9/5/2024

Mastering Thermal
Comfort in Buildings
8 & 9 May 2024

ca Chang Choo Khean

Senior Lecturer
HVAC&R Section
UniKL MFI

AGENDA (8 May 2024)

1.Introduction to Thermal comfort
• Definition and importance of thermal comfort
• Human factors influencing perception
2.Thermal comfort standards and indices
• Overview of widely used standards (ASHRAE, ISO)
• Understanding PMV/PPD indices
3.Factors affecting thermal comfort
• Air temperature
• Radiant temperature
• Air velocity
• Humidity
4.Occupant behavior and adaptation
• Clothing choices
• Adaptive models of thermal comfort

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AGENDA (9 May 2024)

1.Building design and HVAC systems
• Role of building envelope in maintaining comfort
• Importance of proper insulation
• HVAC systems design for thermal comfort
2.Energy efficiency vs. thermal comfort
• Balancing energy-efficient practices with occupant
comfort
• Strategies for optimizing both
3.Case studies
• Real-world examples of successful thermal comfort
solutions
• Lessons learned from projects
4.Occupant feedback and surveys
• Gathering feedback for continuous improvement
• The role of data in enhancing thermal comfort

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Mastering Thermal
Comfort in Buildings
Thermal comfort is a crucial aspect of building design
that impacts the health, productivity, and overall well-
being of occupants.

Thermal Comfort Standards and Indices

ASHRAE Standards PMV and PPD Indices Adaptive Comfort Model

The ASHRAE Standard 55 The Predicted Mean Vote The adaptive comfort model
defines thermal comfort (PMV) and Predicted considers occupants'
parameters, including Percentage of Dissatisfied behavioral adjustments and
temperature, humidity, and air (PPD) indices quantify thermal physiological adaptations to
movement, to ensure comfort based on maintain thermal comfort in
occupant satisfaction. environmental factors and naturally ventilated buildings.
personal variables.

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Factors Affecting Thermal Comfort

1 Environmental Factors 2 Personal Factors

Temperature, humidity, air Clothing insulation, metabolic rate,
movement, and radiant heat and individual differences in thermal
exchange influence the thermal sensitivity affect perceived comfort.
balance of the body.

3 Contextual Factors 4 Psychological Factors

Building design, occupancy patterns, Thermal perception is influenced by
and cultural preferences play a role in personal experiences, attitudes, and
shaping thermal comfort control over the indoor environment.
expectations.

Occupant Behavior and Adaptation

Adaptive Opportunities Behavioral Adaptation Physiological

Adaptation
Occupants may adjust Over time, occupants
their clothing, use may develop coping Humans can acclimatize
personal fans or heaters, strategies and adjust to different thermal
open windows, or change their thermal preferences environments through
their activity levels to to the prevailing changes in sweat rate,
maintain comfort. conditions. blood flow, and other
physiological responses.

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BuildingDesign and HVACSystems

Envelope Design HVAC Systems Zoning and Controls

Optimizing the building Carefully selecting and Implementing flexible

envelope, including integrating HVAC zoning and advanced
insulation, glazing, and systems, such as air controls can enable
shading, can enhance conditioning, radiant personalized thermal
thermal performance and heating, and natural comfort settings for
comfort. ventilation, can create different occupants and
comfortable indoor spaces.
environments.

Energy Efficiency vs. Thermal Comfort

Balancing Act Passive Strategies
Achieving energy-efficient building Passive design techniques, such as
design while maintaining optimal optimizing building orientation, using
thermal comfort requires a careful high-performance materials, and
balance of strategies and trade-offs. incorporating natural ventilation, can
enhance both energy efficiency and
comfort.

Active Systems Occupant Engagement

Efficient HVAC technologies, smart Engaging occupants through education
controls, and innovative system designs and empowering them to participate in
can help minimize energy consumption the management of their thermal
while maintaining thermal comfort. environment can foster a balance
between comfort and efficiency.

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CaseStudies

Office Building Retrofit Natural Ventilation in Passive Solar Homes

Schools
A case study of a A case study of a
retrofitted office building A case study of a school residential development
that achieved significant building that utilized that demonstrated the
energy savings while natural ventilation and effectiveness of passive
maintaining high levels of adaptive comfort strategies solar design and building
thermal comfort through a to provide a comfortable envelope optimization in
combination of passive and and energy-efficient achieving thermal comfort
active strategies. learning environment. and energy efficiency.

Occupant Feedback and Surveys

Temperature Humidity Air Movement Personal Control

Occupants' Occupants' feedback Occupants' Occupants' ability to
perceptions of indoor on the level of assessment of air adjust their
temperature and its humidity and its effect movement and its environment and the
impact on their on their overall influence on their impact on their
thermal comfort. comfort. thermal experience. thermal satisfaction.

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Understanding
Thermal Comfort
Thermal comfort is a crucial aspect of building design and
operation, encompassing the physiological and psychological
factors that contribute to an individual's sense of well-being in
their indoor environment.

Definition of Thermal Comfort

Thermal comfort refers to the subjective experience of feeling
thermally satisfied within an indoor environment. It is a state of
mind that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding
temperature, humidity, and air movement.

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Factors Influencing Thermal Comfort

• Environmental Factors

• Personal Factors

• Physiological Factors

Thermal Comfort Indices

1.Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)

2.Predicted Percentage of
Dissatisfied (PPD)

3.Adaptive Comfort Model

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Thermal Comfort Standards and Guidelines

1. ASHRAE Standard 55: Provides guidelines for
acceptable thermal environments and specifies
methods for determining thermal comfort.

2.ISO 7730: Establishes an analytical method for

predicting the thermal comfort of people
exposed to moderate thermal environments.

3.EN 16798-1: Specifies the indoor environmental

input parameters for design and assessment of
energy performance of buildings addressing
thermal comfort.

Importance of Thermal
Comfort in Building Design
Thermal comfort is a critical factor in building
design, as it directly impacts the well-being,
productivity, and energy consumption of
occupants.

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Passive Design Strategies for Thermal

Comfort
1. Optimized Building Orientation: Positioning a building to maximize natural
ventilation and solar exposure

2. High-Performance Insulation: Effective insulation in walls, roofs, and floors

3. Passive Solar Design: Incorporating features like large windows, thermal mass,
and shading devices

HVAC Systems and Thermal

Comfort
Heating, Ventilation, and Air
Conditioning (HVAC) systems play a
crucial role in maintaining optimal
thermal comfort within buildings.

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Occupant Behavior and

Thermal Comfort
Occupant behavior plays a crucial role in shaping the thermal
comfort experience within buildings. Understanding and
accounting for these occupant-driven variables is essential for
optimizing building design and operations.

Thermal Comfort Evaluation and Assessment

Evaluating and assessing thermal comfort is crucial for ensuring occupant
well-being and optimizing building performance. This process involves
measuring environmental factors like temperature, humidity, and air
movement, as well as surveying occupant perceptions and preferences.
The data collected is then analyzed using established thermal comfort
indices to identify areas for improvement.

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Importance of
Thermal Comfort
Thermal comfort is a crucial aspect of human well-being, affecting productivity,
health, and overall quality of life. Maintaining optimal temperature, humidity,
and air flow can enhance occupant satisfaction and energy efficiency.

Factors Affecting Thermal Comfort

1. Environmental Factors: Temperature, Humidity, Air Velocity, Radiant Heat

2. Personal Factors: Metabolic Rate, Clothing Insulation, Individual Preferences

3. Physiological Factors: Body Temperature, Skin Wetness, Heart Rate, Sweat Production

4. Psychological Factors: An individual’s mood, expectations, and previous experiences

5. Spatial Factors: The layout, design, and orientation of a space

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Traditional Approaches
to Thermal Comfort
• Centralized HVAC Systems: Controlling temperature and
airflow at a building-wide level

• Thermostat-Based Control: Adjusting temperature setpoints to

maintain desired comfort

• Manual Adjustments: Allowing occupants to open windows or

use fans/heaters for local control

Limitations of Traditional
Approaches
1. One-Size-Fits-All: Centralized HVAC systems struggle to accommodate
individual preferences and variations in thermal needs.

2. Lack of Personalization: Thermostat-based control relies on average

preferences, neglecting unique physiological differences.

3. Reactive, Not Proactive: Manual adjustments are responsive, not

anticipatory of changing environmental and personal conditions.

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Biometric Sensing:
Definition and
Overview
Biometric sensing refers to the technology that measures and analyzes unique
human physiological and behavioral characteristics to identify individuals or
assess their physical and emotional states.

Biometric Sensors for Thermal Comfort

1.Wearable Sensors: Smartwatches, fitness trackers,
and skin patches that monitor body temperature,
heart rate, and perspiration levels.
2.Ambient Sensors: Thermal cameras, humidity
sensors, and air flow monitors that detect
environmental conditions around the occupant.
3.Integrated Sensors: IoT-enabled HVAC systems
with embedded biometric sensors to measure
personalized thermal responses.

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Measuring Physiological Responses

1. Body Temperature: Skin sensors and thermal cameras to

monitor real-time changes in core and surface body
temperatures.
2. Heart Rate: Wearable heart rate monitors like smartwatches
and fitness trackers to detect cardiovascular activity and
changes in arousal levels.

3. Sweat Production: Skin conductance sensors to measure

perspiration levels and track thermoregulatory responses to
thermal stimuli.

Integrating Biometric Data

Consolidating real-time biometric signals to create a
dynamic thermal profile for each occupant.

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Personalized Thermal Comfort Profiles

Individual Preferences
1 Unique thermal needs and sensitivities

Physiological Factors
2
Metabolic rate, body composition, and thermoregulation

Environmental Conditions
3
Ambient temperature, humidity, and air flow

By integrating real-time biometric data, thermal comfort systems can create

personalized profiles that account for an individual's unique physiological
characteristics and environmental preferences.

Adaptive Thermal Comfort

Systems
1 Real-Time Monitoring
Continuous biometric sensing and environmental data collection

2 Predictive Analysis
Algorithms to anticipate thermal needs based on profiles

3 Automated Adjustments
Dynamic HVAC control to optimize comfort and efficiency

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Adaptive Thermal Comfort Systems

1 Responsive Algorithms
At the heart of adaptive thermal comfort
systems are sophisticated algorithms that
continuously monitor and analyze the real-
time biometric data collected from
occupants.

2 Intelligent Zoning
Adaptive thermal comfort systems leverage
the power of biometric sensing to create
intelligent zoning within a building.

3 Predictive Capabilities
Adaptive thermal comfort systems go beyond
reactive adjustments and incorporate
predictive capabilities to anticipate the
changing needs of occupants.

Enhancing User Experience

Personalized Proactive Improved Energy

Comfort Adaptation Satisfaction Optimization
Tailored thermal Anticipates and adjusts Greater comfort and Intelligent control for
preferences for each to changing needs well-being for energy-efficient
occupant occupants operation

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Enhancing User Experience

Personalized Adaptive Comfort Intelligent Ambient
Comfort Control Profiles Feedback Loops Experiences
Biometric-based By seamlessly
Biometric-based The seamless thermal comfort integrating
thermal comfort integration of systems biometric sensing
systems enhance biometric data incorporate with other building
the user into the building intelligent automation
experience by management feedback loops, technologies, such
empowering system allows for enabling as lighting and
occupants with the creation of occupants to acoustics,
personalized adaptive comfort provide direct biometric-based
control over their profiles that input on their thermal comfort
indoor continuously perceived comfort systems can create
environment. evolve to meet the levels. holistic, ambient
changing needs of experiences that
each occupant. cater to the
multisensory needs
of occupants.

Energy Efficiency and Biometric

Sensing
Adaptive HVAC Predictive Occupancy Energy Analytics
Control Scheduling Monitoring

Biometric data Anticipating Tracking presence Correlating

drives real-time occupancy and and activity levels to biometric data with
adjustments to thermal needs to enable precision energy consumption
temperature, airflow, optimize HVAC climate control in to identify
and humidity for operation and only occupied optimization
personalized reduce energy spaces. opportunities.
comfort. waste.

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Challenges and Considerations

1. Privacy and Data Security

2. User Acceptance

3. Integration Complexity

4. Accuracy and Reliability

5. Scalability and Deployment

Conclusion and
Future Outlook
Biometric sensing offers a transformative
approach to optimizing thermal comfort and
energy efficiency in built environments.

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Definition of Thermal
Comfort
Thermal comfort refers to the subjective
experience of feeling satisfied with the thermal
environment.

Relating Thermal and Human

Comfort
Thermal comfort is closely linked to human comfort, as it
encompasses the physiological and psychological factors
that influence our perception of the surrounding
environment

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Physiological Mechanisms of
Thermal Regulation
1. The body's thermoregulatory system uses various
physiological mechanisms to maintain a stable core
temperature

2. When the body is too warm, the hypothalamus triggers

increased blood flow to the skin and sweating to dissipate
heat through evaporation.
3. Conversely, when the body is too cold, the hypothalamus
initiates shivering to generate heat and constriction of
blood vessels to reduce heat loss.

Human Factors Influencing

Perception
An individual's perception of thermal comfort is influenced by
various physiological, psychological, and social factors.

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Importance of Thermal Comfort in Indoor

Environments

1 Occupant Well-being 2 Health and Safety

Achieving thermal comfort is crucial for Extreme thermal conditions can pose
occupants' physical and psychological health risks, making thermal comfort
well-being essential for maintaining a safe and
healthy indoor climate.

3 Energy Efficiency 4 Compliance with Standards

Optimizing thermal comfort can lead to Maintaining proper thermal comfort
significant energy savings by reducing levels is often mandated by building
the load on heating, ventilation, and air codes and regulations
conditioning (HVAC) systems

Thermal Comfort and Occupant Well-being

Physiological Impact Psychological Benefits Stress Reduction Productivity and
Performance
Extreme thermal
Thermal comfort A comfortable thermal conditions can cause Studies have shown that
directly influences the environment can physiological stress, thermal comfort can
body's physiological positively impact an triggering the body's significantly influence an
functions, affecting individual's mood, fight-or-flight response. individual's productivity,
factors like blood cognitive performance, decision-making abilities,
circulation, hormone and overall psychological and overall work
regulation, and well-being. performance.
metabolic processes.

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Thermal Comfort and Productivity

Improved Enhanced Creativity Reduced Fatigue Improved

Concentration Collaboration
Thermal comfort Maintaining an
Optimal thermal fosters a relaxed and optimal thermal Thermal comfort
conditions help comfortable environment can contributes to a
workers maintain environment, minimize physical pleasant and
better focus and stimulating creative and mental fatigue inviting atmosphere
attention thinking and
innovative problem-
solving among
employees.

Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency

Balancing Comfort and Efficiency
Achieving optimal thermal comfort is crucial, but it must be balanced with
energy efficiency

HVAC System Design

Careful HVAC system design, incorporating features like zoning, variable-
speed fans, and smart controls

Building Envelope Improvements

Upgrades to the building envelope, such as insulation, air sealing, and high-
performance windows

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Thermal Comfort Standards and Guidelines

ASHRAE Standards Comprehensive guidelines established by the
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) to define thermal
comfort requirements for different building types and
climate zones.

ISO Standards International standards developed by the

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
that specify parameters for thermal comfort,
including temperature, humidity, and air movement.

EN Standards European standards created by the European

Committee for Standardization (CEN) to regulate
thermal comfort requirements and assessment
methods for buildings in the European Union.

Local Building Codes Building codes and regulations enforced at the

national, state, or local level to ensure minimum
thermal comfort standards are met in new
construction and renovations.

Thermal Comfort Assessment Methods

Simulation Modeling
Field Measurements Computer simulations to predict thermal
Onsite measurements of environmental comfort based on factors like building
factors like air temperature, humidity, and design, HVAC system performance, and
air velocity to evaluate thermal conditions. climate data.

1 2 3

Thermal Comfort Surveys

Questionnaires and interviews to
understand occupants' subjective
perceptions and preferences regarding
the thermal environment.

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Active HVAC Systems and Thermal Comfort

Responsive Control Zonal Optimization
Active HVAC systems with advanced Zoned HVAC systems allow for customized
sensors and controls can dynamically temperature and ventilation settings in
adjust temperature, airflow, and humidity different areas of a building
to maintain optimal thermal comfort

Energy Efficiency User-Friendly Controls

Intelligent HVAC systems, coupled with Intuitive and accessible HVAC controls
features like variable-speed fans and heat empower occupants to easily adjust the
recovery technology, can enhance thermal thermal environment to their liking
comfort while minimizing energy
consumption and operating costs.

Research on Thermal Comfort in the Past 5 Years

Adaptive Comfort Models

1 Accounting for occupant behavior and personal control

Human Factors
2
Exploring individual differences in thermal perception

Advanced Sensing
3
Leveraging IoT and wearable technologies

Energy Efficiency
4 Optimizing HVAC systems for thermal
comfort and savings

Recent thermal comfort research has focused on developing more sophisticated adaptive comfort
models that account for occupant behaviors and personal control over the environment.

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Future Trends in Thermal Comfort Research

Personalization
1
Adaptive comfort models tailored to individual preferences

Biometric Sensing
2
Leveraging wearable tech to monitor physiological responses

Human-Centric Design
3
Integrating occupant feedback into building systems

Predictive Analytics
4 AI-driven forecasting of comfort needs and
energy use

Future thermal comfort research will focus on developing highly

personalized comfort models that adapt to individual preferences and
physiological responses, as measured by advanced biometric sensors.

Introduction to
Thermal Comfort
Standards and
Indices
Thermal comfort standards and indices provide guidelines for creating indoor
environments that promote occupant well-being and satisfaction. These
established frameworks, developed by organizations like ASHRAE and ISO,
help ensure buildings are designed and operated to meet people's
temperature, humidity, and air quality needs.

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ASHRAE Thermal Comfort Standards

ASHRAE 55 ASHRAE 62.1 ASHRAE 90.1

Specifies the combinations of Establishes minimum Provides the minimum

indoor thermal ventilation rates and other requirements for the energy-
environmental factors and requirements for commercial efficient design of buildings,
personal factors that will and institutional building including requirements for
produce thermal spaces to provide indoor air HVAC systems that impact
environmental conditions quality that is acceptable to thermal comfort.
acceptable to a majority of human occupants and that
the occupants within a space. minimizes adverse health
effects.

ISO Thermal Comfort Standards

ISO 7730 ISO 10551
Provides an analytical method for predicting Establishes scales and procedures for
the general thermal sensation and degree of obtaining subjective assessments of the
discomfort of people exposed to moderate thermal environment, including perceptions
thermal environments. of thermal sensation, comfort, and
acceptability.

1 2 3

ISO 7726
Specifies the instruments and methods for
measuring the physical quantities that
characterize the thermal environment, such
as air temperature, radiant temperature, air
velocity, and humidity.

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Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) Index

1 PMV 2 Factors
Predicts the mean response of a large PMV considers air temperature, radiant
group of people on a thermal temperature, air speed, humidity,
sensation scale, ranging from -3 (cold) metabolic rate, and clothing
to +3 (hot). insulation.

3 Comfort
The ideal PMV range for thermal comfort is between -0.5 and +0.5.

Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied

(PPD) Index
PPD Relationship Significance
Predicts the percentage of PPD is directly linked to the The PPD index helps
people likely to be PMV index, with the designers and operators
dissatisfied with a given minimum PPD of 5% target thermal comfort
thermal environment. occurring at a PMV of 0. levels that minimize
occupant dissatisfaction.

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Operative Temperature
Definition
Operative temperature is the uniform temperature of an imaginary black enclosure
in which an occupant would exchange the same amount of heat by radiation and
convection as in the actual non-uniform environment.

Importance
Operative temperature accounts for both air temperature and the effects of radiant
temperature, providing a more comprehensive metric for thermal comfort
assessment.

Applications
Operative temperature is used in thermal comfort standards and indices, such as
ASHRAE 55 and ISO 7730, to determine acceptable temperature ranges.

Adaptive Thermal Comfort Approach

Occupant Behavior Building Design Climate Context

The adaptive approach Adaptive comfort standards Adaptive models account for
recognizes that people can also consider how building the influence of outdoor
adapt to thermal conditions by design, such as operable climate conditions on indoor
adjusting their clothing, windows and insulation, can thermal comfort, allowing for
activity levels, and interaction influence occupant thermal more flexible and location-
with the environment. perception and comfort. specific comfort criteria.

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Applying Standards and Indices in

Practice
Standard/Index Application

ASHRAE 55 Specifying acceptable temperature, humidity,

and air speed ranges for different building
types and occupant activities.

PMV/PPD Evaluating the thermal comfort of a space by

predicting the percentage of occupants likely
to be dissatisfied.

Operative Temperature Determining the appropriate temperature

setpoints that account for both air and radiant
heat exchange.

Adaptive Comfort Designing buildings that allow occupants to

adapt to changing outdoor conditions and
maintain comfort.

Introduction to
Thermal Comfort
Indices

Thermal comfort is a crucial factor in creating livable and productive

environments. Thermal comfort indices, such as the Predicted Mean
Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD), provide
quantifiable metrics to assess and optimize indoor climate conditions.

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Elaborating on the PMV

(Predicted Mean Vote)
Index
The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) index is a widely used metric to
assess thermal comfort. It evaluates an individual's thermal sensation
on a scale from -3 (cold) to +3 (hot), based on factors like air
temperature, humidity, air speed, and clothing insulation.

Calculating the PMV Index

1. Collect the necessary environmental data: air temperature, radiant temperature, air velocity,
and relative humidity.

2. Determine the metabolic rate of the occupants based on their activity level and clothing insulation.
3. Plug the collected data into the PMV formula to calculate the Predicted Mean Vote, which
ranges from -3 (cold) to +3 (hot).

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Elaborating on the PPD

(Predicted Percentage of
Dissatisfied) Index

The Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) index is a closely

related metric to the PMV. While the PMV provides the average
thermal sensation, the PPD estimates the percentage of people who
are likely to feel thermally uncomfortable in a given environment.

Calculating the PPD

Index
1. Determine the PMV value using the previously discussed
calculation method.

2. Plug the PMV value into the PPD formula to calculate the
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied.

3. The PPD index ranges from 5% (very satisfied) to 100% (very

dissatisfied), providing a quantitative measure of thermal
comfort.

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Formulas for PMV and PPD

Calculations
PMV Formula PMV Parameters PPD Formula PPD
Interpretation
The Predicted Percentage
The Predicted Mean 1. t_air: Air of Dissatisfied (PPD) is
Vote (PMV) is temperature (°C) calculated using the The PPD index
calculated using the 2. t_rad: Mean following equation: PPD = ranges from 5%
following equation: radiant 100 - 95 * exp(-0.03353 * (very satisfied) to
PMV = f(t_air, t_rad, temperature (°C) PMV⁴ - 0.2179 * PMV²) 100% (very
v_air, RH, M, Icl) dissatisfied),
3. v_air: Air velocity
indicating the
(m/s)
percentage of
4. RH: Relative people likely to feel
humidity (%) thermally
5. M: Metabolic rate uncomfortable in a
(W/m²) given environment.
6. Icl: Clothing
insulation (clo)

Case Study 1: Calculating

PMV and PPD in an Office
Environment

The thermal comfort of a well-designed open-plan office space was

studied. With attention to factors like air temperature, humidity, and
air flow, the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage of
Dissatisfied (PPD) was calculated to ensure a comfortable and
productive work environment for the occupants.

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Case Study 2: Calculating

PMV and PPD in a
Residential Setting

The thermal comfort of a well-designed residential living space was

examined. By carefully considering factors like air temperature,
humidity, and air flow, the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted
Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) were calculated to ensure a
comfortable and inviting home environment for the occupants.

Interpreting the PMV and PPD

Results
The PMV and PPD indices provide valuable insights into the thermal comfort of a given
environment. A PMV close to 0 and a PPD below 10% indicate a highly comfortable space. However,
a PMV outside the -0.5 to +0.5 range or a PPD above 20% suggest potential discomfort, requiring
further optimization.

1. A positive PMV indicates the space feels too warm, while a negative PMV suggests it feels
too cool.

2. A higher PPD means a greater percentage of occupants are likely to feel thermally
dissatisfied, requiring adjustments.

3. The goal is to maintain the PMV between -0.5 and +0.5, and the PPD below 10% for maximum
thermal comfort and occupant satisfaction.

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Conclusion and Key Takeaways

Comprehensive Thermal Balancing Thermal Factors

Comfort Evaluation
The PMV and PPD indices provide a By considering air temperature,
comprehensive framework for humidity, air speed, and clothing
evaluating and optimizing thermal insulation, designers can strike the
comfort in indoor environments perfect balance for a thermally
comfortable space.

Data-Driven Decision Making Occupant-Centric Design

Prioritizing thermal comfort through
The quantitative nature of PMV and the application of PMV and PPD puts
PPD enables data-driven decision the occupant's well-being at the
making center of the design process.

Introduction to
Thermal Comfort
Thermal comfort is a crucial aspect of human well-
being, influencing our productivity, health, and overall
quality of life.

The study of thermal comfort has led to the

development of two key indices: the Predicted Mean
Vote (PMV) and the Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied
(PPD

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Defining the PMV (Predicted Mean

Vote) Index
The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) index is a widely-used metric in the field of
thermal comfort that quantifies the thermal sensation experienced by a
group of people in a given indoor environment. Developed by Danish
researcher Ole Fanger, the PMV index is based on a seven-point thermal
sensation scale, ranging from -3 (cold) to +3 (hot), with 0 representing the
"neutral" or "comfortable" thermal state.

The PMV index takes into account six key factors that influence thermal
comfort. By combining these variables through a standardized mathematical
model, the PMV index provides a numerical value that predicts the average
thermal sensation of a large group of people in a particular indoor
environment.

Calculating the PMV Index

The process of calculating the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) index involves applying a standardized
mathematical model that incorporates the six key factors.

1. Gather the necessary data: Measure or obtain the values for air temperature, mean radiant
temperature, air velocity, relative humidity, metabolic rate, and clothing insulation within the
space.

2. Plug the values into the PMV equation: The PMV is calculated using the Fanger comfort
equation, which was developed through extensive research and empirical data.

3. Interpret the PMV value: The resulting PMV value provides a quantitative assessment of the
average thermal sensation experienced by occupants. A PMV of 0 indicates a neutral or
comfortable thermal state, while positive and negative values indicate varying degrees of
warmth and coolness, respectively.

4. Refine the indoor environment:

5. Iteratively evaluate and improve: The PMV calculation is an iterative process, as changes
made to the indoor environment can impact the thermal comfort factors, requiring re-
evaluation and further refinements to achieve the optimal thermal comfort conditions.

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Interpreting the PMV Index

The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) index provides a
quantitative assessment of the average thermal sensation
experienced by occupants in a given indoor environment.

A PMV value of 0 indicates a neutral or "comfortable"

thermal state, where the majority of occupants would feel
neither too warm nor too cool. Positive PMV values,
ranging from +1 to +3, suggest that the indoor
environment is perceived as increasingly warm, with +3
representing a "hot" sensation. Conversely, negative PMV
values, ranging from -1 to -3, indicate that the space is
experienced as progressively cooler, with -3 signifying a
"cold" sensation.
The interpretation of the PMV index is crucial for making
informed decisions about the necessary adjustments to the
indoor environment. A PMV value outside the recommended
range of -0.5 to +0.5 suggests that the thermal comfort
conditions are not optimal and may lead to a significant
percentage of occupants being dissatisfied.

Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied

(PPD) Index
1. The PPD index is a quantitative measure that estimates the
percentage of people likely to be dissatisfied with the thermal
environment.

2. A PPD value of 10% or less is considered an acceptable level

of thermal comfort, indicating that only a small fraction of
occupants would be expected to feel uncomfortable.

3. By minimizing the PPD, designers can create indoor

environments that cater to the thermal preferences of the
majority of occupants, promoting overall satisfaction and
well-being.

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Defining the PPD (Predicted Percentage

Dissatisfied) Index
While the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) index provides a quantitative measure of the average
thermal sensation experienced by occupants, the Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD)
index takes this a step further by estimating the percentage of people who are likely to be
thermally dissatisfied with the indoor environment.

The PPD index is based on the premise that even in a thermally "neutral" environment where
the PMV is 0, a certain percentage of occupants will still feel uncomfortably warm or cool. This
is due to individual differences in thermal preferences, metabolic rates, and other physiological
factors.

The PPD is calculated as a function of the PMV, using a standardized equation developed
through extensive research and empirical data. This equation takes into account the statistical
distribution of individual thermal sensations around the mean value represented by the PMV.

Calculating the PPD Index

The process of calculating the Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) index involves leveraging the Predicted Mean Vote
(PMV) index to determine the percentage of occupants. This calculation provides crucial insights that complement the PMV,
allowing designers, engineers, and facility managers to create spaces that better meet the needs and preferences of the
majority of occupants.

The formula for calculating the PPD index was developed through extensive research and empirical data, and it takes into
account the statistical distribution of individual thermal sensations around the mean value represented by the PMV.
Specifically, the PPD is calculated as a function of the PMV, using the equation:

PPD = 100 - 95 * exp(-0.03353 * PMV^4 - 0.2179 * PMV^2)

1. Determine the PMV value: Start by calculating the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) index for the indoor environment,
following the steps outlined in the previous section.
2. Plug the PMV value into the PPD equation: Using the formula above, plug the calculated PMV value into the equation
to determine the Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) index.
3. Interpret the PPD result: The PPD index will range from 0% to 100%, where 0% indicates that all occupants are
likely to be thermally satisfied, and 100% suggests that all occupants are likely to be dissatisfied.

4. Refine the indoor environment

5. Iteratively evaluate and improve: As with the PMV calculation, the PPD is an iterative process, as changes to the
indoor environment can impact the thermal comfort factors and require re-evaluation and further refinements to
achieve the optimal thermal comfort conditions.

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Calculating the PPD Index

EXAMPLE-1:

If PMV = 0.5

PPD = 100 - 95 * exp(-0.03353 * PMV^4 - 0.2179 * PMV^2)

Answer = 11.90%

EXAMPLE-2:

If PMV = -1.7
PPD = 100 - 95 * exp(-0.03353 * PMV^4 - 0.2179 * PMV^2)

Answer = 96.92%

EXAMPLE-3:

If PMV = 3
PPD = 100 - 95 * exp(-0.03353 * PMV^4 - 0.2179 * PMV^2)

Answer = 100%

Interpreting the PPD Index

The Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) index provides a crucial complement to the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)
index by quantifying the percentage of occupants who are likely to feel thermally dissatisfied with the indoor
environment.

The PPD index ranges from 0% to 100%, where 0% indicates that all occupants are likely to be thermally satisfied,
and 100% suggests that all occupants are likely to be dissatisfied.

When the PPD index is above 10%, it signals that a significant percentage of occupants may be experiencing
discomfort due to the thermal conditions. This could be due to a variety of factors, such as a PMV value that is too
high or too low, uneven temperature distribution, or individual differences in thermal preferences.

It's important to note that the PPD index is not a static value, but rather a dynamic metric that can change as the
indoor environment is modified.

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Relationship between PMV and PPD

Complementary Underlying Calculating the Optimizing for
Metrics Relationship Relationship Comfort
The Predicted Mean The relationship between The mathematical By understanding the
Vote (PMV) index and PMV and PPD is based on relationship between PMV relationship between
the Predicted the premise that even in a and PPD is well-established PMV and PPD, designers
Percentage Dissatisfied thermally "neutral" and can be expressed and facility managers
(PPD) index are closely environment where the through a standardized can make informed
related and PMV is 0, a certain equation: PPD = 100 - 95 decisions to optimize the
complementary percentage of occupants * exp(-0.03353 * PMV^4 - indoor environment and
measures of thermal will still feel uncomfortably 0.2179 * PMV^2). minimize the percentage
comfort. warm or cool. of dissatisfied
occupants.

Factors Influencing PMV and PPD

The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted
Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) indices are influenced
by a complex interplay of various environmental,
personal, and contextual factors.

Environmental factors such as air temperature, mean

radiant temperature, air velocity, and relative
humidity are the primary drivers of thermal comfort
and directly impact the PMV and PPD calculations.

Personal factors, including metabolic rate and

clothing insulation, also play a significant role in
thermal comfort perception. Individuals with higher
metabolic rates, such as those engaged in physical
activity, tend to experience a warmer thermal
sensation, while those with lower metabolic rates
may feel cooler.

Contextual factors, such as the type of space,

occupant expectations, and cultural norms, can also
influence the perceived thermal comfort.

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Conclusion and Applications

Optimized Thermal Comfort Improved Occupant Productivity and

The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Wellbeing
Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) indices are Achieving the right balance of PMV and PPD
powerful tools that enable designers, not only enhances thermal comfort but also
engineers, and facility managers to create has a direct impact on occupant
indoor environments with optimized thermal productivity, health, and overall well-being.
comfort.

Sustainable and Energy-Efficient Design Adaptability and Personalization

The application of PMV and PPD principles can also The PMV and PPD indices can also be leveraged
support sustainable and energy-efficient design leveraged to create more personalized and
practices. By fine-tuning the indoor environment to and adaptable indoor environments. By
meet the desired thermal comfort levels, designers integrating real-time monitoring and occupant
can minimize the energy required for heating, occupant feedback mechanisms, facility
cooling, and ventilation, ultimately reducing the managers can continuously monitor and adjust
building's carbon footprint and operational costs. adjust the thermal conditions to cater to the
the diverse needs and preferences of the
building's users.

Introduction to
Thermal Comfort
Calculations
(Measurement)
Thermal comfort is a critical factor in the design and operation of
buildings. The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage
Dissatisfied (PPD) indices are widely used to evaluate thermal comfort
in office environments.

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Overview of PMV and PPD Indices

The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) indices
are widely used tools to evaluate thermal comfort in buildings.

1. PMV considers factors like air temperature, radiant temperature, air velocity,
humidity, activity level, and clothing insulation.

2. PPD is derived from PMV and quantifies the percentage of occupants who will
likely feel too warm or too cold.

3. Both indices provide a standardized, scientific approach to assessing and

optimizing thermal comfort in buildings.

Defining the Test

Environment
To accurately assess thermal comfort using the PMV and PPD
indices, the test environment must be carefully controlled
and measured.

Measurements should be taken in a representative office

area that is occupied during normal working hours.

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Measurement Locations
and Sensors
To accurately measure the PMV and PPD indices, sensors
must be placed strategically throughout the test
environment.

Specialized sensors are used to capture air temperature,

mean radiant temperature, air velocity, and relative humidity
at each measurement point.

Ambient Air Temperature

Requirements
Accurate assessment of thermal comfort
requires precise measurement of ambient air
temperature.

Measurements should be taken at multiple

locations and heights within the test space,
typically at 0.1 m, 0.6 m, and 1.1 m above the
floor.

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Mean Radiant Temperature

Measurements

Thermographic Radiant Heat Sensors Globe Thermometers

Imaging
Specialized infrared cameras Radiant heat sensors placed Globe thermometers
capture detailed thermal at multiple locations measure simulate the human body's
profiles of the test the average thermal energy absorption of radiant heat,
environment, allowing emitted by surrounding giving an integrated
precise measurement of surfaces, providing critical measurement of air and
mean radiant temperatures data for the PMV calculation. mean radiant temperatures.
from surfaces and objects.

Air Velocity Measurements

1 Hot-Wire Anemometers
Placed at key locations, these sensors precisely measure air speed and
turbulence levels to assess natural ventilation and HVAC performance.

2 Directional Sensors
Multi-directional probes capture the velocity vectors, providing detailed
airflow patterns across the test space.

3 Traverse Measurements
Traversing the space with a handheld anemometer allows mapping air
velocities at multiple points to identify potential drafts or stagnant zones.

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Relative Humidity Measurements

Humidity Psychrometric Measurement Calibration

Sensors Charts Locations and Accuracy

Strategically placed By combining air Humidity levels can

humidity sensors temperature and vary significantly Careful calibration
measure the humidity within a space, so of humidity sensors
amount of water measurements, sensors should be is essential to
vapor in the air, psychrometric positioned at ensure reliable and
providing critical charts allow the multiple heights repeatable
data for the PMV determination of and locations measurements for
and PPD other key representative of the thermal
calculations. parameters like the occupied zone. comfort
dew point and assessment.
enthalpy.

Clothing Insulation Assumptions

Standard Clothing Levels Insulation Values

Assume standard office attire, such as a Typical clothing insulation levels range
light business suit or skirt and blouse, for from 0.5 to 1.0 clo, with 0.5 clo
thermal comfort calculations. representing light summer clothing and
1.0 clo representing winter business
attire.

Adjustments for Individuals Seasonal Variations

Reevaluate clothing assumptions if the
Account for individual differences in thermal comfort assessment spans
clothing by surveying occupants or multiple seasons to capture seasonal
making spot-check measurements of their changes in occupant dress.
attire.

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Metabolic Rate Assumptions

Activity Level Body Surface Area
Assume a sedentary office activity level of Use an average body surface area of 1.8
1.0-1.2 met, representing a sitting, relaxed m2 to represent a typical adult office
posture with minimal movement. worker.

Adjustments for Individuals Seasonal Changes

Reevaluate metabolic rate assumptions if
Account for variations in metabolic rate the assessment spans multiple seasons, as
based on a person's height, weight, age, activity levels may change with the
and gender through individual surveys or weather.
measurements.

Calculation of PMV Index

Thermal Environmental Personal Calculation

Comfort Model Inputs Factors Process
The model requires Assumptions about Using these
The Predicted Mean precise the occupants' environmental and
Vote (PMV) index is measurements of air clothing insulation personal data
calculated using a temperature, mean and metabolic rate points, the PMV
complex thermal radiant temperature, are also critical index is calculated
comfort model that air velocity, and inputs to the PMV through a complex
considers relative humidity calculation, algorithm that
environmental collected throughout representing the predicts the average
factors like the test space at personal thermal thermal sensation of
temperature, specified locations comfort parameters. a large group of
humidity, and air and heights. people in the space.
movement, as well
as personal factors
like clothing and
activity level.

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Interpretation of PMV Values

PMV Value Thermal Sensation

-3 to -2 Cold

-2 to -1 Cool

-1 to +1 Neutral

+1 to +2 Warm

+2 to +3 Hot

The PMV index ranges from -3 to +3, with 0 representing a thermally neutral environment. Values
between -1 and +1 are considered acceptable, indicating that most occupants will feel comfortable.

Calculation of PPD Index

Predict Dissatisfaction
The Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) index estimates the
percentage of people who will feel too cold or too hot in the given thermal
environment.

Leverage PMV Values

The PPD is directly calculated from the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) index,
using a mathematical formula that accounts for the distribution of
thermal sensations.

Quantify Thermal Comfort

The PPD index provides a numerical value between 0% and 100% to
represent the expected level of thermal dissatisfaction among occupants
in the space.

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Interpretation of PPD Values

Less than 10%

Indicates a thermally comfortable environment that will
1
satisfy the majority of occupants.

10% to 20%
2 An acceptable level of thermal comfort, with a small
percentage of dissatisfied occupants.

20% to 30%
Signifies a marginally comfortable
3
environment, with a larger group of
dissatisfied occupants.

The Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) index provides a quantitative measure of thermal
comfort, ranging from 0% to 100%. Lower PPD values indicate a more comfortable environment,
where a vast majority of occupants will feel thermally satisfied. Conversely, higher PPD values
suggest an uncomfortable space, with a growing proportion of dissatisfied individuals.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Optimize for Comfort

1
Maintain PMV and PPD within recommended ranges

Address Problem Areas

2
Identify and resolve any thermal discomfort issues

Implement Monitoring
3 Continuously track and analyze thermal
metrics

The comprehensive assessment of thermal comfort in the office building using

the PMV and PPD indices provides valuable insights to optimize the indoor
environment. By maintaining the PMV and PPD within the recommended
comfort ranges, the building can ensure a thermally satisfactory experience for
occupants.

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Introduction to the
Fanger Thermal Comfort
Model
The Fanger Thermal Comfort Model is a widely used method for evaluating
thermal comfort in built environments. It provides a scientific framework to
quantify the factors that influence how people perceive and experience
thermal comfort.

Understanding Thermal Comfort

Thermal comfort is a subjective state of mind that reflects a person's
satisfaction with the surrounding temperature and environment. It is
influenced by a complex interplay of physiological, psychological, and
environmental factors.

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Factors Influencing Thermal Comfort

1. Air Temperature (ta)

2. Mean Radiant Temperature (tr)

3. Air Velocity (v)

4. Relative Humidity (RH)

5. Metabolic Rate (M)

6. Clothing Insulation (Icl)

The Fanger Comfort Equation

Heat Balance
Achieving thermal equilibrium between the body and the
1
environment.

Thermal Sensation
2 Calculating the perceived thermal sensation on a 7-point
scale.

Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)

3 Predicting the average thermal comfort
response of a group.

The Fanger Comfort Equation is the core of the thermal comfort model, relying on the principle of heat
balance between the human body and the surrounding environment.

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Calculating the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)

Data Collection Metabolic Rate (M) Clothing Insulation (Icl)

Gather measurements for air Determine the user's activity Assess the user's clothing
temperature, mean radiant level and calculate the insulation value based on the
temperature, air velocity, and corresponding metabolic garments they are wearing.
relative humidity. rate.

Metabolic Rate (M) Calculation

Determining Using Metabolic Adjusting for Calculating
Activity Level Rate Tables Individual Factors Metabolic Rate

The first step is to Established The metabolic rate Once the activity
identify the user's metabolic rate can be further level and individual
activity level, which tables provide refined by factors are known,
can range from standard values for considering the metabolic rate
resting to strenuous common activities, individual factors (M) can be calculated
exercise. This such as sitting, like the user's age, in watts per square
information is standing, walking, or gender, body weight, meter (W/m²) using
crucial for performing various and fitness level. established formulas
estimating the tasks. These tables These personal and guidelines from
body's heat help determine the characteristics can the Fanger Thermal
production, or appropriate influence the body's Comfort Model.
metabolic rate. metabolic rate for heat production and
the user's situation. thermal regulation.

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Clothing Insulation (Icl) Calculation

Determining Referencing Calculating Total Adjusting for
Clothing Ensemble Insulation Tables Insulation Garment Fit

The first step is to Standard insulation Once the individual The clothing
identify the specific tables provide the clothing items are insulation value can
garments the user is typical clo values for known, the total be further refined by
wearing, such as common clothing clothing insulation considering the fit
shirts, pants, socks, items. These tables (Icl) is calculated by and air permeability
and shoes. Each item are based on adding the of the garments.
has a unique extensive research insulation values of Loose-fitting or
insulation value that and allow you to each garment. This lightweight fabrics
contributes to the look up the summation provides may allow for more
overall clothing insulation value for the overall thermal air circulation,
insulation. each garment. resistance of the affecting the overall
user's clothing insulation.
ensemble.

Air Temperature (ta) Measurement

Accurately measuring air temperature (ta) is a crucial step in the Fanger
thermal comfort model

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Mean Radiant Temperature (tr) Calculation

Understanding Measuring Surface Weighted Average Specialized
Radiant Heat Temperatures Calculation Equipment

Radiant heat To calculate the The mean radiant Specialized

transfer is the mean radiant temperature is equipment, such as
exchange of thermal temperature (tr), you calculated as a infrared
energy through need to measure the weighted average of thermometers or
electromagnetic temperatures of the the surface heat flux sensors, is
waves surrounding surfaces temperatures, taking often used to
into account the size accurately measure
and orientation of surface
each surface relative temperatures and
to the occupant. calculate the mean
radiant temperature.

Air Velocity (v) Measurement

Accurately measuring air velocity (v) is crucial for evaluating thermal
comfort in the Fanger model.

The anemometer measures the speed and direction of airflow, providing

the necessary data to calculate the convective heat transfer from the
human body to the surrounding environment.

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Relative Humidity (RH) Calculation

Understanding Measuring Calculation Process Importance in
Humidity Techniques Thermal Comfort
The RH value is then
Relative humidity Relative humidity is calculated using a Relative humidity is
(RH) is a measure of typically measured formula that takes a key factor in the
the amount of water using specialized into account the air Fanger thermal
vapor present in the instruments like temperature, comfort model
air relative to the psychrometers or atmospheric
maximum amount of hygrometers pressure, and the
water vapor the air difference between
can hold at a given the dry-bulb and
temperature. wet-bulb
temperatures.

Interpreting the PMV Index

1 Positive PMV Values 2 Negative PMV Values

Indicate that the environment feels too Suggest the environment feels too cool,
warm, with a scale ranging from slightly with a scale from slightly cool (-1) to very
warm (+1) to very hot (+3). cold (-3).

3 Neutral PMV (0) 4 Acceptable Range

Represents the optimal thermal comfort The generally accepted range for thermal
condition, where the environment is comfort is between -0.5 and +0.5 on the
perceived as neither too warm nor too cool. PMV scale.

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Limitations of the Fanger Model

1 • Assumes steady-state conditions, not accounting for dynamic changes in the environment or
activity levels

• Relies on standardized clothing and metabolic rates, which may not accurately represent
individual variations

• Does not consider personal factors like age, gender, or health conditions that can affect
thermal perception

• May not accurately predict comfort in extreme or unusual environmental conditions, such
as high humidity or radiant heat

• Focuses on the average response, not accounting for individual differences in thermal
sensitivity and preferences

Applications of the Fanger Thermal Comfort Model

HVAC Design and Workspace Planning Healthcare Sustainable Building

Optimization Environments Design
By understanding
The Fanger model thermal comfort The model guides the Integrating the Fanger
helps engineers factors, facility design of healthcare model into
design and optimize managers can create facilities, ensuring sustainable building
heating, ventilation, workspace designs patient comfort and design helps optimize
and air conditioning that enhance supporting the healing energy efficiency and
(HVAC) systems to employee productivity process while also environmental impact
maintain comfortable and wellbeing. considering staff while maintaining
indoor environments needs. thermal comfort.
for building
occupants.

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The Fanger Thermal Comfort Model Graph

The Fanger Thermal Comfort Model Graph

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Conclusion and Recommendations

Key Takeaways Practical Applications
The Fanger thermal comfort model is a The model guides HVAC design, workspace
powerful tool for evaluating and optimizing planning, healthcare settings, and sustainable
indoor environments. It considers multiple building practices to enhance occupant
factors to predict occupant comfort levels. wellbeing and energy efficiency.

Future Considerations Recommendations

Ongoing research aims to address the model's Utilize the Fanger model as part of a
limitations by incorporating dynamic comprehensive approach to thermal comfort
conditions, individual differences, and assessment and building performance
extreme environments. optimization.

Introduction to
Thermal Comfort

Thermal comfort is a critical aspect of indoor environmental quality,

reflecting an individual's satisfaction with the surrounding
temperature, humidity, and air movement. Understanding the factors
that influence thermal comfort is essential for designing comfortable
and energy-efficient buildings.

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Air Temperature and Its

Impact
Air temperature is a fundamental factor in thermal comfort.
Variations in temperature can significantly impact an individual's
perception of comfort.

Maintaining an optimal air temperature range is crucial for creating

a comfortable indoor environment. Factors such as season, activity
level, and personal preferences influence the ideal temperature for
thermal comfort.

Radiant Temperature
Influence

Radiant temperature refers to the heat absorbed from surrounding

surfaces, like walls and furniture. This plays a crucial role in thermal
comfort, as it can significantly impact an individual's perception of
warmth or coolness.

Proper design and control of radiant surfaces, such as using

insulation or adjustable shading, are essential for maintaining
thermal equilibrium and optimizing occupant comfort.

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Air Velocity and Thermal

Comfort

Air movement, or air velocity, is a critical factor in thermal comfort.

Faster air speeds can enhance the body's natural cooling through
convection and evaporation, leading to a refreshing sensation.

However, excessive air speeds can also cause discomfort, particularly

drafts. Maintaining an optimal air velocity range is essential for
ensuring occupants feel comfortable and satisfied with the indoor
environment.

Humidity and Thermal

Sensation

Humidity, the amount of water vapor in the air, significantly impacts

thermal comfort.

The ideal relative humidity range for optimal thermal comfort is

typically between 30-60%.

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Clothing and Thermal

Insulation

Clothing plays a crucial role in thermal comfort by providing

insulation and regulating heat transfer.

Well-insulated garments, such as winter coats and sweaters, help

retain body heat and maintain a comfortable core temperature.

Metabolic Rate and

Activity Level

An individual's metabolic rate, or the body's energy expenditure, is a

key factor in thermal comfort.

Sedentary individuals may feel colder, while those engaged in

physical activity may experience warmth or even perspiration.

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Individual Factors Affecting Thermal

Comfort
Physiological Acclimatization Circadian Rhythms Personal Preferences
Differences

An individual's thermal An individual's internal

comfort is influenced by their body clock and daily Comfort is highly subjective,
People have varying prior exposure and fluctuations in metabolism and people have unique
physiological responses to adaptation to certain can affect their thermal thermal preferences based
temperature due to factors climates. Those accustomed to preferences throughout the on their individual thermal
like age, gender, and health warmer or cooler day. Comfort needs may vary sensitivity, activity levels,
conditions. These individual environments may have in the morning versus the and personal thermal
differences impact thermal different comfort thresholds. evening. comfort zones.
sensation and the preferred
temperature range for
comfort.

Measurement and Evaluation Methods

Accurately measuring and evaluating thermal comfort is crucial for
designing effective climate control systems. A variety of specialized
instruments and techniques are employed, including:

• Environmental Monitoring

• Subjective Surveys

• Thermal Comfort Indices

• Physiological Measurements

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Conclusion and Recommendations

Holistic Approach Adaptive Comfort

Thermal comfort is a complex interplay of Allowing occupants some control and
environmental, physiological, and flexibility in their thermal environment
behavioral factors. A comprehensive can enhance overall satisfaction and well-
evaluation and design strategy are being. Embracing adaptive comfort
essential for creating optimal indoor principles promotes user-centric design.
environments.
Continuous Monitoring Sustainable Solutions

Regular monitoring and adjustments are Designing for thermal comfort should
crucial to maintain thermal comfort over also consider energy efficiency and
time. Monitoring occupant feedback and environmental impact. Integrating passive
environmental conditions can inform design strategies and renewable
fine-tuning of climate control systems. technologies can create more sustainable,
comfortable spaces.

Introduction to
Building Design and
HVAC Systems

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Importance of Thermal Comfort in

Buildings
Ensuring optimal thermal comfort for occupants is a critical aspect
of building design and HVAC system planning.

Principles of Energy-Efficient Building

Design
• Maximize passive solar design techniques, such as strategic window placement and
orientation, to reduce heating and cooling needs.

• Optimize insulation and air-sealing of the building envelope to minimize heat transfer and air
infiltration.

• Incorporate daylighting strategies to reduce reliance on artificial lighting and lower energy
consumption.

• Select energy-efficient HVAC systems and appliances to lower overall building energy usage.
• Integrate renewable energy sources, such as solar panels or geothermal systems, to reduce
the building's carbon footprint.

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Passive Design Strategies for

Heating and Cooling
1 Optimized Building Orientation
Positioning a building to maximize exposure to natural light and airflow
can significantly reduce heating and cooling demands.

2 Strategic Window Placement

Carefully designing the size, location, and glazing of windows to control
heat gain and loss, enhancing thermal comfort.

3 Passive Ventilation Systems

Employing natural ventilation strategies like cross-ventilation and stack
effect to circulate air without mechanical means.

Active HVAC Systems and

their Role in Comfort
While passive design strategies can significantly reduce heating and
cooling needs, active HVAC systems play a crucial role in maintaining
optimal thermal comfort for building occupants.

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Integrating Renewable Energy Sources

in Building Design
Solar Power Geothermal Wind Turbines Biomass
Systems Heating
Incorporating solar Strategically placed
photovoltaic panels Geothermal heat wind turbines on or Biomass-fueled
into the building's pumps leverage the near the building boilers and
design harnesses stable can generate furnaces can
the sun's abundant temperatures renewable harness the energy
energy, reducing underground to electricity, stored in organic
reliance on fossil efficiently heat and contributing to the materials, such as
fuels and lowering cool buildings, building's energy wood pellets or
the overall carbon providing a needs and grid agricultural waste,
footprint. sustainable integration. to provide heating
alternative to for the building.
traditional HVAC
systems.

Optimizing Building Envelope and

Insulation
The building envelope,
which includes walls, roofs,
and windows, plays a
crucial role in regulating
heat transfer and
maintaining thermal
comfort.
Proper insulation reduces
heat loss in winter and heat
gain in summer, directly
impacting the building's
heating and cooling
requirements.

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Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality

Considerations

Ventilation Design Air Quality Monitoring Air Filtration and

Purification
Carefully designed Integrating advanced air
ventilation systems ensure a quality sensors and control High-performance air filters
continuous supply of fresh air, systems allows building and advanced purification
while effectively removing managers to actively monitor technologies, such as UV light
stale, polluted air to maintain and adjust indoor conditions, and humidity control, help
a healthy indoor optimizing occupant comfort remove airborne
environment. and health. contaminants and allergens,
enhancing indoor air quality.

Lighting and Daylighting in Energy-

Efficient Buildings
Optimize Daylighting Employ Efficient Integrate Renewable
Fixtures Lighting
Designing buildings to
maximize natural light Using LED or other high- Incorporating solar tubes,
through strategic window efficiency lighting skylights, and other
placement and building technologies, coupled with passive lighting systems
orientation can smart controls and motion can bring natural daylight
significantly reduce sensors, can further deep into the building,
reliance on artificial optimize energy use while blending seamlessly with
lighting and lower energy maintaining excellent artificial lighting for an
consumption. illumination. energy-efficient solution.

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Balancing Comfort and Energy

Efficiency

Holistic Design Approach Occupant-Centric Focus

Successful energy-efficient buildings Maintaining a comfortable indoor
require a comprehensive design process environment that meets the needs and
that integrates passive strategies, active preferences of building occupants is
HVAC systems, and renewable energy crucial, as their well-being and
sources to achieve optimal thermal productivity directly impact the overall
comfort and sustainability. success of the design.

Continuous Optimization Balanced Tradeoffs

Monitoring and adjusting building Careful consideration of the tradeoffs
performance over time, through smart between energy efficiency and thermal
controls and data-driven decision-making, comfort is necessary, as extreme measures
ensures the design continues to deliver in one area can negatively impact the
energy savings and comfort as needs and other, requiring a nuanced, user-centric
technology evolve. approach.

Energy Efficiency vs.

Thermal Comfort
Exploring the delicate balance between reducing energy use and maintaining
comfortable indoor environments for building occupants.

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Introduction

Energy efficiency and thermal comfort are two

critical, yet often competing, priorities in building
design and operation

The Importance of Energy

Efficiency
Reducing energy consumption is crucial for
mitigating climate change, lowering utility
costs, and enhancing the sustainability of
buildings.

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The Importance of Thermal

Comfort
Ensuring occupant thermal comfort is
crucial for well-being, productivity, and
health.

Challenges in Balancing Energy Efficiency

and Thermal Comfort
Conflicting Occupant Climate Retrofit
Priorities Behavior Variations Challenges

Energy-efficient Occupant Achieving the right Upgrading existing

measures like preferences and balance is further buildings to improve
increased insulation behaviors can complicated by energy efficiency
and airtightness can conflict with energy- climate differences, often creates
sometimes efficient practices, where optimal challenges in
compromise thermal making it difficult to strategies may vary maintaining thermal
comfort by reducing find a universal significantly by comfort for
ventilation and solution. region. occupants.
airflow.

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Understanding Building Energy Use

Occupancy
1 Number of people, activity levels, schedules

Building Envelope
2
Insulation, windows, air tightness

HVAC Systems
3
Heating, cooling, ventilation efficiency

Lighting and Plug Loads

4 Energy use from lighting, equipment, and
appliances

Understanding the key drivers of a building's energy use is crucial for

identifying opportunities to improve efficiency.

Factors Affecting Thermal Comfort

• Temperature

• Humidity

• Air Movement

• Radiant Heat

• Clothing and Activity Level

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Passive Design Strategies

Optimize Building Envelope
Use high-performance insulation, windows, and air sealing to minimize heat transfer and
reduce HVAC loads.

Leverage Natural Ventilation

Position windows and openings to capitalize on prevailing winds and create effective cross-
ventilation.

Maximize Daylighting
Strategically place windows and skylights to flood interiors with natural light and reduce
electric lighting needs.

Active HVAC System Optimization

Beyond passive design, actively managing and

optimizing HVAC systems is crucial for
balancing energy efficiency and thermal
comfort.

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Occupant Behavior and Engagement

Occupant Feedback Occupant Incentives and

Awareness Mechanisms Engagement Rewards
Educating and raising Providing real-time Actively involving Implementing
awareness among feedback on energy building users in the innovative incentive
building occupants use and thermal design and programs can
about energy comfort levels can optimization process motivate occupants to
efficiency and thermal empower occupants fosters a sense of adopt energy-efficient
comfort best to make informed ownership and habits and contribute
practices is key to choices and adjust commitment to to the overall thermal
driving sustainable their behaviors sustainability goals. comfort of a building.
behavior. accordingly.

Building Automation and Controls

Integrating advanced building automation
systems and smart controls is crucial for
optimizing energy efficiency and thermal
comfort.

Automated controls can seamlessly adjust

temperature, humidity, airflow, and lighting to
maintain optimal conditions while minimizing
energy waste.

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Monitoring and Data-Driven Decision

Making
1 Continuous Monitoring
Install a network of sensors to continuously track energy use, indoor environmental
conditions, and occupant comfort levels throughout the building.

2 Data Analysis
Leverage advanced analytics and visualization tools to identify trends, patterns,
and opportunities for optimization in the collected data.

3 Informed Decisions
Use the data-driven insights to make informed decisions on adjustments to
systems, operations, and occupant engagement strategies.

Case Studies of Successful Projects

Office Tower Net-Zero Energy Sustainable Net-Zero Energy

Renovation School Hospital Community
A 1970s office tower An innovative net-zero
Renovation A new residential
was retrofitted with energy elementary A major hospital development was
an advanced building school was designed renovation focused on designed as a net-
envelope, optimized with passive solar enhancing energy zero energy
HVAC systems, and principles, efficiency and community, featuring
daylighting geothermal HVAC, thermal comfort, high-performance
strategies, resulting and extensive on-site including upgrades to homes, shared
in a 35% reduction in renewable energy the building envelope, renewable energy
energy use while generation. The HVAC systems, and generation, and
improving thermal project achieved lighting. The result community-wide
comfort for exceptional energy was a 25% drop in strategies to optimize
occupants. efficiency while energy use and energy efficiency and
prioritizing student improved occupant thermal comfort for
health and comfort. satisfaction. all residents.

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Cost-benefit Analysis
Energy Upfront Costs Long-term Improved Occupant
Efficiency Energy Thermal Productivity
Investments Savings Comfort Gains

High- Moderate to Significant Enhanced Increased

performance High Reduction in Thermal Workplace
Building HVAC Loads Regulation Satisfaction
Envelope

Advanced Moderate Optimized Precise Improved

HVAC Energy Use Temperature Indoor Air
Optimization and Efficiency and Humidity Quality
Control

Renewable High Upfront Long-term Reduced Potential for

Energy Investment Operational Reliance on Resiliency and
Generation Cost Savings Grid Energy
Electricity Independence

Conducting a thorough cost-benefit analysis is crucial for justifying energy efficiency investments and
ensuring a balance between upfront costs and long-term operational savings, as well as the positive
impacts on occupant thermal comfort and productivity.

Conclusion and Key Takeaways

Balanced Approach Passive Design Strategies

Achieving both energy efficiency and Leveraging passive design principles, such
thermal comfort requires a balanced, as optimizing the building envelope and
holistic approach that considers the daylighting, can significantly reduce energy
building, systems, and occupants. needs while enhancing comfort.

HVAC Optimization Occupant Engagement

Fine-tuning HVAC systems, integrating smart Empowering and educating building
controls, and utilizing data analytics are occupants is key to driving sustainable
crucial for fine-tuning energy use and behaviors and achieving long-term success.
maintaining ideal conditions.

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