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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture you will be able to

1. Identify the solute and solvent in various types of solutions

2. Define solubility. Identify factors affecting degree of solubility

3. Calculate the concentration of a solution using various

concentrations units

4. Identify solutes as electrolytes or nonelectrolytes

5. Distinguish between acids and bases using their chemical and

physical properties

6. Calculate [H+], [OH-], pH and pOH of acidic or basic solutions

Solutions

 Are homogeneous mixtures of

two or more substances.

 Consist of a solvent and one or

more solutes.

 Solute: The substance present

in lesser amount.

 Solvent: The substance present

in greater amount

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Types of Solutions

Nature of Solutes in Solutions

Solutes

 Spread evenly throughout

the solution.
 Cannot be separated by
filtration.
 Can be separate by
evaporation.
 Are not visible, but can
give a color to the
solution.

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Concept Check

Identify the solute in each of the following

solutions.

A. 2 g sugar and 100 mL water

B. 60.0 mL of ethyl alcohol and 30.0 mL of methyl alcohol
C. 55.0 mL water and 1.50 g NaCl
D. Air: 200 mL O2 and 800 mL N2

Solution

Identify the solute in each of the following

solutions.

A. 2 g sugar
B. 30.0 mL of methyl alcohol
C. 1.5 g NaCl
D. 200 mL O2

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Water as a solvent

 Aqueous solutions have water as the

solvent
 Water is called the universal solvent
because it dissolves many substance
 Water is a polar molecule.
 Forms hydrogen bonds between the
hydrogen atom in one molecule and
the oxygen atom in a different water
molecule.

Formation of an aqueous solution

Na+ and Cl- ions

 On the surface of a NaCl

crystal are attracted to
polar water molecules.

 Are hydrated in solution

with many H2O molecules
surrounding each ion.

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Equations for aqueous solution formation

When NaCl(s) dissolves in water, the reaction

can be written as

NaCl(s) + H2O Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq)

solid separation of ions

Concept Check

Solid LiCl is added to water. It dissolves because

A. The Li+ ions are attracted to the

1) oxygen atom ( -) of water.
2) hydrogen atom (+) of water.

B. The Cl- ions are attracted to the

1) oxygen atom ( -) of water.
2) hydrogen atom (+) of water.

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Solution

Solid LiCl is added to water. It dissolves because

A. The Li+ ions are attracted to the

1) oxygen atom ( -) of water.

B. The Cl- ions are attracted to the

2) hydrogen atom ( +) of water.

Solubility
Like Dissolves Like
Two substances form a solution

 When there is an attraction between the particles of the solute and

solvent.

 When a polar solvent such as water dissolves ionic solutes such as

NaCl or with polar solutes such as sugar, methanol, ethanol,…..)

 Ionic compounds that are soluble in water usually contain

Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+, NO3- or acetate, CH3COO -

 When a nonpolar solvent such as hexane and toluene dissolves
nonpolar solutes such as petroleum products, vegetable oil or grease.

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Classifying Solvents

Structural
Solvent Class Feature
Water, H2O polar O-H
Ethyl Alcohol, C2H5OH polar O-H
Acetone, C3H6O polar C=O
Benzene, C6H6 nonpolar C-C & C-H
Hexane, C6H14 nonpolar C-C & C-H
Diethyl Ether, C4H10O nonpolar C-C, C-H &
C-O

Water and a Polar Solute

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Solubility
Like Dissolves Like

Solvents

Water (polar)

Solute
CH2Cl2(nonpolar)
Ni(NO3)2
(Polar)
Solute
I2 (nonpolar)

Concept Check

Which of the following solutes will dissolve in

water? Why?

1) Na2SO4
2) gasoline (nonpolar)
3) I2
4) HCl

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Solution

Which of the following solutes will dissolve in

water? Why?
1) Na2SO4 Yes, ionic

2) gasoline No, nonpolar

3) I2 No, nonpolar

4) HCl Yes, polar

Solubility
 There is usually a limit to the solubility of one
substance in another
 gases are always soluble in each other
 two liquids that are mutually soluble are said to be
miscible
 alcohol and water are miscible
 oil and water are immiscible
 The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
in a given amount of solvent is called the solubility

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Descriptions of Solubility

 Unsaturated solutions can dissolve more solute

 Saturated solutions have the maximum amount of

solute that will dissolve in that solvent at that
temperature

 Supersaturated solutions are holding more solute than

they should be able to at that temperature

 unstable

Supersaturated Solution

A supersaturated solution has more dissolved solute than

the solvent can hold. When disturbed, all the solute above
the saturation level comes out of solution.

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Adding Solute to various Solutions

unsaturated

saturated

supersaturated

Solubility and Temperature

 The solubility of the solute in the solvent depends on

the temperature
 Higher temp = Higher solubility of solid in liquid
 Lower temp = Higher solubility of gas in liquid

Warm soda pop fizzes more than cold soda pop because the
solubility of CO2 in water decreases as temperature
increases

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Solubility and pressure

 The solubility of gases in water depends on the pressure

of the gas
 Higher pressure = Higher solubility

When soda pop is sealed, the CO2 is under pressure.

Opening the container lowers the pressure, which
decreases the solubility of CO2 and causes bubbles to
form.

Solution concentration descriptions

 The concentration of a solution:

is the amount of solute dissolved in a specific amount of solution.

amount of solute
amount of solution

 Dilute solutions have low solute concentrations

 Concentrated solutions have high solute concentrations

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Solution concentration descriptions

Mass Percent (% m/m)

Mass of solute
Mass Percent = X 100
Mass of solution
(solute + solvernt)
Example
A solution is prepared by mixing 15.0 g Na2CO3 and 235 g of
H2O. Calculate the mass percent (%m/m) of the solution.
Solution
Mass of solution = 15.0 + 235 = 250 g
mass %(m/m) = 15.0 g Na2CO3 x 100 = 6.00% Na2CO3
250. g solution

Solution concentration descriptions

The volume percent (%v/v)
Volume of solute
Volume Percent = X 100
Volume of solution
(solute + solvernt)

Example

A solution is prepared by mixing 25.0 mL ethyl alcohol and 75

mL of H2O. Calculate the volume percent (%v/v) of the solution.
Solution
volume of solution = 25.0 + 75 = 100 mL
Volume percent %(v/v) = 25.0 mL ethyl alcohol x 100 = 25% ethanol
100 mL solution

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Solution concentration descriptions

Mass/Volume Percent (% m/v)

Mass of solute (g)

Mass/volume Percent =
Volume of solution (mL)
X 100
(solute + solvernt)

Solution concentration descriptions

Molarity
Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution

moles of solute
Molarity (M)=
liters of solution

Mass
Mass (m)
 Number of Moles (n) =
Molar mass
Number of Molar
 Molar mass = Sum of atomic masses (gram) Moles mass

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Molarity

Example:
Calculate the Molarity of a solution made by putting 15.5 g of NaCl
into a beaker and adding water to make 1.50 L of NaCl solution.
Molar mass of NaCl = 58.44 g/mol

Solution
Mass of NaCl 15.5
Number of moles of NaCl = = = 0.27 Moles NaCl
Molar mass of NaCl 58.44
moles of solute 0.27
Molarity (M) =
liters of solution
= = 0.18 M NaCl
1.50

Dilution

 Dilution is adding extra solvent to decrease the

concentration of a solution

 The amount of solute stays the same, but the concentration

decreases

Concstart solnx Volstart soln = Concfinal solnx Volfinal sol

M1 x V1 = M2 x V2

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Dilution
Example

What Volume of 12.0 M KCl is needed to make 5.00 L of 1.50 M KCl

Solution?

Solution
M1 x V1 = M2 x V2

12.0 X V1 = 1.50 X 5.00

1.50 X 5.00
V1 (volume of KCl) before dilution = = 0.625 L
12.0

Electrolytes
 Electrolytes are substances whose aqueous
solution is a conductor of electricity

 In strong electrolytes, all the electrolyte

molecules are dissociated into ions (examples:
strong acids, strong bases, soluble ionic salts)

 In weak electrolytes, a small percentage of the

molecules are dissociated into ions (examples:
weak acids, weak bases)

 Nonelectrolytes, none of the molecules are

dissociated into ions (example: sugar)

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 Strong and weak electrolytes conduct electricity.

 Nonelectrolytes do not conduct electricity.

 Strong and weak electrolytes conduct

electricity.
 Nonelectrolytes do not conduct electricity

Acids and Bases

Arrhenius Theory

 Acids ionize in water to produce H+

ions and anions

HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

 Bases dissociate in water to produce

OH− ions and cations
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)

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Properties of Acids
 Sour taste
 React with “active” metals
i.e., Al, Zn, Fe, but not Cu, Ag, or Au
2 Al + 6 HCl 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2 A soft drink contains H2CO3
And H3PO4
 Corrosive
 React with carbonates, producing CO2
marble, baking soda, chalk, limestone
CaCO3 + 2 HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
 Change color of blue litmus turns red
 React with bases to form ionic salts

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Common Acids

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Properties of Bases
 Also known as alkalis
 Alkaloids = plant product that is
alkaline

 Taste bitter
 Feel slippery on the skin
 Change color of red litmus turns blue
 React with acids to form ionic salts
acid + base → salt + water

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Common Bases

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Acidic and Basic Solutions

 All aqueous solutions contain both H3O+ and OH–
ions

[H3O+] x [OH–] = 10−14 at 25 °C

 Neutral solutions have equal [H3O+] and [OH–]
 [H3O+] = [OH–] = 10−7
 Acidic solutions have a larger [H3O+] than [OH–]
 [H3O+] > 1.00 x 10−7; [OH–] < 1.00 x 10−7
 Basic solutions have a larger [OH–] than [H3O+]
 [H3O+] < 1.00 x 10−7; [OH–] > 1.00 x 10−7

Concept Check

A) Calculate the [OH] at 25 °C when the [H3O+] = 1.5 x 10−9 M,

and determine if the solution is acidic, basic, or neutral

B) Determine the [H3O+] when the [OH−] = 2.5 x 10−9 M, and

determine if the solution is acidic, basic, or neutral

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Solution

A)

[H3O+] < [OH] means the solution is basic

B)

[H3O+] > [OH] means the solution is acidic

Measuring Acidity: pH
 The acidity or basicity of a solution is often
expressed as pH

pH = −log[H3O+]

[H3O+] = 10−pH
 pH < 7 is acidic;
 pH > 7 is basic,
 pH = 7 is neutral

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pOH
 Another way of expressing the acidity/basicity of a
solution is pOH

pOH = −log[OH]

[OH] = 10−pOH
 pOH < 7 is basic;
 pOH > 7 is acidic,
 pOH = 7 is neutral
pH + pOH = 14.0 at 25 °C

Concept Check

Complete the table

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Solution

Complete the table

Concept Check

A) Calculate the pH at 25 °C when the [OH] = 1.3 x 10−2 M,

and determine if the solution is acidic, basic, or neutral

B) Practice – Determine the pOH at 25 ºC of a solution that has

[H3O+] = 2.5 x 10−9 M

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Solution

A)

The pH > 7 means the solution is basic

B)

pH < 7 means the solution is acidic

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