MTH 301 Lecture Note

By

Professor D. O. Makinde
November 20, 2024

1 Introduction
The Cauchy-Riemann equations are a set of two partial differential equations
which, together with certain continuity conditions, form a necessary and suffi-
cient condition for a function to be holomorphic (analytic) in a region. These
equations are fundamental in complex analysis.
A function is said to be analytic (or holomorphic) at a point if it is differen-
tiable at that point and in a neighborhood around it. Analytic functions have
many important properties and applications in complex analysis.

2 Cauchy-Riemann Equations
2.1 Definition
Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be a complex function, where z = x + iy, and u and
v are real-valued functions of the real variables x and y. The Cauchy-Riemann
equations are:
∂u ∂v
=
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=−
∂y ∂x

2.2 Theorem
A function f (z) is analytic at a point z0 if and only if the partial derivatives of
u and v exist and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations at z0 , and the partial
derivatives are continuous at z0 .

2.3 Proof
To prove this theorem, we need to show that if f (z) is analytic, then the Cauchy-
Riemann equations hold, and vice versa.

1
2.3.1 If f (z) is analytic, then the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold
Since f (z) is analytic, it is differentiable at z0 . Therefore, the limit

f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )

lim
∆z→0 ∆z
exists. Let ∆z = ∆x + i∆y. Then,

f (z0 + ∆z) = u(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) + iv(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y)

and

f (z0 ) = u(x0 , y0 ) + iv(x0 , y0 ).

Therefore,

f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 ) u(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − u(x0 , y0 ) + i[v(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − v(x0 , y0 )]
= .
∆z ∆x + i∆y
Taking the limit as ∆z → 0, we get:
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
+i = −i .
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we obtain the Cauchy-Riemann equa-
tions:
∂u ∂v
=
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=− .
∂y ∂x

3 Proof of Analyticity Using Cauchy-Riemann

Equations
Proof: If the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold and the partial deriva-
tives are continuous, then f (z) is analytic Suppose the Cauchy-Riemann
equations hold and the partial derivatives are continuous. We need to show that
f (z) is differentiable. Consider the difference quotient:

f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )

.
∆z
Let z = x + iy and ∆z = ∆x + i∆y. Then, we can write:

f (z0 + ∆z) = u(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) + iv(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y)

and

2
 f (z0 ) = u(x0 , y0 ) + iv(x0 , y0 ).
Therefore, the difference quotient becomes:

f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 ) u(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − u(x0 , y0 ) + i[v(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − v(x0 , y0 )]
= .
∆z ∆x + i∆y
We can separate the real and imaginary parts:

f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 ) [u(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − u(x0 , y0 )] + i[v(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − v(x0 , y0 )]
= .
∆z ∆x + i∆y
Now, multiply the numerator and the denominator by the complex conjugate
of the denominator:

[u(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − u(x0 , y0 )] + i[v(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − v(x0 , y0 )] ∆x − i∆y

· .
∆x + i∆y ∆x − i∆y
This simplifies to:

[u(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − u(x0 , y0 )](∆x − i∆y) + i[v(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − v(x0 , y0 )](∆x − i∆y)
.
(∆x)2 + (∆y)2
Separate the terms:

[u(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − u(x0 , y0 )]∆x + [v(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − v(x0 , y0 )]∆y [u(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − u(x
−i
(∆x)2 + (∆y)2
Now, take the limit as ∆z → 0:


f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 ) [u(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − u(x0 , y0 )]∆x + [v(x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) − v(x0 , y0
lim = lim
∆z→0 ∆z ∆z→0 (∆x)2 + (∆y)2
Using the Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= and =− ,
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
we get:

f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 ) ∂u ∂v

lim = +i .
∆z→0 ∆z ∂x ∂x
Since the limit exists and is equal to ∂u ∂v
∂x + i ∂x , f (z) is differentiable at z0 .
Thus, if the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold and the partial derivatives are
continuous, then f (z) is analytic.

3
4 Conditions for a Function to be Analytic
A function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where z = x + iy and u and v are real-
valued functions of x and y, is analytic at a point z0 if the following conditions
are satisfied:
1. The partial derivatives of u and v exist.
2. The partial derivatives of u and v are continuous.
3. The Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied:

∂u ∂v
=
∂x ∂y

∂u ∂v
=−
∂y ∂x

5 Examples and Solutions

5.1 Example 1
Let f (z) = z 2 . Then f (z) = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y 2 + 2ixy. Here, u(x, y) = x2 − y 2
and v(x, y) = 2xy.
Calculate the partial derivatives:
∂u ∂u
= 2x, = −2y
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v
= 2y, = 2x.
∂x ∂y
Verify the Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v
= ⇒ 2x = 2x
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=− ⇒ −2y = −2y.
∂y ∂x
Since the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied, f (z) = z 2 is analytic.

5.2 Example 2
Let f (z) = ez . Then f (z) = ex+iy = ex (cos y + i sin y). Here, u(x, y) = ex cos y
and v(x, y) = ex sin y.
Calculate the partial derivatives:
∂u ∂u
= ex cos y, = −ex sin y
∂x ∂y

4
 ∂v ∂v
= ex sin y, = ex cos y.
∂x ∂y
Verify the Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v
= ⇒ ex cos y = ex cos y
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=− ⇒ −ex sin y = −ex sin y.
∂y ∂x
Since the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied, f (z) = ez is analytic.

6 Exercises
1. Verify that the function f (z) = sin(z) satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equa-
tions.
2. Show that the function f (z) = z (the complex conjugate of z) does not
satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
3. Find the partial derivatives of u and v for the function f (z) = ln(z) and
verify the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

7 Conformal Mappings
Conformal mappings are functions that locally preserve angles and the shapes
of infinitesimally small figures. These mappings are fundamental in complex
analysis and have numerous applications in various fields such as physics, engi-
neering, and computer science.

8 Definition
A function f (z) is said to be conformal at a point z0 if it is analytic at z0 and its
derivative f ′ (z0 ) ̸= 0. Conformal mappings preserve the angles between curves
intersecting at z0 .

9 Theorems and Proofs

9.1 Theorem 1: Conformality of Analytic Functions
If a function f (z) is analytic and f ′ (z) ̸= 0 in a domain D, then f (z) is conformal
in D.

5
9.1.1 Proof
Let f (z) be analytic in D and f ′ (z) ̸= 0. Consider two curves γ1 and γ2
intersecting at z0 with an angle θ. The images of these curves under f are f (γ1 )
and f (γ2 ), intersecting at f (z0 ).
Since f (z) is analytic, it can be locally represented by its Taylor series:

f ′′ (z0 )
f (z) = f (z0 ) + f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + · · ·
2!
For small ∆z, the higher-order terms can be neglected, and we have:

f (z) ≈ f (z0 ) + f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 )

The angle between γ1 and γ2 at z0 is preserved under the linear transforma-
tion f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ), as f ′ (z0 ) ̸= 0. Therefore, f (z) is conformal at z0 . to see this,
Consider two curves γ1 and γ2 intersecting at a point z0 in the complex plane.
The angle between these curves at z0 is preserved under the linear transforma-
tion f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ), provided that f ′ (z0 ) ̸= 0. A detailed explanation is given
below:

9.2 Local Representation of the Function

Since f (z) is analytic at z0 , it can be locally represented by its Taylor series
expansion around z0 :

f ′′ (z0 )
f (z) = f (z0 ) + f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ) + (z − z0 )2 + · · ·
2!
For small ∆z = z − z0 , the higher-order terms can be neglected, and we
have:

f (z) ≈ f (z0 ) + f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ).

9.3 Linear Transformation

The linear transformation f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ) maps the point z to a new point in the
complex plane. This transformation can be written as:

w = f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ).
Here, w represents the image of z under the transformation.

9.4 Angle Preservation

The angle between the curves γ1 and γ2 at z0 is preserved under the linear trans-
formation because f ′ (z0 ) ̸= 0. To see why this is true, consider the following:

6
 ˆ The derivative f ′ (z0 ) is a complex number that can be written in polar
form as f ′ (z0 ) = |f ′ (z0 )|eiθ , where |f ′ (z0 )| is the magnitude and θ is the
argument (angle) of f ′ (z0 ).
ˆ The transformation f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ) scales and rotates the vector z − z0 by
the magnitude and argument of f ′ (z0 ), respectively.
ˆ Since the transformation involves only scaling and rotation, it does not
change the angle between the vectors representing the curves γ1 and γ2 at
z0 .

9.5 Conclusion
Therefore, the angle between γ1 and γ2 at z0 is preserved under the linear
transformation f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ). Since f ′ (z0 ) ̸= 0, the function f (z) is conformal
at z0 .

9.6 Theorem 2: Inverse of a Conformal Mapping

If f (z) is a conformal mapping in a domain D, then its inverse f −1 (w) is also
conformal in the image domain f (D).

9.6.1 Proof
Let w = f (z) be a conformal mapping in D. Since f (z) is analytic and f ′ (z) ̸= 0,
the inverse function theorem guarantees that f −1 (w) exists and is analytic in
f (D).
Let z0 = f −1 (w0 ). The derivative of the inverse function is given by:

d −1 1
f (w) =
dw w0 f ′ (z0 )
′ d −1
Since f (z0 ) ̸= 0, we have dw f (w)̸= 0. Therefore, f −1 (w) is analytic and
its derivative is non-zero, implying that f −1 (w) is conformal in f (D).

10 Examples and Solutions

10.1 Example 1: Linear Transformation
Consider the linear transformation f (z) = az +b, where a ̸= 0 and b are complex
constants. The derivative is f ′ (z) = a, which is non-zero. Therefore, f (z) is
conformal.

10.2 Example 2: Exponential Function

Let f (z) = ez . The derivative is f ′ (z) = ez , which is non-zero for all z. There-
fore, f (z) = ez is conformal in the entire complex plane.

7
11 Exercises
1. Show that the function f (z) = z 2 is not conformal at z = 0.
2. Verify that the function f (z) = sin(z) is conformal in the entire complex
plane.

3. Find the image of the unit circle under the Möbius transformation f (z) =
z−i
z+i .

12 Applications
Conformal mappings have numerous applications in various fields:

12.1 Fluid Dynamics

In fluid dynamics, conformal mappings are used to solve problems involving
potential flow around objects. By mapping a complex flow pattern to a simpler
one, solutions can be obtained more easily.

12.2 Electrostatics
In electrostatics, conformal mappings are used to solve problems involving elec-
tric fields and potentials. By mapping complex geometries to simpler ones, the
electric field distribution can be determined.

12.3 Computer Graphics

In computer graphics, conformal mappings are used for texture mapping and
image warping. By preserving angles, conformal mappings ensure that textures
are applied smoothly and without distortion.

13 Möbius Transformation
Bilinear transformations, also known as Möbius transformations, are a class of
functions that map the extended complex plane (the complex plane plus the
point at infinity) onto itself. These transformations are of the form:
az + b
f (z) = ,
cz + d
where a, b, c, and d are complex numbers and ad − bc ̸= 0. Bilinear transfor-
mations are conformal mappings, meaning they preserve angles and the shapes
of infinitesimally small figures.

8
14 Properties of Bilinear Transformations
Bilinear transformations have several important properties:
1. They map circles and lines in the complex plane to circles and lines.
2. They are one-to-one and onto mappings.

3. They preserve the cross-ratio of four points.

15 Theorem: One-to-One Nature of Bilinear Trans-

formations
az+b
A bilinear transformation f (z) = cz+d is one-to-one if and only if ad − bc ̸= 0.

15.1 Proof
To prove this theorem, we need to show that if f (z1 ) = f (z2 ), then z1 = z2 .
Suppose f (z1 ) = f (z2 ). Then,
az1 + b az2 + b
= .
cz1 + d cz2 + d
Cross-multiplying, we get:

(az1 + b)(cz2 + d) = (az2 + b)(cz1 + d).

Expanding both sides, we have:

acz1 z2 + adz1 + bcz2 + bd = acz1 z2 + adz2 + bcz1 + bd.

Subtracting acz1 z2 + bd from both sides, we get:

adz1 + bcz2 = adz2 + bcz1 .

Rearranging terms, we have:

adz1 − adz2 = bcz1 − bcz2 .

Factoring out common terms, we get:

ad(z1 − z2 ) = bc(z1 − z2 ).
This implies that
ad(z1 − z2 ) − bc(z1 − z2 ) = 0.
Thus

(ad − bc)(z1 − z2 ) = 0.

9
Since ad − bc ̸= 0, we can divide both sides by ad − bc: which implies that:

z1 − z2 = 0.

Therefore, z1 = z2 , proving that the transformation is one-to-one.

16 Examples and Solutions

16.1 Example 1: Mapping Three Points
Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points z1 = 0, z2 = 1, and
z3 = ∞ to the points w1 = 1, w2 = i, and w3 = −1.

16.1.1 Solution
The general form of a bilinear transformation is:
az + b
w= .
cz + d
Using the given points, we set up the following equations:

a(0) + b b
= 1 ⇒ = 1 ⇒ b = d,
c(0) + d d
a(1) + b a+b
=i⇒ = i,
c(1) + d c+d
a(∞) + b a
= −1 ⇒ = −1 ⇒ a = −c.
c(∞) + d c
Substituting b = d and a = −c into the second equation, we get:
−c + d
= i.
c+d
Cross-multiplying, we get:

(−c + d) = i(c + d).

Expanding and rearranging terms, we have:

−c + d = ic + id ⇒ d − id = c + ic ⇒ d(1 − i) = c(1 + i).

Solving for d in terms of c, we get:
1+i
d=c .
1−i
Simplifying, we have:

10
 (1 + i)2 1 + 2i − 1 2i
d=c =c = c = ci.
(1 − i)(1 + i) 1+1 2
Therefore, the bilinear transformation is:
−cz + ci −z + i
w= = .
cz + ci z+i

16.2 Example 2:
z−1
Show that the bilinear transformation w = z+1 maps the unit circle |z| = 1 to
the imaginary axis Re(w) = 0.

16.3 Solution
Let z = x + iy, where x and y are real numbers. The unit circle |z| = 1 can be
written as:
p
|z| = x2 + y 2 = 1 ⇒ x2 + y 2 = 1.
The bilinear transformation is given by:
z−1
w= .
z+1
Substitute z = x + iy into the transformation:

(x + iy) − 1 (x − 1) + iy
w= = .
(x + iy) + 1 (x + 1) + iy
Separate the real and imaginary parts of w:

(x − 1) + iy (x + 1) − iy (x − 1)(x + 1) − (iy)2 + [(x − 1)iy + (x + 1)iy]

w= · = .
(x + 1) + iy (x + 1) − iy (x + 1)2 + y 2
Simplify the numerator and denominator:

x2 − 1 + y 2 + i[2y]
w= .
(x + 1)2 + y 2
Since x2 + y 2 = 1, we have:

1 − 1 + i[2y] i[2y]
w= 2 2
= .
(x + 1) + y (x + 1)2 + y 2
The real part of w is zero:

Re(w) = 0.
z−1
Therefore, the bilinear transformation w = z+1 maps the unit circle |z| = 1
to the imaginary axis Re(w) = 0.

11
16.4 Example 3:
2z+3
Verify that the bilinear transformation w = z+4 is one-to-one.

16.5 Solution
To verify that the transformation is one-to-one, we need to show that if w1 = w2 ,
then z1 = z2 .
Suppose w1 = w2 . Then,
2z1 + 3 2z2 + 3
= .
z1 + 4 z2 + 4
Cross-multiplying, we get:

(2z1 + 3)(z2 + 4) = (2z2 + 3)(z1 + 4).

Expanding both sides, we have:

2z1 z2 + 8z1 + 3z2 + 12 = 2z1 z2 + 8z2 + 3z1 + 12.

Subtracting 2z1 z2 + 12 from both sides, we get:

8z1 + 3z2 = 8z2 + 3z1 .

Rearranging terms, we have:

8z1 − 3z1 = 8z2 − 3z2 ⇒ 5z1 = 5z2 .

Dividing both sides by 5, we get:

z1 = z2 .
2z+3
Therefore, the bilinear transformation w = z+4 is one-to-one.

17 Exercises
1. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points z1 = 1, z2 = i, and
z3 = −1 to the points w1 = 0, w2 = 1, and w3 = ∞.
2. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points z1 = 1, z2 = i, and
z3 = −1 to the points w1 = 0, w2 = 1, and w3 = ∞.
z−i
3. Show that the bilinear transformation w = z+i maps the unit circle |z| = 1
to the real axis Im(w) = 0.
3z+2
4. Verify that the bilinear transformation w = z+5 is one-to-one.
5. Find the bilinear transformation that maps the points z1 = 0, z2 = 1, and
z3 = ∞ to the points w1 = −1, w2 = 0, and w3 = 1.
z+1
6. Show that the bilinear transformation w = z−1 maps the real axis Im(z) =
0 to the unit circle |w| = 1.

12
18 Cauchy’s Theorem
Cauchy’s Theorem is a fundamental result in complex analysis that provides
conditions under which the integral of a complex function around a closed con-
tour is zero. This theorem has profound implications and applications in various
fields of mathematics and physics.

18.1 Statement of Cauchy’s Theorem

Let f (z) be a complex function that is analytic on and inside a simple closed
contour C. Then,
I
f (z) dz = 0.
C

18.2 Proof of Cauchy’s Theorem

To prove Cauchy’s Theorem, we use Green’s Theorem from vector calculus,
which relates a line integral around a simple closed curve to a double integral
over the region enclosed by the curve.
Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), where z = x + iy and u and v are real-valued
functions of x and y. The integral around the contour C can be written as:
I I
f (z) dz = (u + iv) (dx + i dy).
C C
Expanding this, we get:
I I
(u dx − v dy) + i (v dx + u dy).
C C
By Green’s Theorem, we have:
I ZZ  
∂v ∂u
u dx − v dy = + dA,
C R ∂x ∂y
I ZZ  
∂u ∂v
v dx + u dy = − dA,
C R ∂x ∂y
where R is the region enclosed by C.
Since f (z) is analytic, it satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Substituting these into the integrals, we get:
ZZ   ZZ   ZZ
∂v ∂u ∂v ∂v
+ dA = + dA = 0 dA = 0,
R ∂x ∂y R ∂x ∂x R

13
 ZZ   ZZ   ZZ
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u
− dA = − dA = 0 dA = 0.
R ∂x ∂y R ∂x ∂x R

Therefore,
I
f (z) dz = 0.
C

19 Integration on the Complex Plane

19.1 Contour Integration
Contour integration involves integrating a complex function along a path (con-
tour) in the complex plane. The value of the integral depends on the path
taken.

19.2 Example: Evaluating a Contour Integral

1
H
Evaluate the integral C z
dz, where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.

19.2.1 Solution
The function z1 is analytic everywhere except at z = 0. The unit circle |z| = 1
encloses the singularity at z = 0.
Using the parameterization z = eiθ for the unit circle, where θ ranges from
0 to 2π, we have:

dz = ieiθ dθ.
Substitute z and dz into the integral:

I Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π
1 1
dz = · ieiθ dθ = i dθ = i dθ = i[2π − 0] = 2πi.
C z 0 eiθ 0 0

Therefore,
I
1
dz = 2πi.
C z

19.3 Example
z 2 dz, where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.
H
Evaluate the integral C

14
19.4 Solution
Since z 2 is analytic everywhere, by Cauchy’s Theorem, the integral of an analytic
function around a closed contour is zero. Therefore,
I
z 2 dz = 0.
C

19.5 Example
ez dz around any closed contour C is zero.
H
Show that the integral C

19.6 Solution
The function ez is entire (analytic everywhere in the complex plane). By
Cauchy’s Theorem, the integral of an analytic function around a closed con-
tour is zero. Therefore,
I
ez dz = 0.
C

19.7 Example
1
H
Evaluate the integral C z−1
dz, where C is the circle |z − 1| = 1.

19.8 Solution
1
The function z−1 has a simple pole at z = 1, which lies inside the contour C.
The residue at z = 1 is:
 
1
Res , 1 = 1.
z−1
By the Residue Theorem,
I
1
dz = 2πi · 1 = 2πi.
C z−1

19.9 Example
Prove
H that if f (z) is analytic on and inside a simple closed contour C, then
C
f (z) dz = 0.

19.10 Solution
Since f (z) is analytic on and inside C, by Cauchy’s Theorem, the integral of an
analytic function around a closed contour is zero. Therefore,
I
f (z) dz = 0.
C

15
19.11 Example
z
H
Evaluate the integral C z 2 +1
dz, where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.

19.12 Solution
The function z2z+1 has singularities at z = i and z = −i. Neither of these
singularities lies inside the unit circle |z| = 1.
Since there are no singularities inside C, by Cauchy’s Theorem,
I
z
2
dz = 0.
C z +1

20 Exercises
z 2 dz, where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.
H
1. Evaluate the integral C

2. Show that the integral C ez dz around any closed contour C is zero.

H

H 1
3. Evaluate the integral C z−1 dz, where C is the circle |z − 1| = 1.
4. ProveH that if f (z) is analytic on and inside a simple closed contour C,
then C f (z) dz = 0.
5. Evaluate the integral C z2z+1 dz, where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.
H

21 Cauchy’s Integral Formula

21.1 Statement of Cauchy’s Integral Formula
Let f (z) be analytic inside and on a simple closed contour C. If z0 is any point
inside C, then
I
1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz.
2πi C z − z0

21.2 Proof of Cauchy’s Integral Formula

f (z)
Consider the function g(z) = z−z 0
, which is analytic inside and on C except at
z = z0 . By Cauchy’s Theorem,
I
g(z) dz = 0.
C

Since g(z) has a simple pole at z = z0 with residue f (z0 ), we have

I
f (z)
dz = 2πif (z0 ).
C z − z0

16
 Dividing both sides by 2πi, we get
I
1 f (z)
f (z0 ) = dz.
2πi C z − z0

22 Cauchy’s Inequality
22.1 Statement of Cauchy’s Inequality
Let f (z) be an analytic function inside and on a simple closed contour C with
radius R. Then for any n ≥ 0,
M
|an | ≤
,
Rn
where an are the coefficients of the Taylor series expansion of f (z) around
z = 0, and M = max|z|=R |f (z)|.

22.2 Proof of Cauchy’s Inequality

Let f (z) be analytic inside and on the circle |z| = R. The Taylor series expansion
of f (z) around z = 0 is given by:
∞
X
f (z) = an z n ,
n=0

where
I
1 f (z)
an = dz.
2πi |z|=R z n+1
Taking the modulus of both sides, we get:
I I
1 f (z) 1 f (z)
|an | = dz ≤ |dz|.
2πi |z|=R z n+1 2π |z|=R z n+1
n+1
Since |z| = R, we have |dz| = R dθ and |z | = Rn+1 . Therefore,

|f (z)|
I I
1 1
|an | ≤ R dθ = |f (z)| dθ.
2π |z|=R Rn+1 2πRn |z|=R
Let M = max|z|=R |f (z)|. Then,
I
1 M M
|an | ≤ n
M dθ = n
· 2π = n .
2πR |z|=R 2πR R
Therefore,
M
|an | ≤ .
Rn

17
23 Morera’s Theorem
23.1 Statement of Morera’s Theorem
Let f (z) be a continuous function on a domain D. If
I
f (z) dz = 0
C

for every closed contour C in D, then f (z) is analytic in D.

23.2 Proof of Morera’s Theorem

H
Suppose f (z) is continuous on D and C f (z) dz = 0 for every closed contour C
in D. We need to show that f (z) is analytic in D.
Let z0 ∈ D and consider a small closed contour C around z0 . By the
hypothesis,
I
f (z) dz = 0.
C
By Green’s Theorem, we have:
I ZZ  
∂v ∂u
f (z) dz = + dA,
C R ∂x ∂y
where Hf (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) and R is the region enclosed by C.
Since C f (z) dz = 0, we have:
ZZ  
∂v ∂u
+ dA = 0.
R ∂x ∂y
Since f (z) is continuous, the integrand must be zero:
∂v ∂u
+ = 0.
∂x ∂y
Similarly, we can show that:
∂u ∂v
− = 0.
∂x ∂y
These are the Cauchy-Riemann equations, which imply that f (z) is analytic
in D.

24 Liouville’s Theorem
24.1 Statement of Liouville’s Theorem
Let f (z) be an entire function (analytic everywhere in the complex plane) and
bounded. Then f (z) is constant.

18
24.2 Proof of Liouville’s Theorem
Suppose f (z) is entire and bounded. Let M be a bound for f (z), i.e., |f (z)| ≤ M
for all z ∈ C.
Consider the Taylor series expansion of f (z) around z = 0:
∞
X
f (z) = an z n ,
n=0
where

f (n) (0)
an = .
n!
Using Cauchy’s Inequality, we have:
M
|an | ≤
Rn
for any R > 0. Letting R → ∞, we get an = 0 for all n ≥ 1.
Therefore,

f (z) = a0 ,
which means f (z) is constant.

25 Examples and Solutions

25.1 Example 1: Application of Cauchy’s Inequality
Let f (z) = ez . Find the bound for the coefficient a3 in the Taylor series expan-
sion of f (z) around z = 0 inside the circle |z| = 2.

25.1.1 Solution
The Taylor series expansion of f (z) = ez around z = 0 is:
∞
X zn
f (z) = .
n=0
n!
1
The coefficient a3 is 3! = 16 .
Using Cauchy’s Inequality, we have:
M
|a3 | ≤ ,
23
where M = max|z|=2 |ez |.
Since |ez | = eRe(z) and Re(z) ≤ 2 on |z| = 2, we have M = e2 .
Therefore,

e2
|a3 | ≤ .
8

19
25.2 Example 2: Application of Morera’s Theorem
1
Show that the function f (z) = z is not analytic in any domain containing the
origin.

25.2.1 Solution
1
Consider the closed contour C around the origin. The integral of f (z) = z
around C is:
I
1
dz = 2πi.
C z
1
Since the integral is not zero, f (z) = z is not analytic in any domain con-
taining the origin by Morera’s Theorem.

25.3 Example 3: Application of Liouville’s Theorem

Show that the function f (z) = z 2 is not bounded in the complex plane.

25.3.1 Solution
Consider the function f (z) = z 2 . As |z| → ∞, |f (z)| = |z 2 | = |z|2 → ∞.
Since f (z) is not bounded, it cannot be constant by Liouville’s Theorem

26 Taylor and Laurent Series

26.1 Taylor Series
If f (z) is analytic at z = z0 , then f (z) can be expressed as a Taylor series:
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n ,
n=0

where

f (n) (z0 )
an = .
n!

26.2 Laurent Series

If f (z) is analytic in an annulus R1 < |z − z0 | < R2 , then f (z) can be expressed
as a Laurent series:
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n ,
n=−∞

where

20
 I
1 f (z)
an = dz.
2πi C (z − z0 )n+1

27 Singularities and Zeros

27.1 Types of Singularities
1. Removable Singularity: If f (z) is analytic at z = z0 except for a point
where it can be redefined to make f (z) analytic, then z0 is a removable
singularity.
2. Pole: If f (z) has a singularity at z = z0 and limz→z0 (z−z0 )n f (z) = L ̸= 0
for some positive integer n, then z0 is a pole of order n.
3. Essential Singularity: If z0 is neither a removable singularity nor a
pole, then it is an essential singularity.

27.2 Zeros
A zero of a function f (z) is a point z0 where f (z0 ) = 0. If f (z) can be written
as f (z) = (z − z0 )m g(z) where g(z0 ) ̸= 0, then z0 is a zero of order m.

28 Residue Theorem
28.1 Statement of the Residue Theorem
Let f (z) be analytic inside and on a simple closed contour C except for isolated
singularities z1 , z2 , . . . , zn inside C. Then,
I n
X
f (z) dz = 2πi Res(f, zk ),
C k=1

where Res(f, zk ) is the residue of f (z) at zk .

28.2 Proof of the Residue Theorem

Consider the function f (z) with isolated singularities z1 , z2 , . . . , zn inside C. We
can write
n
X ak
f (z) = g(z) + ,
z − zk
k=1

where g(z) is analytic inside and on C.

By Cauchy’s Theorem,
I
g(z) dz = 0.
C

21
 Therefore,
I n
I X n I
ak X ak
f (z) dz = dz = dz.
C C k=1 z − zk C z − zk
k=1

Each integral can be evaluated using the residue at zk :

I
ak
dz = 2πiak .
C z − zk
Thus,
I n
X n
X
f (z) dz = 2πi ak = 2πi Res(f, zk ).
C k=1 k=1

29 Examples and Solutions

29.1 Example 1: Evaluating an Integral Using the Residue
Theorem
ez
H
Evaluate the integral C z 2 +1
dz, where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.

29.1.1 Solution
z
The function z2e+1 has singularities at z = i and z = −i. Only z = i lies inside
the unit circle.
The residue at z = i is:
 z
ez ei

e
Res , i = lim (z − i) = .
z2 + 1 z→i z2 + 1 2i
By the Residue Theorem,

ez ei
I
dz = 2πi · = πei .
C z2 + 1 2i

29.2 Example 2: Taylor Series Expansion

1
Find the Taylor series expansion of f (z) = 1−z around z = 0.

29.2.1 Solution
1
The function f (z) = 1−z can be expanded as a geometric series:
∞
X
f (z) = zn.
n=0

22
29.3 Example 3: Laurent Series Expansion
1
Find the Laurent series expansion of f (z) = z(z−1) in the annulus 0 < |z| < 1.

29.3.1 Solution
1
The function f (z) = z(z−1) can be written as:
∞ ∞
1 1 1 X n X n−1
f (z) = · = z = z .
z z−1 z n=0 n=0

30 Exercises
1
H
1. Evaluate the integral C z 2 −1
dz, where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.
2. Find the Taylor series expansion of f (z) = sin(z) around z = 0.
1
3. Find the Laurent series expansion of f (z) = z 2 −1 in the annulus 1 < |z| <
2.
1
4. Show that the function f (z) = z has a pole of order 1

23