightning arrester 109 kV,

B–Transformer insulation withstand characteristic
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149

Impulse and Power-Frequency Withstand Levels

Standard Basic Insulation Levels (BIL) of System Voltages

Nominal Highest Impulse withstand voltage One minute 50-Hz voltage

system system kVp (kVrms)
voltage voltage
Full Reduced Full Reduced
(kVrms) (kVrms)
Insulation Insulation* Insulation Insulation

132 kV 145 650 550 275 230

220 kV 245 1050 900 460 395
400 kV 420 --- 1550 --- 680
* Reduced insulation is used where system is effectively/solidly earthed.
• The Standard BIL values of for lines and other equipment are chosen separately.
• The line insulation in the end spans near the S/S is normally reduced to limit the
lightning overvoltages.
• In a substation, the busbar insulation level is the highest to ensure continuity of supply.
• The line insulators, circuit breakers, isolators, CTs and VTs are given the next lower level.
• Since the transformer is the costly and sensitive device, its insulation level is the lowest.
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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Insulation Coordination between Several Substation Equipment

and Line Insulation

Impulse Withstand Voltage (kV) peak (BIL)

Rated Transformer Circuit Switch & Bus Insulation Line Insulation
System Breakers Post
Voltage CTs, Insulation Suspension Tension Steel Wood
(kV) CVTs

22 150 150 225 255 255 - 500

33 200 250 250 320 320 - 600
66 350 350 380 400 470 600 1020
132 550 650 750 700 775 930 -
220 900 1050 1050 1140 1210 1440 -

151

Conventional Insulation Coordination

Vph: System L-N Peak system voltage, Vt: L-N Peak temporary overvoltage
Ce: Earth factor = Vt /Vph (typical 1.4 pu for solidly grounded system)
BIL=3.4 pu, BSL=2.8 pu
Vs: Arrester Sparkover voltage (for SiC SA) For > 200 kV system
Vr: Arrester Residual Voltage
Vp: Arrester Protection Level

For Switching Surge Vps= max(Vs)

For Lightning Surge Vpi= max(Vs)
1. Max. Sparkover voltage, Vs
2. Max. Residual voltage, Vr
3. Max. Sparkover voltage in front,
Vs divided by 1.15

Safety Margin (Protection Margin)

Ci=BIL/Vpi 1.25 for lightning surge
Cs=BSL/Vps 1.15 for switching surge
152
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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

1. Due to a variety of reasons, such as a direct stroke of lightning

on the line, or by indirect strokes, or by switching operations or
by faults, high voltage surges are induced on the transmission
line. The surge travel along the overhead line at approximately
the speed of light. These waves, as they reach the end of the
line or a junction of transmission lines, are partly reflected and
partly transmitted. These can be analyzed in the following
manner.
2. The velocity of propagation of current & voltage waves along a
lossless line is:

u= 1/√ (LC) = 1/√ (oo) = 3×108 m/s = 300m/ s (in air)

u= velocity of light for an overhead line

153

Traveling Waves: Surge Starts at t= 0 and x= 0

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 Velocity of propagation in air: u = c = 300 m/µs

 Time for traveling along one span of a HV-OHL (300 m): 1 µs

 Time for traveling along an OHL of 300 km length: 1 ms

 Spatial length of a lightning overvoltage surge (100 µs): 30 km

 Spatial length of the front of a lightning overvoltage surge (1.2µs): 360 m

 Spatial length of a switching tail overvoltage surge (2.5 ms): 750 km

 Spatial length of the front of switching overvoltage surge (250 µs): 75km

 Spatial length of one half-period of 50-Hz voltage (10 ms): 3000 km

 Damping of the voltage peak value and slowing the front time as the
EM wave propagates along lines (OHTL or UGC).
155

3. In some practical cases , the ambient medium is not free space or

air. For example, in a cable the permittivity of the dielectric is
= or where r may be 3-5 or even more. Thus the velocity of
wave propagation (u=1/√ (LC) ) in cable is reduced by a factor
1/√r. It may be about half to two-third that of light velocity for an
air insulated line.
4. The surge current I traveling along the line is always
accompanied by a surge voltage V. The ratio of the amplitudes
of voltage and current waves is called the characteristic/surge
impedance Zo of the line is:
Zo = √ (L/C), where L and C are per unit length of the line
5. For a typical overhead transmission line, Zo is about [300-500] W.
For an underground cable it is in the range of [30-80] W because
the closer spacing of the conductors makes C larger & L smaller
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1. There is a strict proportionality between the voltage and the

current waves in a transmission line. The proportionality factor
is the characteristic/surge impedance Zo of the line.
2. When a wave arrives at a discontinuity in a line where the
characteristic impedance of the line changes, two new wave
pairs are initiated.
3. The reflected voltage wave and its companion current wave
travel back down the line superimposed on the incident wave.
4. The refracted wave penetrates beyond the discontinuity.
5. The amplitudes of the reflected & refracted waves are such that
the voltage to current proportionalities are preserved for each,
as demanded by the characteristic impedances of the lines on
which they are travelling.
157

Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) Wave and Wave Polarization

EM Waves are means of transporting energy (Power Stream: high power and 50
or 60 Hz*) or information (Communications Stream: low power and HF or VHF
or UHF ).They are functions of both space variables and time (x, y, z, t) .
• TEM means that both E and H fields (or EM wave) are everywhere
normal to the direction of propagation, i.e. the fields lie in planes that are
transverse or orthogonal to the direction of wave propagation.
• Wave polarization of a TEM wave is the direction of E; (D =  E + P).
E
Polarization

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CHAPTER 1: Overvoltages & Insulation Coordination in Electric Power Systems

Lossy dielectric is a medium in which an EM wave losses power

as it propagates due to poor conduction, i.e. partially conducting
medium (imperfect dielectric or imperfect conductor) with s ≠ 0.

159

 Consider the junction between the lines of characteristic

impedances Z1 and Z2. This may be a junction between an overhead
line and a cable. If a step function surge of amplitude Vi approaches
the junction along the overhead line then the incident (Vi),
reflected(Vr) and refracted/transmitted (Vt) voltage waves are given
by
Vr= (Z2-Z1)/(Z2+Z1). Vi =  Vi

Vt= 2Z2/(Z2+Z1). Vi = (1+ ) V1 =  Vi

Vi
Vi
Vt

Z2 Z1 Z2
Z1
Vr

Vi +Vr= Vt Ii +Ir= It Vr=  V1 Ir= -  Ii Vt= Vi= (1+  )Vi It= (1-  )Ii
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 The quantity (Z2-Z1)/(Z2+Z1) is called the reflection coefficient,

, while the quantity 2Z2/(Z2+Z1) is called the refraction
(transmission) coefficient, 
 The reflected current, Ir = -Vr/Z1 = -  Vi /Z1 =- Ii
 The refracted (transmitted) current, It = Vt/Z2 = (1- )I1

 When the junction is matched (i.e. Z1=Z2), then there is no

reflection and the reflection factor =zero.
 When the line Z1 is open-circuited at the far end (i.e. Z2=∞), then
the full wave is reflected back and the reflection factor =1.
 When the line Z1 is short-circuited at the far end (i.e. Z2=0), then
no voltage can appear and the full wave is reflected back negated
so as to cancel the incident wave and the reflection factor = -1.

161

Reflection of Plane Wave with Normal

Incidence (Chapter 10 in EM2)
E≡V & H ≡ I   E  2 to 2
Eio  2  1
Vt o 2Z 2
 
Vio Z 2  Z1
Er o  2  1
 
Eio  2  1
Vr o Z 2  Z1
 
Vio Z 2  Z1
1   
BCs :
E1t  E2t
H1t  H 2t  K  0

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163

Load Angle Control of a Synchronous Generator

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