Module-2

Important Notes
Transmission Media(15 marks)

 Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender
to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals. The electrical signals
can be sent through the copper wire, fiber optics, atmosphere, water, and vacuum. In a
copper-based network, the bits are in the form of electrical signals. In a fiber-based network,
the bits are in the form of light pulses. Transmission media is of two types wired media and
wireless media.
1)Guided Transmission Media/ bounded /Wired media

 Physical medium through which the signals are transmitted.

 Twisted-pair and coaxial cables use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports
signals in the form of light.
Twisted pair cable
 Design: Twisted pair cables have pairs of copper wires twisted together to reduce
interference from other signals.
 Types: There are two types: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP), which is common,
and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP), which has extra protection against interference.
 Use: These cables are used in Ethernet networks and phone lines because they are
affordable and easy to install.
 Speed and Distance: They can support speeds up to 1 Gbps or higher but work
best over distances of up to 100 meters.
 Affordable: Twisted pair cables are cheap, flexible, and easy to use, making
them popular for home and office networks.

Coaxial Cable
 Structure: Coaxial cables have a central copper conductor, surrounded by an
insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer protective cover. This design
helps protect against interference.
 Types: Common types include RG-6 and RG-59, used for different purposes
like TV signals, internet, and CCTV connections.
 Usage: Coaxial cables are often used for cable TV, internet connections, and
security camera systems because they carry high-frequency signals.
 Speed and Distance: They support higher bandwidth and can transmit data over
longer distances compared to twisted pair cables, making them ideal for certain
communication systems.
 Durability: Coaxial cables are durable and resistant to electromagnetic
interference, making them reliable for stable, long-term use.
 Optical Fibre Cable/Fibre Optic cable
 Structure: Fiber optic cables consist of glass or plastic fibers that transmit data
as light signals. They provide fast, high-capacity communication.
 Single-Mode Fiber: With a small core, this type carries a single light path,
allowing for long-distance, high-bandwidth transmission. It’s used in telecom
networks and long-distance communication.
 Multi-Mode Fiber: It has a larger core, allowing multiple light paths. It’s best
for shorter distances, such as LANs and data centers.
 Step-Index vs. Graded-Index Fiber:
 Step-Index Fiber: The core has a uniform refractive index, with a sharp change
at the cladding. This design causes more modal dispersion, especially in multi-
mode fibers, limiting bandwidth and distance.
 Graded-Index Fiber: The refractive index gradually decreases from the center
of the core to the edge, reducing modal dispersion and allowing for better
performance in multi-mode fibers over longer distances.
 Speed, Distance, and Resistance: Fiber optic cables support high-speed data
transmission (up to 100 Gbps or more), with long-distance capability in single-
mode and better short-range performance in multi-mode. They are also immune
to electromagnetic interference, making them reliable for high-speed
applications like internet, telecom, and data networks.

2) Unguided transmission media/ wireless transmission media/Unbounded transmission media

 Refers to the communication channels that transmit data through the air or space
without using physical conductors (like cables).
Radio Waves
 Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic wave used for wireless communication, like
radio, TV, Wi-Fi, and mobile phones.
 They can travel long distances, with lower frequencies covering larger areas (like AM
radio) and higher frequencies for shorter ranges (like Wi-Fi).
 Radio waves can pass through buildings and obstacles, making them useful in cities and
indoors.
 Advantages:
 o Covers Large Areas: Ideal for things like radio and TV broadcasting.
o Low Cost: Setting up radio-based systems is generally cheap.
o Easy to Use: The technology is reliable and easy to set up.
 Disadvantages:
o Interference: Radio waves can suffer from signal interference due to other devices
or the environment.
o Slower Speed: They offer lower data speeds compared to other technologies like
fiber optics.
Microwaves
 Microwaves are high-frequency electromagnetic waves used for wireless communication,
such as in satellites, Wi-Fi, and radar systems.
 Microwaves are suitable for long-distance point-to-point communication, like satellite links
and long-range telephone systems.
 Microwaves require line-of-sight transmission, meaning there should be no obstacles between
the transmitter and receiver.
Merits:
o High Bandwidth: Microwaves can carry large amounts of data quickly.
o Good for Long Distances: Used in satellite and long-distance communication
systems.
Demerits:
o Affected by Obstacles: Buildings, mountains, or weather can block or weaken the
signal.
o Expensive: Setting up microwave communication systems can be costly.
Infrared Waves
 Infrared waves are electromagnetic waves used for short-range communication, like remote
controls, wireless keyboards, and security systems.
 Infrared waves work over short distances, usually within a room or a confined space.
 Infrared requires line-of-sight, meaning the transmitter and receiver need to be directly
aligned without obstacles.
Merits:
o Secure Communication: Since infrared doesn't pass through walls, it provides more
secure communication within a limited area.
o No Interference: Infrared is less likely to experience interference from other
electronic devices.
Demerits:
o Limited Range: It only works over short distances and can’t pass through walls.
o Requires Direct Alignment: Devices need to be in direct line-of-sight to communicate
effectively.

Bandwidth Utilization Techniques (15 marks)

 These are methods used to efficiently use available bandwidth in communication systems.
These techniques ensure maximum data transfer while minimizing wastage of resources.
1)Multiplexing:

 Allows multiple signals to share the same communication channel.

 multiple signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium.
 The communication channel is divided into multiple logical channels.ie. One link can have
many (n) channels
 Sender side-multiplexer (MUX), which combines different signals into a single stream (many-
to-one).
 Receiver side- (DEMUX), which separates the stream back into its component transmissions
(one-to-many)

 For analog signals there are 2 types of multiplexing- FDM(Frequency division Multiplexing )
and WDM(Wavelength Division Multiplexing) and for digital signal – TDM(Time division
Multiplexing).
FDM(Frequency Division Multiplexing)
 FDM allows multiple signals to be sent over one channel by using different frequency bands
for each signal.
 Each signal is assigned a unique frequency. At the receiver, filters pick out the correct
frequency to retrieve the desired signal.
 FDM is used in radio and TV broadcasting, telephone systems, and satellite communications.
 The available bandwidth is divided into smaller parts, with spaces (guard bands) in between
to prevent interference.
 Guard Bands- To accommodate the successful transmission of multiple signals over a single
line, FDM separates assigned bands by strips of unused frequencies called guard bands. This
prevents overlapping between signal frequencies over a shared medium.
 FDM requires careful frequency management and can be limited by available bandwidth,
making it less flexible than some digital methods.
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
 TDM sends multiple signals over a single channel by giving each signal a different time slot,
one after the other.
 Each signal gets a specific time to use the channel, and these time slots rotate rapidly
 TDM is used in digital communications, such as telephone networks and computer data
transmission.
 It divides time into slots, with each signal using the channel for a short period before the next
signal takes over.
 Drawbacks: If one signal doesn't fully use its time slot, it can waste resources. Timing
synchronization is also very important for proper signal recovery.
Two different schemes of TDM-1. Synchronous TDM 2. Statistical TDM
Synchronous TDM
 It Divides the communication channel into equal time slots, with each time slot assigned to a
specific signal, even if there's no data to send.
 Fixed Time Slots: Each signal gets a dedicated time slot in a fixed sequence, whether or not it
has data to transmit.
 Drawbacks: Since time slots are fixed, even when a signal has no data to send, the time slot is
wasted, leading to inefficiency if some signals are not fully utilizing their slots.

Statistical TDM
 Statistical TDM allocates time slots to signals based on their actual data needs, rather than
giving each signal a fixed slot.
 Dynamic Slot Assignment: Time slots are assigned only when a signal has data to send,
making it more efficient than Synchronous TDM.
 used in modern communication systems like internet networks, where data transmission rates
vary.
 Better Bandwidth Utilization: Since slots are assigned based on demand, bandwidth isn't
wasted on inactive signals, leading to more efficient use of the channel.
 In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed relationship between the inputs and outputs
because there are no preassigned or reserved slots. We need to include the address of the
receiver inside each slot to show where it is to be delivered
2) Spread Spectrum
 A technique used in telecommunications and wireless communication to spread a signal over
a wide frequency range, rather than transmitting it on a single frequency. This technique
enhances the robustness of the signal against interference, jamming, and eavesdropping.
 Goal-Privacy and anti-jamming.
 Wider Bandwidth Distribution: Spread spectrum techniques spread a signal over a wide
frequency range rather than confining it to a narrow band. This approach allows multiple
signals to coexist within the same overall frequency range without causing interference.
 To achieve wider bandwidth- they spread the original spectrum needed for each station.
 If the required bandwidth for each station is B, spread spectrum expands it to Bss' such that
Bss » B.

 Spreading Code- The spreading process uses a spreading code and spreads the
bandwidth.The spreading code is a series of numbers that look random, but are actually a
pattern

 There are two main types of spread spectrum techniques: Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS) and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

FHSSS
 Technique uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by the source signal.
At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier frequency; at the next moment, the
signal modulates another carrier frequency.
 • A pseudorandom code generator, called pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit pattern
for every hopping period T h
• The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping period
and passes it to the frequency synthesizer.
• The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that frequency, and the source signal
modulates the carrier signal.
• By changing frequencies frequently, FHSS makes it difficult for unauthorized users or
jammers to disrupt the communication, as they would need to transmit on multiple
frequencies.
• FHSS is used in various wireless technologies, including Bluetooth, some cordless phones,
and military communications, where security and resistance to interference are essential.
DSSS(Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
 DSSS is a spread spectrum technique in which the original data signal is spread over a wider
frequency band by replacing each data bit with n bits using a spreading code.
 A code of n bits, called chips

 For example, consider the sequence used in a wireless LAN, the famous Barker sequence where n
is 11. the spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000 (in this case)
  DSSS provides a level of security because the spreading code is needed to decode the signal.
Without the correct code, eavesdroppers will only hear noise.
 DSSS is used in wireless technologies like Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11b) and GPS systems, where
interference resistance and secure communication are important.

Switching

 A switch in a computer network is a hardware device that connects multiple devices (such as
computers, servers, and printers) within a local area network (LAN) and facilitates data
transfer between them.
 They use MAC addresses/physical addresses to forward data to the correct destination,
allowing for more efficient and direct communication.
 Switching in networking refers to the process of forwarding data packets or frames from one
device to another within a network, ensuring that the data reaches its correct destination. It
involves the use of devices known as switches, which connect multiple devices (such as
computers, servers, or other networked equipment) and manage data traffic between them.
 Types of Switching- Circuit Switching, Packet Switching and Virtual Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching

 Circuit switching is a communication method where a dedicated communication path or

circuit is established between the sender and receiver for the entire duration of the
communication session.
Connection Establishment:
 In this phase, a dedicated communication path (or circuit) is set up between the sender and
receiver.
 The network searches for an available path through a series of interconnected switches and
links.
 Once a suitable path is found, it is reserved exclusively for the communication session.
 Example: In a telephone call, this is the moment when you dial a number and wait for the call
to connect.
2. Data Transfer:
 After the circuit is established, data is transmitted continuously over the dedicated path.
  The entire communication flows along the same path, ensuring stable, reliable data transfer.
 The quality is typically very high, with minimal delay or interference.
 Example: During a phone call, this is the conversation where your voice is transmitted over
the circuit.

3. Connection Termination:
 Once the communication session is complete, the dedicated path is released.
 The network resources (bandwidth, switches, links) are freed up and can now be used by
other users.
 Example: In a phone call, this is when you hang up, and the call is disconnected.

 Circuit switching is ideal for real-time applications like voice calls, where a continuous
stream of data must flow without interruption.

Reliable and Stable Connection: Once established, the connection is stable and provides a
consistent communication link with low latency.
No Congestion During Communication: Since the path is reserved for the duration of the
session, there is no competition for bandwidth with other users, ensuring smooth data flow.
Inefficient Resource Usage: Resources (such as bandwidth and switches) are reserved even
during periods of inactivity (e.g., pauses in conversation), leading to inefficient use of
network resources.
Connection Setup Time: Establishing a connection can take some time, which can introduce
delays before communication starts.

Virtual Circuit Switching

 A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram

network
 Data is broken into packets and transmitted through the virtual circuit. Each packet follows
the same logical path, simplifying packet reassembly at the destination.
 It is often employed in telecommunications networks for transmitting video, audio, and data.
 Another example of virtual circuit switching, often used in wide-area networks (WANs) to
connect different network sites.
  In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: global and local (virtual-
circuit identifier).
 A source or a destination needs to have a global address-an address that can be unique in the
scope of the network or internationally if the network is part of an international network.
 The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit identifier
(VCI). A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only switch scope; it is used
by a frame between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it
leaves, it has a different VCI.
Three Phases in virtual-circuit network
Connection Setup:
 A virtual circuit is established before any data transmission occurs. This involves creating a
logical path between the sender and receiver across the network.
 Each packet will follow this pre-determined path, ensuring that packets arrive in order.
 The path is "virtual" because it doesn’t reserve physical network resources exclusively for the
connection, but the same path is used for the entire session.
Data Transfer:
 Once the virtual circuit is established, data is transmitted in small units called packets. These
packets are sent through the network along the predefined virtual circuit.
 Each packet carries a virtual circuit identifier (VCI) instead of the full destination address,
which helps the intermediate switches route the packets.
Connection Termination:
 After the data transfer is complete, the virtual circuit is terminated, and the resources used for
the connection are released, freeing them for other virtual circuits.