FORM 1

PHYSICS

BY C. MPAZIRA@LISS
 CHAPTER ONE and earthquake) which can be observed and
tested.
PHYSICS AS A SCIENCE
- Examples of natural science are;
- Science refers to a systematic study that
uses observation and experimentation to 1. Life science e.g. functional biology
describe and explain natural phenomena. and Cellular biology.
2. Physical science e.g. Physics and
-The word also refers to the organized body
chemistry.
of knowledge people have gained using a
3. Earth/ space science e.g. Astrology
system of observation and experimentation.
and Geo-science.
- It also refers to the systematic study of the
3. Formal sciences
structure and behavior of the physical and
natural world through observation and - It deals with mathematical concepts and
experiment. logics.

-The purpose of science is to produce useful - Examples Are Mathematics and Logic.
models of reality which are used to advance
PHYSICS
the development of technology, lading to
better quality of life for man and the - Physics is a natural science that is
environment around him. concerned with the study of matter and
natural forces.
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
- Can be studied using scientific approach.
1. Social science
- Scientific approach is based on systematic
- It deals with the study of human behavior
experimentation through careful
and society.
measurements and analysis.
- Examples of social sciences are
HISTORY OF PHYSICS
Psychology and sociology.
- Physics was born by the first people who
2. Natural sciences started asking why question.
- It deals with the study of natural
- The interest was born due to the following
phenomena, for example (lighting, motion,
factors: Concern, Fear and Curiosity.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 1
- For example; from one media to another
6. Waves and Oscillations – the study of
(a). why is there day and night?
disturbances which travel through mediums
(b). Why do objects fall downwards instead or a vacuum.
of going upwards when released in air? 7. Nuclear physics- The study that focuses
on the behavior and properties of atomic
- The first people to attempt to answer these
nuclei.
questions were the Greeks who started doing
8. Plasma physics- The study of ionized
this before 400BC.
gases consisting of free electrons and ions
✓Aristotle had developed a comprehensive 9. Properties of matter -This branch of
explanation of motion by 1543 Ad, physics focuses on understanding and

✓Nicolas Copernicus had explained that the characterizing the physical properties and

earth goes round the sun and not the other behaviors of materials.

way round. 10. Electronics- Branch of physics that

focuses on the study and application of
✓Isaac newton explained why objects
electrical circuits and devices.
always fall towards the earth.
METHODS OF STUDYING PHYSICS
✓Albert Einstein had explained how nuclear
energy can be harnessed form the center of 1. Observation of phenomena
the atom.
2. Experimentation.
BRANCHES OF PHYSICS
3. Expert opinion -these people have
1. Mechanics – the study of motion of technical knowledge and skills. They can
bodies under the influence of force. demonstrate the importance of physics and
2. Electricity and magnetism - This is the explain how problems can be solved.
study of laws and principles of electricity
RELATION OF PHYSICS TO OTHER
and magnetism.
SUBJECTS
4. Thermodynamics / heat – this is the
study of the transformation of heat from one - Uses chemistry in some of its operations
form to another. such as fuel used in transport requires
5. Optics –the study of light as it travels chemistry knowledge to extract.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 2
- Some products of physics are used in 9. Civil engineering
biology such as microscope for seeing very
10. Mechanical engineering
small organisms.
11. Electronics and telecommunication
- Geography uses some instruments
engineering
developed by physicist such as barometer,
wind gauge. 12. Environmental engineering
- Agricultural instruments also use
12. Environmental engineering
instruments made by physicist e.g. sprinkler,
sprayers. CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO
DEVELOPMENT
- The use of carbon dating in history is the
principle developed by physicist. • Transport where high speed electrical trans
larger and more fuel efficient marine vessels
- The theatrical setup, the audio and visual
(e.g. ships) faster and safer automobiles
arrangements are the creations of physicist
have been developed.
- In games and sports, accurate measurement
• Manufacturing sector where labor efficient
of time, distance, weight etc. use
robots and other gadgetry have been
instruments developed by physicists.
developed
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN • Development and manufacturing of
PHYSICS communication equipment such as cars,
satellites, radios.
1. Engineering and technology
• Medicine where development of better
2. Mapping and surveying
equipment in surgery and use of safer
3. Electrical engineering
diagnostic techniques (such as MRI) have
4. Instrumentation technology. been developed.
• Recreation and sporting where better
5. Architecture.
equipment for recreation and training are
6. Aeronautical engineering12.
continuously being developed.
Environmental engineering 7. University
lecture or a researcher. • Manufacturing of efficient robots and other
gadgetry.
8. Laboratory technology

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 IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING - Scientific investigation is a systematic
PHYSICS process of testing ideas or finding out
answers to questions and observations.
• Helps us to understand how the world
around us works. -The three forms of scientific investigation
are:
• Helps us to organize the universe since it
gives us powerful tools to help us to express 1. Experiment
our creativity.
2. Field work also known as study
• It provides us quantitative and analytic trip/Education visit/expedition.
skills needed for analyzing data and solving
3. Project work
problems.
- The process forms a cycle.
• Physics is the basis for most modern
technology. THE STAGES OF SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATION
• Physics helps you to help others e.g.
1. IDENTIFICATION OF A PROBLEM
Doctors and teachers.
THROUGH OBSERVATION
SOME MILESTONES OF
- This is the beginning step of scientific
ADVANCEMENTS THAT HAVE BEEN
knowledge and investigation.
ACHIEVED.
• Computers. • The internet - Scientists make observations every day,
• Digital sound • Digital video for which they wish to get answers and
• Artificial satellites. • Jet engines explanations.
• Solar power. •. TV - The following is an example of an
• Space crafts. • Electron microphone observation; “An iron pin is able to lie on
the surface of water without sinking, when
• GPS
it is placed very carefully”.
CHAPTER TWO 2. CHANGE THE PROBLEM INTO A
QUESTION.
SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
- Scientists ask questions from the
observation they make.

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- The questions may take several forms such experiment or observation based on a
as why, how, what and when. hypothesis.

- A good question that can be answered 4. EXPERIMENTATION.

through scientific investigation should be
-This stage involves carrying out the
well defined, testable, measurable and
experiment to test the hypothesis.
controllable.
- The following is an example of a scientific - This involves identifying variables and
question: “What is the relationship quantities to be measured:
between the weight of a locating object
a. Controlled variables: these are variables
and that of the liquid it displaces when
that you keep constant so that they do not
floating?”
interfere with your test.
3. DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS
b. Independent variables: these are all
- A hypothesis is a guessed possible answer variables you control as you wish within
to the question. suitable ranges of the investigation.
c. Dependent variables: these are variables
- It can come from experience or existing
you measure every time you change
scientific knowledge.
your independent variables.
- It must be testable in order to approve or
THE FORMAT OF AN EXPERIMENT
disapprove it.
a. Title of the experiment
- It is possible to have more than one ➢ This gives the aim of the experiment
hypothesis to one question. clearly stating what the experiment is set to
investigate. E.g. To investigate why wood
- The following is an example of a
float on paraffin.
hypothesis: “Wood floats on a paraffin
b. Apparatus and materials
because its density is lower than that of
paraffin. ➢ Materials to be used need to be listed.
c. The procedure to be followed
NOTE: Prediction is a specific forecast or
➢ The procedure is a step by step
expectation about the outcome of an
description of what need to be done.

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- It also includes a well labeled diagram on get a smooth curve or straight line may
how the apparatus should be set up. sometimes require drawing the line or a
➢ It should include series of statements curve of best fit.
indicating what quantities will be measured
➢ When the analysis is done by calculation,
and the instruments to be used for each
the average of the results for each set of
quantity.
measurement is used.
d. observation
➢ Usually, the gradient, intercept or area
-Whatever is being observed must be under a graph is considered.
recorded. f. conclusion
- Results can be presented using; Charts,
Graphs and Tables. ➢ This stage evaluates the analysis and
gives a statement of the findings showing
Advantages of presenting data on table
whether the original hypothesis has been
1. Data is arranged in the order which
supported or no not.
it is recorded.
➢ Sources of errors are discussed in the
2. Helps one to deduce patterns in the conclusion.
data.
➢ There are three groups of errors in an
3. It encourages good presentation and
experiment and these are:
organization of data in an orderly manner.
1. Personal errors- arise from personal
biasness and carelessness.
Advantage of presenting data in graph
2. Systematic errors- arise directly from
1. Errors associated with experimental
the instruments used
results are averaged.
2. They provide experimental results 3. Random errors- arise in measurement
beyond the data in the table. caused by many factors that vary from one
measurement to another
e. Analysis of the results
➢ These errors can be minimized by
➢ This may involve drawing an appropriate
repeating the experiment at least two or
graph, calculating some quantities etc.
three times and the average of data obtained.
➢ The graph may be a straight or curve. To
4. EXPLANATION

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 6
➢ This is the statement that justifies the that guides the daily activities in the

answer or hypothesis. laboratory to minimize accidents.

➢ It is important to note that a single - Generally, the rules and regulations fall
under seven main categories:
measurement is unreliable for making
scientific claims. Hence, scientists make 1. PERSONAL SAFETY RULES
measurements from the same experiment in • Read labels carefully.
order to be sure of the accuracy of the • Follow instructions to the latter.
measurement. • Long hair or loose clothes must be tied
CHAPTER 3 back or confined
• Clean up your work area before leaving.
LABORATORY AND SAFETY
• While inside the laboratory, do not run,
MEASURES
play or throw things.
LABORATORY • Never chew, eat or drink in the laboratory.
- Is a setting or place where experiments are • Inform the teacher at once about accidents.
carried out.
2. EMERGENCY RESPONSE SAFETY
- There are two types of laboratories: RULES
1. Formal laboratory. • Know the location of the fire extinguisher,

- is a facility and often in form of a building eye wash and safety shower in your

specifically designed and constructed for the laboratory.

purpose of carrying out scientific research, • Attend training by the teacher on how to

experiments and measurement. use fire extinguisher, eye wash and safety
shower.
2. Informal laboratory • Inform your teacher immediately at the

- refers to any other facility, place or space occurrence of an injury, fine or explosion

where experiments may be carried out other and spillages.

than designated building e.g. Open ground, 3. COMMON SENSE SAFETY RULES
Classroom and Halls. • Before responsible for your safety and that

LABORATORY SAFETY MEASURES of others including the laboratory as a

- Are the safety set of rules or regulations whole.

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• If at any time you are not sure of how to • Ensure that you do not taste chemicals in
handle a particular situation, feel free to get the laboratory.
advice from your teacher or laboratory
• Never handle radioactive material with
assistant.
bare hands (use tongs and forceps).
4. EQUIPMENT SAFETY RULES
7. OTHER SAFETY RULES
• Follow instructions on how to use an
• Only experiments authorized by the
equipment carefully before using it.
teacher should be conducted in the
• Use the appropriate equipment for the
laboratory
appropriate purpose of laboratory activity.
• Conducting experiments in groups require
• Report to the teacher any damage to an
team spirit.
equipment as well as any faculty equipment.
• Never heat glass bottles and containers • Cleanliness is next to Godliness; ensure the
with the stoppers on as build up pressure laboratory is clean and organized.
could cause an explosion.
• All experiments must be completed before
5. ELECTRICAL SAFETY RULES you can change places.
• Report to the teacher the presence of loose
• Be honest with your work and data.
electrical wires.
Why should one follow safety rules when
• Switch on electricity only when instructed
working in the laboratory?
by the teacher or laboratory assistant.
• To prevent damage of materials and
• Your hands must be dry when working chemicals.
with electricity. • To prevent people from being injured.
• To prevent death of people working in and
• Open live electrical circuits should be
around the laboratory.
avoided under all circumstances.
• To prevent damage of the laboratory.
6. CHEMICAL SAFETY RULES
How can one protect oneself when
• Follow instructions on how to use the
working in the laboratory?
chemicals in any laboratory activity.
• By wearing a laboratory coat to protect
• Keep your skin away from contact with clothes from dirt and chemicals.
chemicals. • By wearing plastic goggles to protect eyes

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from solid particles, splashing liquids and into wounds bandages, gauze and cotton
strong light. wool.
• By wearing gloves to protect hands from 3. Bandages and cotton wool -To clean and
corrosive chemicals. cover wounds.
• By holding hot objects with holders such 4. Sterilized new razor blades -Used when
as a pair of tongs, improvised holders such treating new or old wound.
as a piece of folded paper. 5. Sterilized wound - To clean and cover
• By tying long hair at the back. wounds.
6. Safety pin - To tighten clip bandages.
• By preparing irritating gases in the fume
7. One jar of petroleum jelly - To apply on
chamber or open space.
burns.
FIRST AID 8. Iodine tincture - To clean fresh cuts and
bruises.
• First aid is the immediate care given to
9. Soap - To wash hands and wounds.
accident victims or an injured person before
10. Antibiotic solution - To clean wounds.
he/she is taken to the hospital for further
medical treatment. 11. Safety pins
12. Forceps and Gloves.
• It reduces pain and it helps to bring
hope and encouragement to accident CAUSES OF ACCIDENT IN THE
victims. LABORATORY

FIRST AID KIT 1. Misuse or wrong handling of acid and

• A First Aid Kit is a small box which is base.
placed in a safe and accessible place in the
2. Misuse or wrongly handling of toxic
lab and is used for the storage of instruments
substances.
and chemicals for first aid.
3. Heat; Naked flames, hot liquids,
• The first aid kit containing the following
flammable liquids and explosions.
item:
4. Electric shock.
1. Pair of scissors -To cut adhesive tapes,
bandages and gauze. 5. Injuries involving infectious material.
2. Rolls of adhesive tape -To hold firmly

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❖ The physics laboratory should have a fire
extinguisher and a first aid kit.

FIRST AID FOR ACCIDENT VICTIMS

➢ Burns (chemical, fire, and clothing on
fire) use deluge shower for 15 minutes, all
burns should be examined by medical
personnel.
➢ Chemical spills if large area is affected, MEANING: Explosive substance.

remove clothing and immerse victim in the INTERPRETATION: These are substances
safety shower, if small area has been that can explode.
affected use deluge shower.
√ Precaution: Avoid keeping explosives in
➢ Eye contamination, hold the eye wide
glass containers.
open and flash with water for 15 minutes,
seek medical attention. 2. TOXIC
➢ Ingestion of chemicals, take large
amounts of water, all chemical poisoning
should seek medical attention.

HAZARD SYMBOLS AND THEIR

MEANINGS

• Hazard symbols Are all symbols drawn on

MEANING: Toxic
the bottle or container of a substance that
carries specific warning to the user of the INTERPRETATION:
substance.
•Poisonous substance and Can cause death.
• The following are some of the common
Safety measure:
hazard symbols in a laboratory:
1. Avoid contact with the skin and eyes.
1. EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES
2. Avoid inhalation of gas or vapors.

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3. Handle material with extreme caution 5. Wear proper protective equipment
including eye, face and hand protection and
4. Wear proper protective equipment
protective clothing.
including eye, face and hand protection and
protective clothing. 4. HARMFUL/IRRITANT

5. Wear proper respiratory equipment and

work in well ventilated areas.

6. Wash thoroughly after handling the mate

2. OXIDISING

MEANING: Harmful substance

INTERPRETATION: Harmful substance

make your skin and health endangered.

√ Precaution:

• Do not come in contact with it.

MEANING: Oxidizing
• Avoid inhaling it more especially
INTERPRETATION: Can explode in the
asthmatic people.
presence of an oxidizing agent.
• They should be handled according to the
Safety Measures:
stipulated instructions.
1. Keep in a cool place
5. CORROSIVE SUBSTANCE
2. Avoid friction or shock

3. Keep away from combustible/flammable

material.

4. Never smoke when working near

combustibles.

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MEANING: Corrosive substance 2. Keep container tightly closed

INTERPRETATION: These substances 3. Avoid sparks or static discharges

burn skin as well can corrode floors and
4. Separate the material from other
desktops.
combustible and incompatible materials
Safety Measures:
5. Store the material in a cool, well-
1. Avoid skin contact ventilated area as designated by your
immediate supervisor.
2. Keep material contained in a tightly
closed container 7. BIOHAZARD

3.Do not breath fumes/vapors - wear proper

respirator and work in a well ventilated area

4. Wear proper protective equipment

including eye, face and hand protection and
protective clothing

6. FLAMMABLE
MEANING: Biohazard substance

INTERPRETATION: These substances can

cause disease in persons and animals.

Safety Measures:

1. Keep material contained in a tightly

MEANING: Highly flammable
closed container.
INTERPRETATION: These substances
2. Wear proper protective equipment
catch fire easily.
including eye, face and hand protection and
Safety Measures: protective clothing.

1. Keep away from heat/smoking/sources of 3. See your doctor if you feel sick.
ignition
8. GENERAL DANGER

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MEANING: General danger
MEANING: Dangerous substance for the
INTERPRETATION: The substance can
environment
cause health problems.
INTERPRETATION: Chemicals that may
Safety Measures:
cause an immediate or delayed danger to
1.Avoid skin contact environment.

2. Avoid inhalation of gas or vapors Safety measure: Proper dispose of

substance.
3.Wear proper protective equipment
including eye, face and hand protection and 10. RISK OF IONISING RADIATION
protective clothing.

4.Wear proper respiratory equipment and

work in well ventilated areas

5. Wash thoroughly after handling the

material

6. Store material in designated areas only

MEANING: RISK of ionizing radiation.
9. DANGEROUS FOR THE
Safety measure:
ENVIRONMENT
11. LASER BEAM

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 1. FIRE OUTBREAK

• Move to fire assembly points using fire

exit points.
• Inform the teacher or the instructor.
• If you can, use the fire extinguisher to put
the fire off.

MEANING: • If you can, switch off the main switch of

the laboratory wiring system.
Safety measure:
Note: Do not scream, run randomly.
12. RISK OF ELECTRIC SHOCK
2. ELECTRIC SHOCK

• Switch off the power at the socket first.

• Pull out the victim from the appliances.
• Give the victim first aids.
• If the victim is not breathing, tap three
times his or her left side of the chest.
• If not breathing, give a kiss of life i.e. help

MEANING: the victim to breathe.

• Seek the medical assistance from a medical
Safety measure:
personnel.

APPLYING SAFETY MEASURES IN 3. SUFFOCATION

THE LABORATORY • Take the victim out of the laboratory to

- Safety measure in the laboratory are the set open air for fresh air.

of safety guidelines that are supposed to be • Open all windows and doors.

followed in case of an emergency or • Seek assistance from the medical

accident in the laboratory. personnel.

- Below are some of the emergencies and 4. CHEMICAL SPILLAGE ON THE

accidents in the laboratory and emergency SKIN, FLOOR, TABLE ETC.

response. • Pour a lot of pure water to the affected part

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to dilute the chemical. 1. FUNDAMENTAL (BASIC)
• In case the chemical is in contact with your QUANTITIES
eye, use the eye wash
- are physical quantities from which other
• If you tasted the chemicals, drink clean
physical quantities are derived from.
water.
- In physics there are 7 fundamental
• Seek medication immediately.
quantities of measurements namely; Length,
5. BREAKING OF EQUIPMENT
Mass, Volume, Time, Temperature, Electric
•The teacher should guide the students to current and Amount of substance and
use equipment’s correctly. luminous intensity.
• Inform the teacher immediately.
Fundamental SI unit Symbol
• With the help of the teacher or instructor
quantity
collect the pieces of broken apparatus.
6. BREAKING OF GENERAL SAFETY Length Metre m

• Guide and counsel the students. Mass Kilogram Kg

• Use school disciplinary committee to
Time Second s
correct the student.
Temperature Kelvin K
CHAPTER FOUR
Current Ampere A
MEASUREMENTS I
Luminous candela cd
- Measurement is the process of assigning
intensity
numbers to observations or events.
Amount of mole mol
QUANTITIES
substance
- It is any observable property or process in
nature with which a number may be
associated. 2. DERIVED QUANTITIES

-This number is obtained by the operation of - These are quantities which are expressed in
measurements. terms of the fundamental quantities.

- There is two types of quantities:

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- The SI units of derived quantities are -It is short form for System International
obtained from equations using mathematical Units’.
expressions as follows.
- Examples of SI units are; meter, second,
- Some derived units have been given kilogram, Kelvin, Ampere etc.
names.
TYPES OF UNITS
-For example, force is measured in kgm/s2
1. BASIC SI UNIT
and has been given a named unit called a
Newton (N). - These are unit of measurement of a basic
quantity.
- Table below shows some quantities and
names of their derived unit. - Check the units of basic quantities.

Quantity Name of Symbol Base 2. DERIVED SI UNIT

unit unit
- Derived unit is the exponent, product or
Force Newton N Kgm/s2 quotient of base units.

Work Joule J Kgm2/s2 EXAMPLES:

Energy Joule J Kgm2/s2 1. Speed is derived by dividing length

(distance) by time, so the SI unit is m/s.
Power Watt W Kgm2/s3
2. Density is derived by dividing mass (Kg)
Pressure Pascal Pa Kg/ms2
by volume (m3) so the SI unit is Kg/m3.

Charge Coulomb C As
3. Acceleration is derived by velocity by
time, so the SI unit is m/s2.

SI UNITS AND SYMBOLS PREFIXES FOR SI UNITS

- is a standard abbreviation that is added to a
- SI units are units commonly used by all
unit of measurement to indicate a specific
scientists throughout the world.
multiple or fraction of that unit.

- It was adopted by modern scientific

- For example a word like, kilo stands for
literature.
1000. Since these words are used or fixed

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before the SI units there are called prefixes. - Units can be converted from one prefixes
The table below shows some common to another prefix using the information given
prefixes and their symbols. in the table.

Prefix Symbol Magnitude EXAMPLES:

atto a 10-18 1. Convert the following to mm

femto f 10-15 a. 308m b. 300µm

pico p 10-12 SOLUTION

nano n 10-9 To convert

Micro µ 10-6 a. 3.8m to mm

mill m 10-3 1m = 1000mm

centi c 10-2 3.8m = 3.8 × 1000mm = 3800mm

deci d 10-1 b. 300µm to mm

deca da 101 First convert 300µm to m

hecto h 102 1000000µm = 1m

300µm = 300÷1000000 = 0.0003m

kilo k 103

But 1m = 1000mm
Mega M 106

0.0003m = 0.0003×1000m = 0.3mm

Giga G 109
1. MEASURING LENGTH
Tera T 1012
- Length is the distance between two points.
15
Peta P 10 - The SI unit for length is metre(m).

Exa E 1018 - Other units for measuring length include:

kilometers (km), centimeters (cm),
millimeters (mm) and others.- The table
CONVERTSION OF UNITS

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below contains some of the unit of Length. - Position your eyes vertically above at the
other end of the block.

Unit Symbol Comparison - Repeat the procedure this time measuring

with Metre the width (W) and height (h) of the block.
Record your reading in a table.
1 kilometre Km 1000m

1 metre m 1m

1 centimetre Cm 0.01m

1 millimetre mm 0.001m

1 micrometer µm 0.000001m Experiment:

AIM: To measure the diameter of a

spherical object using a ruler.
- There are two types of instruments used
for measuring Length:

(a). METRE RULER

- Straight distances which are less than one

metre in length are generally measured using
metre rules.

- Metre rules are graduated in Centimeters Procedure

(cm). a. Place a cylindrical object on a metre rule
as shown above.
HOW TO USE A RULER?
b. Use two set squares to determine the
- Place the metre rule in contact with the boundaries of the ball.
block as shown in figure below.
c. Take the ruler readings, for X and Y.
The zero mark on the scale is placed at the d. Calculate the diameter of the ball:
age of the object.
The diameter of the spherical ball = (Y-X)

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CONCLUSION -Therefore, diameter of a wire is found by
diving the length of the wire by the number
Therefore, Diameter of any spherical or
of turns the wire makes with object
cylindrical object can be determined by
subtracting the final(Y) reading and (B). TAPE MEASURE
initial(X) reading on the metre rule. - A tape measure or a measuring tape is a
flexible form of ruler
EXAMPLE
- The type of tape measure to use depends
From diagram above, X=5.0cm, Y= 6.2cm.
on the distance to be measured.
The diameter of the spherical ball = (Y-X) NOTE: There are two factors to consider
cm = (6.2-5.0) cm = 1.2 cm when choosing instrument for measuring
length.
Experiment:
1. Size of object to be measured.
AIM: To measure the diameter of a wire
2. Accuracy required.
using a ruler.
2. MEASUREMENTS OF AREA
- Area refers to the measure of the extent of
spread of a surface.

- The SI unit of area is square metre (m2).

- Table below shows the unit of area, its

symbol and its relationship with the SI unit
Procedure
of area (m2).
a. Using the wire provided, make a number
of turns, n, closely wound as shown above. Unit Symbol Comparison with
b. Measure the length l, using a ruler. m2

The diameter (d) of the wire, is given by: 1 square Km2 1000000m2
kilometre

1 square m2 1m2
CONCLUSION metre

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 1 square Cm2 0.0001m2 (b). Area =L×W = 40cm × 30cm = 1200cm2
centimetre
Therefore, AREA= 1200 × 100mm2 =
1 square mm2 0.000001m2 120000mm2
millimetre
B. AREA OF IRREGULARLY SHAPED
OBJECTS
- The area of an irregularly shaped object
a.AREA OF REGULARLY SHAPED
can be estimated by diving it into small
OBJECTS
squares and adding them up.
- The area of a regularly shaped objects may
be obtained by measuring the relevant -In complete squares of area half or more the
dimensions and then applying the area of one square are considered as
appropriate formula. complete squares and those of area less than
half the area of one square are ignored. Use:
- The table shows some of the formula used
a. 1 cm squares. b. ½ cm squares
in the measurement of area.
EXAMPLE.

3. MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME
- Volume is the amount of space occupied
by a substance.

-The SI unit of volume is cubic meters (m3).

- Table below shows the SI unit of volume

EXAMPLE and its relationship with other unit of
volume.
1. The dimensions of a top a small coffee
table are 40cm by 30cm. calculate the area Unit Symbol With m3
of the top of the table in (a) m2 and (b) mm2
1 cubic Km3 1000000000m3
SOLUTION kilometer

(a). Area = L×W = 40cm × 30cm = 1200cm2

Therefore, Area = 1200÷10000 = 0.12m2

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 20
 1 cubic m3 1m3
metre

1 cubic cm3 0.000 001m3

centimetre

1 litre L 0.001m3 - The internal space occupied by an object or

substance can be expressed in form of
1 millilitre Ml 0.000 001m3
capacity.

- The SI unit of capacity is the litre (l).

EXAMPLES
Unit Symbol Relationship
A car uses 1 litre of petrol to cover a to litre
distance of 13km. how long, in metres
kilolitre kl 1000l = 1kl
would such a car cover with 30cm3 of
petrol? centilitres cl 1l = 100cl

Solution millilitre ml 1l = 1000ml

1 litre = 1 000 m3
I km = 1 000m
13 km3covers 13 000 m - Volume and capacity can be related as
Therefore, 30cm3 would cover (13 000 x 30) shown below:
÷1000 = 390 m
1ml = 1cm3
a. VOLUME OF REGULAR SHAPED
1000ml = 1 litre = 1000cm3
SOLIDS
- The volume of a regularly shaped solid 1000000ml = 1000 litres = 100000cm3
may be determined by measuring the = 1m3
required dimensions and then applying the
b. VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
appropriated formula.
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING
- Table below shows some of the solids and
VOLUME
the formulae to find their volumes.
- Instruments for measuring volume include:

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 21
measuring cylinders, burettes and pipettes, VOLUME OF SOLIDS BY
and beaker. DISPLACEMENT METHOD

- These instruments are already calibrated EXPERIMENT 1:

(marked) in the units of volume (cubic
AIM: To determine the volume of regularly
centimeters cm3) or capacity (millimeters,
shaped solids e.g Mable
ml).
MATERIALS: Marble, water, measuring
cylinder and string.

(FROM EXCEL 36)

PROCEDURE

a. Fill a measuring cylinder with water and

record the initial volume of water as V1.

b. Tie the marble to the string and carefully

lower it into the water in the measuring
cylinder.
- When using a measuring cylinder:
c. Record the new volume of the water as
a. Always place the cylinder on a flat V2.
surface and for liquid to stabilize.
d. Find the volume of the water displaced by
b. Always take the values from the subtracting V1 from V2 (V1-V2).
meniscus.
OBSERVATION/CONCLUSION

- The volume of the solid is equal to volume

of the water displaced.

EXPERIMENT 2:

AIM: To determine the volume of an

irregular shaped object using Eureka can.
- Meniscus is the curved surface of a liquid.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 22
MATERIALS: Eureka can, water, stone, - The SI unit of mass (kg) and other smaller
string and measuring cylinder. units of mass.

(FROM EXCEL 37)

PROCEDURE

a. Fill a eureka can with water until some of

it over flows through the spout.
- Mass is measured by:
b. Once the over flows stops, put the
A. Top pan electronic balance
measuring cylinder at the mouth of the
spout.

c. Tie the irregular solid with the string and

completely immerse it into the can.

d. Collect and measure the volume of the

water displaced.

OBSERVATION/CONCLUSION
- The object is placed on the scale and then
- The volume of the solid is equal to volume the value for its mass is read from the
of the water displaced. balance.

4. MEASUREMENT OF MASS B. Beam balance

- Mass is the amount of matter in a
substance.

- The Si unit is kilogram (kg).

- The object is placed in one pan (pan A),

and the selection of standard masses are

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 23
added to the other pan (Pan B) to make the Unit Symbol With SI
beam balance. unit

C. Triple beam balance 1 hour h 3600s

1 minute min 60s

1 second s 1s

1 millisecond ms 0.001s

1 microsecond s 0.000001s

- The object is placed on one pan which is

on one side. - Time is measured by watches (Clocks) and
stop watches:
- Each of the three weights can be slide until
the lever points at zero.

- Then mass of an object placed on the pan

is found by adding the readings on the
position of the weight.

5. MEASUREMENT OF TIME

- Time is the duration for a particular event

to take place. 6. MEASURING TEMPERATURE

- The SI unit of time is the second and its - Temperature is defined as the degree of

symbol is s. hotness and coldness.

- Table below shows the SI unit of time and - The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K).

its relationship with other larger and smaller - Other unit of temperature is degrees
units of time. Celsius (°C) and Degrees Fahrenheit.

- It is measured by the instrument called

thermometer.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 24
 Therefore, 27°C = (27+273) K = 300K.

2. Convert 327K to Celsius temperature.

SOLUTION

To convert Kelvin to Celsius, subtract 273.

CELSIUS AND KELVIN SCALES
- The lowest possible temperature that can Therefore, 327K = (327-273) °C = 54°C
be reached is known as absolute zero. CHAPTER 5
- Experiments on gases show that absolute
PARTICULATE NATURE OF
zero is approximately -273°C.
MATTER
- The kelvin temperature scale starts form
- Matter’ is defined as anything that
absolute zero.
occupies space and has mass.
- To convert temperature from Celsius
COMPOSITION OF MATTER
scale (o C) to Kelvin scale temperatures
- Matter is made up of tiny (small) particles
(in k), add 273 to the Celsius scale
called atoms or molecules.
temperature.
Experiment 1:
Temperature in K= temperature in o C + 273
AIM: To show that matter made up of tiny
Temperature in o C = temperature in K-273
particles.

0°C 273K
Procedure

-273°C 0K a. Take a large sheet of paper. Cut into small

bits
b. Take one of the small bits and cut it

EXAMPLES: further into small bits

c. Repeat this process several times.
1. Express the room temperature, 27°C in
Kelvin. e. How far can you proceed in this exercise
of cutting smaller bits of paper?
SOLUTION

To convert °C to Kelvin, Add 273

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 25
OBSERVATION ÀND CONCLUSION - Therefore, potassium permanganate
- Pieces of paper become too small that contains smaller particles called Molecules.
cannot be cut any more.
DIFFUSION AS THE EVIDENCE OF
- Therefore, matter is made up of tiny PARTICULATE NATURE OF
particles i.e. very small particles called MATTER
atoms.
- Diffusion is defined as the movement of
EXPERIMENT 2: particles from region of high concentration
to the region of low concentration.
AIM: To prove the existence of molecules in
a substance. EXPERIMENT:

MATERIALS: Water, potassium AIM: Diffusion of potassium permanganate

permanganate and beaker. crystals in Water.

MATERIALS: Potassium permanganate

crystals, water and thistle.

PROCEDURE

a. Pour water in the beaker.

b. Drop in a potassium permanganate at one

corner as shown above.

b. Wait for for 30 minutes, what do you see? PROCEDURE

OBSERVATION/CONCLUSION a. Set up the apparatus as shown above.

- When potassium permanganate is dropped b. Slide few crystals of potassium

in water, it breaks down into smaller permanganate through the funnel.

particles that move in the liquid and cause

c. Pour the water into the beaker with thistle
the whole liquid to become purple.
funnel still in the same position.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 26
d. Carefully remove the thistle funnel. - The main difference between these three
states of matter is on particle or atom
e. Leave the breaker standing for 10 minutes
arrangements and how they are bound
(Do not shake or stir).
together.
OBSERVATION /CONCLUSION
• In solids particles are held together by
- After 10 minutes, the pink color of the strong intermolecular force (IMF).
solution filled the whole beaker showing
- Particles form an orderly arrangement
that the particles of potassium permanganate
called a lattice.
moved from region of high concentration to
region of low concentration. • In liquid, particles are held together by
weaker IMF than in solids.
- The spreading of color shows that the
particles of potassium permanganate are • In Gases, particles are held together by
moving. very weak IMF.

- Therefore, matter is made up of tiny NOTE: Intermolecular force is the force of

particles i.e. very small particles called attraction between particles of matter.
atoms.

Another situation in which Diffusion is

apparent is the smell of perfume.

• The perfume particles move/diffuse

from the person wearing it to our nose. MOTION OF PARTICLES IN
MATTER
THE THREE STATES OF MATTER
1. Solid state
- Matter can be classified into three states
namely: - The molecules are continuously vibrating
to and fro about their fixed positions.
1. Solids e.g. stone, wood etc.
- Particles in solids cannot change their
2. Liquids e.g. Water, paraffin etc.
positions.
3. Gases e.g. Air and Hydrogen.
2. Liquid state

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 27
- Molecules in liquids are always in a PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
constant motion. - Have definite shape
- Particles can change position sliding over - Have definite volume.
each other. - Have very high density.
- Cannot be compressed.
- The ability of liquids to flow is called
- Have very strong intermolecular forces.
viscosity.
- Particles only vibrate to and fro.
3. Gaseous state.
- Particles are closely packed.
- Gas molecules move about freely in all
directions. PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
- Takes the shape of container.
- This constant random motion of the
- Have definite volume.
particles of air is called Brownian motion,
- Have medium density.
name after a Scottish scientist Robert
- Cannot be compressed.
Brown.
- Particles are far apart compared to solids.
- Have weaker intermolecular force
compared to solids.
- Vibrate stronger but within a fixed
position.

- The diagram of one particle of Gas in PROPERTIES OF GASES

random motion. - Takes the shape of the container.
- Have very low density.
- Can be compressed.

- Particles are much far apart compared to

the solids and liquids.
- Have weaker intermolecular forces.
NB: Diffusion in gases takes place more - Always in motion to any direction at any
quickly than in liquids. speed.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 28
NOTE: Gas are compressible because its HEAT
Particles are spacely packed. - Is a form of energy that arises from
random motion of particles of substance.
THE KINETIC THEORY
- The SI unit of heat is joule (J).
- The kinetic theory states that:
- When you add heat to a substance, you are
• All matter is made up of tiny, moving
adding energy to the substance.
particles, invisible to the naked eyes called
Molecules. - This added heat is usually expressed as an
increase in kinetic energies of atoms or
• The molecules attract each other strongly
molecules of the substance.
when they are close to each other.
- Increasing kinetic energy affect IMFs of
• The particles move All the time. The substances.
higher the temperature the faster they move.
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN KINETIC
• The heavier particles move more slowly ENERGY OF THE ATOMS IS
than lighter ones. INCREASED?
➢ The substance experience rise in
CHAPTER SX
temperature.
CHANGES OF STATES OF MATTER
➢ A substance can change its state.
TEMPERATURE
- Is the degree of hotness or coldness. Experiment:

- It can also be defined as the degree or AIM: To investigate the difference between
intensity of heat present in a substance or heat and temperature.
object.
- The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K).

- But is commonly measured in degrees

Celsius (°C).

- It is measured by the instrument called

thermometer.

Procedure

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 29
a. Take equivalent masses of water and of ➢ Heat energy depends on the speed of the
cooking oil in two identical test tubes fitted particles and type of particles while
with two identical thermometers. temperature does not.
b. Place these tubes in a large beaker
EFFECTS OF HEAT ON MATTER
containing water as in figure above.
- When heat is supplied or removed,
c. Note the initial temperature of both water • Kinetic of particles change in any state of
and oil in the tubes. matter

d. Heat the water in the beaker and make • State of matter changes
sure that the heat is distributed uniformly by • Volume of substance changes
stirring the water.
• Density changes.
e. After some time, note the temperature of
• Force between particles changes.
water and oil in the tubes (Are the two
temperatures the same?). ➢ An increase in heat cause

Observation and conclusion. • Solids to melt into liquids

- The temperature of water is observed to be • Liquids to change to gas

lower than that of oil.

- Therefore, two substances can have equal

heat energy supplied but be at different
temperatures. ➢ A decrease or reduction in heat cause the
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN following:
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
• Substances in gaseous state to condense
➢ Heat is the form of energy while
into liquids.
temperature is the degree of hotness and
• Liquids to freeze into solid.
coldness.
➢ Heat is measured in joules while
temperature is measured in degrees Celsius
or Kelvin.
➢ Energy can be transported without the
temperature of a substance changing.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 30
MELTING AND FREEZING temperature remains constant for a period of
- Melting is the change of state of matter time.
from solid to liquid.
- During this period, the ice is observed to
• Temperature at which it changes is called
be melting.
melting point.
- At C all the ice has melted and it becomes
• The melting point is 0°C under standard
water.
atmospheric pressure.
3. After all the ice has melted, the
• Thermal energy absorbed during the temperature of water starts rising again as
melting process is called latent heat. seen along the line CD of the graph.
4. From 0°C, the temperature of ice at 0°C
- Freezing is defined as the change of state
starts to drop steadily.
of matter from liquid to solid.
- If pressure remains unchanged, a solid
• The temperature at which it changes is
substance melts and freezes at 0°C.
called freezing point.
FACTORS AFFECTING MELTING
•The freezing point of pure water is 0°C
POINT OF A SUBSTANCE
under standard atmospheric pressure.
A. Pressure

- The melting point of ice decreases with

the increase in pressure.

B. Impurities

- Impurities is defined as the substance

- The graph shows that:
added to the pure substance.
1. The temperature of ice rises steadily from - Impurities decrease the melting point of a
-10°C to 0°C. substance.

- During this time, along AB, the ice BOILING

remains as solid. - Boiling is a process in which a liquid is
2. At 0°C, along the line BC, the changed to vapour at a constant temperature.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 31
- If pressure remains unchanged a liquid • During this period, water is observed to be
substance always boils at a fixed boiling.
temperature.
• At C all water has turned into water vapor.
-This temperature is called the boiling point 3. After water has turned into vapor, the
of the liquid. temperature of vapor rises again as seen
along the line CD of the graph.
- The boiling point of water is 100°C under
- Figure below shows the typical graph that
standard atmospheric pressure.
can be drawn to what happens to
- Thermal energy absorbed during the temperature as heat is being supplied (This
boiling process is called the latent heat of graph is called the Heating curve).
vaporization.

- Figure below shows the graph from the

boiling process:

1st stage (a to b).

• Temperature increases.

• Heat is used to raise temperature of an Ice.

- The graph shows that:
1. The temperature of water rises steadily 2nd stage (b to c)
from room temperature.
• Graph is constant (no temperature change,
• During this time, along AB, water remains temperature is 0°C).
as liquid.
• Heat is used to rearrange molecules into
2. At 100°C, along this line BC, the
the structure of liquid (heat is used to
temperature remains constant for a period of
weaken IMF instead of raising temperature).
time.
3rd stage (c to d)

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 32
• Temperature starts rising again. Procedure
a. Take two beakers and half fill them with
• Heat is used to raise the temperature of
water as in the figures above.
liquid.
b. Heat one beaker and record time how
4th stage (d to e)
long it takes for the water to boil.
• Graph is constant (no temperature change,
c. Repeat the experiment with the second
temperature is 100°C).
beaker but put this time cover the mouth of
• Heat is used to weaken IMF instead of beaker tightly with a lid.
raising temperature. d. Compare the time taken for the water in
the two beakers to boil.
. This 100°C is the boiling point of water.
OBSERVATION AND CONCLUSION
5th stage (e and beyond)
-The beaker with a lid takes less time to boil
• Temperature starts increasing again. than the uncovered beaker.

• Heat is used to raise the temperature of - Boiling point of water increases with
gas. increase in pressure.
b. Impurities
FACTORS THAT AFFECT BOILING
POINT - Impurities refers to a substance added to a
a. Pressure pure substance.
➢ Under standard atmospheric pressure, - Impurities in water increase the boiling
pure water boils at 100oc. point.
The boiling point of water, however,
- If impurities like salt are added to water, it
changes with the change in pressure acting
is seen that pure water boils at higher
upon its pressure.
temperature than 100°C.
➢ Lowering the pressure on surface of
liquid lowers the boiling point of water. - This is because extra heat is needed to
break the network of impurities on the
EXPERIMENT: surface of water.

AIM: To show the effect of pressure on c. Altitude

boiling point of water.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 33
- Altitude refers to the height of an object or 100°C - 60°C = 40°C
point in relation to sea level or ground level.
If 1°C = 300m
- As altitude increases, the pressure
decreases hence lowering the boiling point. 40°C =? (More).

- Water at sea Level boils at 100°C. Hence the altitude = (40°C÷1°C) × 300m =
1200m.
- For everyone 300m Increase In altitude,
there is an equivalent 1°C decrease in THE PRESSURE COOKER
boiling point. - This is an appliance which uses the fact
that boiling point is directly proportional to
EXAMPLES
the pressure.
1. What is the boiling point of water at the - The pressure cooker is made of an
top of mount Everest 9000m above the sea aluminum container with a lid having a
Level? rubber sealing called gasket. This ring
makes it airtight.
Solution

If 300m = 1°C

9000m=? (More)

(9000m÷ 300n) × 1°C = 30°C

Since the boiling point of water at sea Level

is 100°C and there is decrease of 30°C, the
boiling point of water at 9000m above the
sea Level is: HOW A PRESSURE COOKER WORK?
➢ When cooking using pressure, a space of
100°C-30°C = 70°C
not less than 1/3 of the volume is left empty
2. What is the altitude of a mountain if water at the top where the steam pressure builds up
boils at 60°C at its top? to about twice atmospheric pressure.
➢ A loaded pin valve is used to release
Solution
some steam in order to maintain the required
The decrease in boiling point is: pressure and avoid explosion due to too

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 34
much build up pressure inside. - Boiling of the substance depends on the
➢ The pressure in the cooker can be nature of the liquid..

regulated by using weights placed on the pin - The liquid that has low boiling point
valve. Due to high pressure the water boils evaporates fast than that with high boiling

at 120oc which makes food cook faster. point.

EVAPORATION SIMILARITIES BETWEEN

- Change of state of matter from liquid to EVAPORATION AND BOILING
gas.
1. Both evaporation and boiling are
- The temperature at which it changes is
processes where a liquid changes its state to
called evaporation point.
vapour.
- It is equal to the boiling point.
2. Both processes, requires latent heat of

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE vaporization.

RATE OF EVAPORATION.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
1. Temperature
EVAPORATION AND BOILING
- Increase in temperature increases the rate
of evaporation. - Evaporation takes place at all temperatures

- Molecules gain more kinetic energy. while boiling takes place at fixed

2. Surface area. temperature called boiling point.

- Evaporation takes place on the surface of - Evaporation takes place at the surface of

the liquid. the liquid while boiling takes place

- Increase in surface area increases throughout the mass of the liquid.

evaporation rate. - Once evaporation takes place, there is a

3. Pressure. fall in temperature which causes a

cooling effect while once boiling takes
- Decrease in pressure on the surface of
place, the temperature of the liquid remains
liquid increases the rate of evaporation of a
at constant.
substance.
- Evaporation is a slow and a calm process
4. Draught (air current).
while boiling is a rapid and a noisy process.
- Air current moving on the surface of the
liquid increases the rate of evaporation. SOME APPLICATIONS OF COOLING

5. Nature of liquid. EFFECT CAUSED BY EVAPORATION

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 35
- Water in clay pots is colder than the one in - The main parts of a refrigerator are: the
metal pot because its latent heat escapes. compressor, the condenser, evaporator and
- Methylated spirit sprayed on the skin, the the expansion valve.
skin feels cold because the methylated spirit
-The compressor and the condenser are
has lower boiling point and can change from
outside the refrigerator while the
liquid to vapour quite easily.
evaporating coil and expansion valve are
- Human being sweat on hot day or after a
inside it.
severe exercise while the dog pant because
their bodies are not porous. - The ‘refrigerant’, i.e. the liquid used in the
- When we want to perspire in hot days, we refrigerator’s circulatory system is Freon.
sit below an electric fan where cooling is
- An ideal temperature for storing most of
done due to rapid evaporation.
food items is 7°C.
- In hot weather, sprinkling of roads with
water reduces dust particles from the road
and cooling effect by evaporation.
- When we expose ourselves to wind with
wet clothes, we feel cold due to rapid
evaporation.
- Refrigerator uses cooling effect caused by
evaporation.

THE REFRIGERATOR
- A refrigerator is an appliance from keeping
items cold.

- The operation of a refrigerator depends on

two facts:
1. When a liquid evaporates it takes up its
latent heat.
2. When a vapour condenses it gives out its
latent heat. SUBLIMATION AND DEPOSITION

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 36
- Sublimation is when a solid is transformed - To push is to make the body move away
directly into a gas without passing through from you.
liquid state when heated. - The SI unit of force is Newton (N) named
by Isaac Newton.
- Deposition is when gas is transformed into
a solid without passing through a liquid state - The symbol of force is
when cooled.

- Examples of substances that can undergo

TYPES OF FORCE
sublimation and deposition are iodine,
carbon and carbon dioxide. 1. Magnetic force - is force exerted by the
magnet.
NB: - Condensation is the change of state of
matter from gas to liquid. 2. Spring force - is force exerted by the
- The temperature at which it changes is spring when it is stretched.
condensation point.
3. Friction force - is force that opposes
- Figure below is the complete process of motion.
change of states of matter.
4. Electrostatic force - is a force exerted by
charged objects.

5. Gravitational force - is a force that pulls

objects down under the influence of gravity.

EFFECTS OF FORCE ON OBJECTS

➢ The effect of force depends on the size,
CHAPTER SEVEN
nature, how and where the force is applied.
FORCES ➢ Some of the effects are;

- This is the push or pull of something. 1. Changes the state of bodies i.e. starts,
stop, increase or reduce motion, change
- To pull is to make the body move towards
direction of motion.
you.
2. Change the shape of the body i.e. distort,
stretch, compress.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 37
3. Cause turning effect i.e. sea-saw beam
balance.

4. Cause rotation in the bodies i.e. steering

wheel.
5. Cause the heating effect i.e. frictional Procedure
force.
a. Setup the apparatus as in the figure above.
6. Cause noise when rough surfaces are
rubbed. b. Pull the block until the block is just about

7. Change speed of moving objects. to move.

c. Record the value of this force. The pointer
MEASURING FORCE
shows the force that is required to move the
- Force is measured by an instrument called
block
a force meter or a spring balance.
d. Repeat the experiment with a metal block.
- The SI unit of force is Newton (N) .
e. Record your observations.
- Figure below shows the Spring balance.
Observation and conclusion
- To move a lead block, you need to apply a
bigger force than in moving a wooden block
of the same dimension.

- Therefore, for a body to move, a force

must be applied and the size of force
depends on the mass of an object.

BALANCED FORCES
➢ These are forces that are equal in size and
EXPERIMENT:
are opposite in direction.

AIM: To determine the size of a force

Examples of balanced forces are;
required to move a body.
1. Standing or sitting on the surface

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 38
 ➢ When an object is in motion it stays in
motion with the same speed and in the same
direction if balanced forces act on it.
➢ The point when an object is being acted
upon by two forces of equal magnitude that
acts in opposite direction is called
equilibrium.
- The surface pushes up against the metal
UNBALANCED FORCES
block, balancing out the (force) of the metal
➢ Means that the force applied in one
block.
direction is greater than the force applied in
2. In a tug of war, if the two teams have the opposite direction.
equal strength or force the, rope will stay in EFFECTS OF UNBALANCED FORCES
the same place.
➢ They change the speed of moving object.

3. Floating objects ➢ They change the direction of moving

objects.
➢ They start or stop motion,

When working with unbalanced force:

a. Forces in the same direction combine by

- It is floating because the weight of the log I addition.
balanced by the Up thrust from the water. b. Forces in the opposite direction combine
by subtraction.
4. Hanging objects
RESULTANT FORCE
- The force pulling down and the force
pulling up can be said to be in balance. - It is the sum of two or more forces.
EFFECTS OF BALANCED FORCES
- It is the final force acting on an object.
➢ Balanced forces bring no change in
- If forces are to the opposite direction, the
motion.
forces do subtract.
➢ When an object is at rest remains at rest
when balanced forces act upon it.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 39
 possible motion between surfaces when the
surfaces are just about to move.

EXPERIMENT:

AIM: To demonstrate friction in solids.

Procedure
a. Place the wooden block with the spring
- Resultant force of balanced forces is Zero. attached on the bench.
b. Pull a wooden block using a light spring
EXAMPLES
across a bench and observe what happens.
Find resultamt force
c. Place a pencil on a horizontal bench and
give it a push. Observe what happens.

Discussion
- At first, the spring extends without the
SOLUTION: F2-F1=30N-20N=10N wooden block moving and then the block
starts to move. At first there is a force
FRICTIONAL FORCE
preventing the stationary block of wood to
- Is defined as the opposing force acting on a move.
moving object. - Frictional force always acts in such a
direction as to oppose the motion of an
- It always acts against the direction of the
object.
moving object.
- To find the resultant force when there is
- There are two types of frictional force;
friction force;
1.Dynamic friction is the force opposing
motion when there is relative motion. Resultant force (The final force) =
2. Static friction is the force opposing any Pushing force - friction force.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 40
  Friction produces heat: 3. It helps us when walking, since shoes
cause frictional force when sliding over the
 If you rub your hands together and
floor or ground.
place them on your cheeks, they feel
warmer. 4. It helps not to skid off when you ride a
bike.
 Striking a match stick on the match
box produces fire. 5. It helps when cleaning pots with sand.

 The brake pads or linings will feel 6. It helps when cleaning metals with sand

quite hot after the brakes have been paper.

applied.
7. It helps when mopping (cleaning floors).

NOTE: Frictional force in air is called

DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTIONAL
viscous drag.
FORCE
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIZE OF
FRICTIONAL FORCE 1. It slows down the movement, then makes
the object to stop.
1. The nature of the surface in contact
2. It leads to energy loss in the form of heat.
- Friction is directly proportional to the load
being pulled. 3. It causes wearing of things e.g. tires and
shoes.
2. The size of the sliding object
WAYS OF REDUCING FRICTION
- The friction force is greater when the size
of the object is bigger than when the size is 1. Making the surface smooth which makes

small. the object to decelerate slowly.

ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION 2. The moving surface must be greased.

1. It is used in disc brakes that are used to 3. Rolling the object instead of sliding
slow down moving vehicles. because when sliding, the object produces a

2. It slows down the speed of parachutist in lot of heat.

order to land safely.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 41
4. Make sure that the object that are moving 5. Mass is a scalar quantity because it has no
in fluid (air and liquid) are streamlined in direction while weight is a vector quantity
order to reduce the friction force. because it has a direction.

MASS AND WEIGHT 6. Mass is measured in kilograms (Kg) while

weight is measured in Newton (N).
MASS- Is defined as the quantity of matter
that an object has. The SI unit of mass is THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MASS
kilograms (kg). The SI unit is kg. AND WEIGHT

WEIGHT -Is the pull of gravity on an - Mass and weight are related as: 1Kg = 10N
object.
Therefore, Weight = mass × gravity (g) =
- Gravity is the downwards force which mg
attracts the object to the ground.
EXAMPLES
- The SI unit for weight is Newton (N).
A bicycle of mass 10kg is authorized to
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MASS AND carry 2 passengers. If the average mass per
WEIGHT passenger is 50 kg, calculate
a. The weight of the bicycle
1. Mass is the quantity of matter contained
b. The weight of all passengers.
in a body while weight is the force by which
the body is pulled to earth's surface. c. The total weight of the bicycle and the
passengers.
2. Mass remains the same everywhere while
weight changes due to the size of the CHARACTERISTICS OF WEIGHT OR
Gravitational force applied by the earth. FORCE OF GRAVITY

3. Mass can never be zero while weight can 1. It always acts downwards.
be zero if there is no gravitational force
2. It always attracts objects.
acting on the body like that in the space.
3. It can actually on any material which has
4. Mass is measured by a beam balance
mass.
while weight is measured by a spring
balance.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 42
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIZE OF Therefore, Weight = (5kg × 10N) ÷ 1kg =
WEIGHT 50kg.

1. Its distance from the earth center or center ii. Weight on the moon = 1/6 × weight on
of gravity. earth = 1/6 x 50N = 8.33N

2. The mass of gravity - the greater the mass 2. The weight of a box on the earth is
of gravity, the greater the weight or force of 1000N. What is its Mass on the earth?
gravity and vice versa.
SOLUTION
Weight on Earth = 6 × weight on the
If 10N = 1kg
moon.
1000N = More
Weight on moon = 1/6 × weight on the
earth Therefore, mass on earth = (1000N ÷ 10N) ×
1kg = 100kg.
EXAMPLE
CHAPTER EIGHT
1. A packet of sugar on earth has a mass of
5Kg. WORK

a. Find the Mass of sugar on: i. Earth - Is the product of force and distance moved
ii. Moon. in the direction of the force
- Work in science is done only when there is
b. Find the weight of sugar on: i. Earth.
a displacement caused in a certain direction.
ii. Moon.
- Work done = force x distance = f × d.
SOLUTION - Force is measured in newton while
distance is measured I metres. Therefore,
a. Mass on earth = 5Kg. Mass on
work is measured in newton metre. Newton
the moon = 5Kg
metre is called joule
b. i. Weight on earth
- The following are examples where work is
1Kg = 10N being done:

5Kg = more, 1. When picking up a book from the floor to

your desk.

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2. When dragging a 40Kg of stone up the find the work done by the builder in raising
platform. herself through his height, if her mass is 60
kg.
3. When climbing up the stairs.
Sol
- The following are examples where work is
W = F x h = mg x h = 60 x 10 x 4m = 600 x
not being done;
4 = 2 400 J
1. When thinking about or solving a
EXERCISE
mathematical problem in your head.
1. Work done by a woman to climb a ladder
2. When reading and trying to understand
of the length 20m is 4000Nm. What is her
what It all means.
weight?
3. When holding a 30kg Bag of maize on
2.A bucket of mass 2kg is pulled out of a
your head.
well, 50m. Find the work done against force
4. When pushing a rigid wall. of gravity.
2. A builder climbs a staircase of height 4m.
CALCULATING WORK DONE
Find the work done by the builder in raising
EXAMPLES herself through this height if her mass is
60kg.
1. Calculate the work done on a block if the
block is pulled steadily through a distance of WORK DOLNE AGAINST FRICTIONAL
3 m by a force of 60N. FORCE
Solution - When a force is applied on a body resting
on a surface, frictional force is developed
W = F x d = 60 N x 3m = 180Nm or 180J
between the surfaces in contact.
2. A bucket of mass 2kg is pulled out of a
well, 50m. Find the work done against force - Hence work has to be done to overcome
of gravity. friction.
Solution

W = F x h = mg x h = 20 N x 50 m = 1
000NM or 1 000 J
3. A builder climbs a staircase of height 4 m.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 44
Work done by the applied force = Fa x d - Water trapped between rocks is heated and
Work done against friction force = Ff x d may be released to the earth.
Useful work done = Fad- Ffd - This vapour can be used in generating
electricity.
CHAPTER NINE
- This type of electricity is called
ENERGY geothermal electricity.

- Energy Is the ability to do work. DISADVANTAGE

- Is measured in joules (J).
- Expensive to install.
SOURCES OF ENERGY
3. Biomass and bio gas energy
- Sources of energy is classified into two: - Is the energy obtained from degradation of
A. RENEWABLE SOURCES organic materials such as animal and
1. Solar energy agriculture wastes.
- is defined as energy from the sun.
- Biogas may trapped using a biogas plant.
- Is used by both plants and animals.
- Light energy can be trapped in solar cells - A biogas plant is made up of a
and stored in accumulators as electrical fermentation chamber, a floating gas
energy. chamber, an inlet and an outlet pipe.

- Heat may be trapped by solar heaters

which are used to heat water.

DISADVANTAGE

- Expensive to install

- Not always available.

- Solar cells must be large to deliver useful

amount of power. DISADVANTAGE
2. Geothermal energy
- Requires a lot of land
- Is the higher temperature found in some 4. Tidal energy
regions of the earth. - Caused by gravitational force between the

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 45
earth and the moon. DISADVANTAGE
- The high-level of water at high-tidal is
- Expensive to install.
trapped.
- This is used as a source of potential - Few areas in the world are suitable.
energy.
- A Dam can cause floods that can damage
5. Wind energy
environment.
- Wind is source of energy called wind
7. Wave electricity
power.
- Waves moves up and down as they pass
- This is done by the rotation of the turbine
by.
blades then converted to electric current by
means of an electric generator. - Machines convert this up and down motion
- Examples include wind mills, water of the wave into a circular motion which can
pumps, dynamos. turn the shaft of turbine and generate
electricity.
DISADVANTAGE
- Its advantage is that it costs little to run.
- Expensive to install
DISADVANTAGE
- Requires large site.
- Expensive to install.
- Wind turbines are noisy can spoil
landscape. - Its not always available.

- Not always available. B.NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES

1. Fossil energy
6. HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY
- These are fuels that were formed from
- A dam is created and using the resulting
remains of plants and animals that lived
water force, it turns a water turbine and
millions of years.
generators.
- During decaying, the plants are converted
- It Can also be generated by capturing the to coal, oil or natural gases.
kinetic energy in rivers e.g. nkula power - These are extracted for human use. E.g.
plant. fuel for motor vehicles.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 46
DISADVANTAGES OF FOSSIL ENERGY - Is the form of energy in which body is able
- Increase garble warming. to do work. There are two types of
- Limited supply of fuel available. mechanical energy:
2. Nuclear energy
a. Potential energy
- This is energy stored in the nuclei of
atoms. - This is a form of energy which a body
possesses as a result of its position.
- Some atoms are unstable and decay in
nuclear reactions to form more stable atoms - Potential energy is also called
called radioactive atoms. Gravitational energy or Gravitational
potential energy.
- These radioactive atoms release energy.
b Elastic potential energy or strain energy
- Nuclear reactors are used to produce this
- This is the form of energy which is
energy.
possessed by stretched objects e.g. spring.
- This energy is risk and can cause damage
c. Kinetic energy
of life.
- This is the form of energy that a body
DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR possesses because of its motion.
ENERGY
2. Chemical energy
- Possibility of nuclear accidents - This is a form of energy which is stored in
food, batteries and fuel.
- Not easy to dispose the waste
3. Sound energy
FORMS OF ENERGY.
- This is a form of energy due to vibrations
1. Mechanical energy
such as ringing bells, hitting drums and

other musical instruments. 6. Nuclear energy.

4. Light energy
7. Thermal energy.
- This is the form of energy which Is
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
produced when objects glow.
- A device that converts energy from one
5. Electrical energy.
from to another is called a Transducer.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 47
- Figure below shows a chart of some of
energy transformation with respect to their
transducers.

NOTE: Other transformations happens b. Hammering a nail, potential energy is

during: converted into heat, sound a work is done

a. A bulb converts electrical energy to light to drive the nail.

and heat c. Swinging a simple pendulum

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 48
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY
- It states that energy can neither be
destroyed nor created but can be converted
into other forms of energy.

WAYS OF SAVING ENERGY

1. Switch off the bulbs when they are not in

The pendulum at points A and C only use especially during the day.
possess P.E.
2. Unplug all the appliances that are not in
At point B, it possesses K.E. use.
Between A and B and B and C it possesses
3. Use energy saving bulbs
both KE and PE.

UNIT TEN
ELECTRIC CURRENT

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
- Electric circuit is defined as the complete path along which negative charges or electron

- A circuit is a complete path through which charges flow.

- A conductor is a solid material in which electrons flow freely or easily.

- The symbol of Current is I.

BASIC ELECTRIC APPARATUS

- Table shows some symbols used in electric circuit diagrams.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 49
SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

- Below is an example of circuits diagram

and their symbols.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 50
- A switch is simply a gap in a circuit which can easily be opened or closed. It's function is to
turn the circuit on and of

TYPES OF CIRCUIT - If more bulbs are added, the brightness of

the bulbs would dim.
1. SERIES CIRCUIT
- It is not possible to control the lights in
- This is the type of circuit in which
different rooms throughout the house on the
components are connected in a straight line.
same circuit.
- It has one conducting path.
PARALLEL CIRCUIT

- This is the type of circuit to which

components are connected in branches.

- It has more than one conducting path.

ADVANTAGES OF A SERIES CIRCUIT

- It uses less electricity.

- You can Add more power sources e.g cells

ADVANTAGES OF A PARALLEL
DISADVANTAGES OF SERIES CIRCUIT CIRCUIT

- If one bulb blows the circuit Is broken and - If one bulb blows there will still be a
so no current flows. complete circuit through the other bulbs so it
will remain lit.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 51
- The brightness of the bulbs will be greater 2. Close the switch and note the brightness
than the brightness of bulbs in series. of the bulb.

ARRANGEMENT OF BULBS IN AN 3. Repeat the experiment with different

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT number of bulbs 2, 3 and 4.
- Bulbs can be connected either in series or
Observation
in parallel in electric circuits.
- As the number of bulbs increases in the
A. Bulbs in series circuit
circuit, the brightness becomes dimmer.
- The energy provided by the cell is shared
Conclusion
equally between the bulbs.
The bulbs in series in the same circuit are
- The same effect is observed (They are dim.
dimmer).
B. Bulbs in parallel circuit
- The diagram in the experiment shows
- Energy from the cell is provided to each of
bulbs connected in series.
the bulbs in the circuit and hence the same
EXPERIMENT: brightness.

AIM: To observe the brightness of two - Bulbs in parallel in the same circuit have
bulbs in series. equal brightness.
Apparatus: A switch, two identical 1.5 V
- The diagram in the experiment shows
torch bolt, Connecting wire, A 1.5 V dry
bulbs connected in parallel.
cell.
EXPERIMENT:

AIM: To observe the brightness of two

bulbs in parallel
Apparatus: A dry cell, three identical torch
bulb, Connecting wires, A switch.

Procedure
1. Connect the set up as shown above.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 52
 - Hence Brightness of bulb increases with
increase of number of cells in the circuit.

B. Cells in parallel circuit

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure
above.
2. Close the switches of the circuit. Note the
brightness.

3. Repeat the experiment with two bulbs.

- Number of cells in parallel does not have
Observation
any effect on energy supplied.
- All the two bulbs have the same
brightness. NOTE: Use the same experiment as in
above, this time around you are going to
Conclusion
change number of cells NOT BULBS.
Bulbs in parallel in the same circuit have
equal brightness. ELECTRIC CURRENT
ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS IN AN
- Current is defined as the rate of flow of
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
electric charge (Q).The symbol of electric
A Cells in series circuit current is (I).

- The SI unit of Current is called Ampere

(A).

- Unit of quantity of charge is the

coulomb(C).

DIRECTION OF FLOW OF ELECTRIC

CURRENT
- Cells in series in the same circuit increases
the energy supplied.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 53
- Current flows from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal of a cell.

- This is type of current is called - Ammeter is connected in a straight line

conventional current. with other components in the circuit.

- The electrons flow from negative terminal - When connecting ammeter:

to the positive terminal.
• Connect the positive side of an ammeter to
- This simply known as Direction of the positive side of a cell or power supply
Electrons. and the negative side to the negative
terminal of a cell or power supply.

• Connect the ammeter in with other

components.

CURRENT IN SERIES
MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRIC
- In a series circuit all the components are
CURRENT
connected one after the other.
- The instrument for measuring electric
- All the current coming from the cell or
current is called an ammeter.
battery or power supply goes through all the
components.

- Therefore, current in series circuit is the

same across each and every component.

- Below is the symbol of an ammeter:

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 54
- The reading in figure above: A1 = A2 B. If A1 reads 0.5A, state the reading of A2,
and A3 when S1 I closed and S2 is open.
EXAMPLE
Answer: A2 will read 0A because it has
Figure below shows identical bulbs, B1 and
been bypassed.
B2.
A3 will still read 0.5A because it is still in
the series circuit.

CURRENT IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS

- Bulbs is connected across the cell such that

there is more than one path for the current to
follow.

- The Current coming from the cell/battery

A. Explain what happens to the identical
splits up and goes through each branch.
bulbs when:
- Therefore, in parallel circuit, the sum of
(i). S1 is closed and S2 is open.
the current in branches equals current from

Answer: B1 and B2 will light up and have the supply.

the same brightness because they are in a

EXAMPLE
series circuit.
Figure below shows bulbs connected in a
(ii). S2 is closed and S2 is closed.
parallel circuit.

Answer: B1 will not light up because it has

been short circuited by the closure of S2.
B2 will continue lighting up with the same
brightness because it is still in the closed
circuit.

(iiii). Both S1 and S2 are open.

Answer: Both B1 and B2 will not light up If A1 reads 0.5 and A2 reads 0.1, Calculate
because they are in an open circuit. the reading of A3.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 55
SOLUTION

A1 = A2 + A3 =

Therefore, A3 = A1 - A2 = 0.5A - 0.1A =

0.4A

CHAPTER ELEVEN

VOLTAGE
- Below is the symbol for Voltmeter.
- Voltage is the electrical Push provided on
electrons in the circuit or conductor. OR

- The voltage is defined as the work done in

CONNECTING A VOLTMETER
moving one coulomb of charge from one
point to the other. - A Voltmeter is connected parallel in a
circuit because voltage is dropped across a
- The SI unit of voltage is the volt (v).
component.
- The voltage is also known as the potential
- A Voltmeter is connected in a parallel in a
difference (p.d).
circuit because it has very high resistance.
THE VOLT
- The positive side of a Voltmeter must be
- Defined as the energy needed to move one
connected to the positive side of the power
coulomb of charge from one point to
supply and negative side to negative
another.
terminal.
MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE

- Voltage is measured by an instrument

called Voltmeter.

- Is measured in Volts (V).

VOLTAGE IN SERIES

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 56
- The sum of the voltage across the bulbs is Example
the same as the p.d. across the cell. 1. Six dry cells each with a voltage of 1.5V
are arranged in series. Determine the total
V = V1 +V2
voltage of the cells.
EXPERIMENT: SOLUTION
VT = V1 +V2 +V3 +……………………. Vn,
AIM: To determine the voltage in a series
where VT is total voltage
connection.
n=6
Apparatus: Two identical bulbs, connecting
VT = V1+V2+V3+V4+V5+V6 =
wires, two voltmeters’, cells.
1.5+1.5+1.5+1.5+1.5+1.5 = 6 x 1.5 = 9V

VOLTAGE IN PARALLEL
CONNECTION

- The voltage across the components in

branches is the same and equal to the
voltage across the supply.

EXPERIMENT:
PROCEDURE
MATERIALS: Bulbs, cells, Voltmeters, and
1. Setup the experiment as shown above. connecting wires.

2. Close the switch in the circuit

3. Record the Voltmeter readings and

compare.

OBSERVATION

- Voltmeters have different readings.

CONCLUSION

- Sum of voltage across the components

equals the voltage from the supply. PROCEDURE

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 57
1. Setup the experiment as shown above. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
- Electrical resistance is the opposition to
2. Close the switch.
the flow of electrons in the circuit.
3. Record the Voltmeter readings and
- It is measured by the instrument called
compare.
Ohmmeter.
OBSERVATION
- The SI unit of electrical resistance is an
- All the volunteers have the same readings. ohm (Ω).

CONCLUSION - The formula for finding resistance is:

- The voltage across the components in

branches is the same and equal to the
voltage across the supply.
- A device that is designed to offer
EXAMPLES resistance in circuits is called a resistor.

2. Study figure below. Determine the total - If the resistance in the circuit is high,
voltage across the circuit, if one dry cell has electrons travel slowly and produces less
a rating of 1.5 V in each circuit. current.

- Different materials have different

resistance. For example:

• Copper wire has low Electrical

resistance hence it has high conductivity.

• Nichrome wire has high resistance;

hence it has low conductivity.

EXPERIMENT

CHAPTER TWELVE AIM: To find the resistance of materials.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 58
MATERIALS: A cell, ammeter, Voltmeter, SOLUTION
40cm copper wire, 40cm Nichrome wire and Resistance = Voltage÷ Current = 2V/ 0.02
connecting wires.
R = 100 Ω

2. A resistor 10Ω allows a current of 2A yo

flow through it in a simple circuit. The
resistor is replaced with another one of 30Ω,
calculate the amount of current passing

PROCEDURE through the 30Ω resistor if the source of

voltage is the same.
1. Set up an experiment as shown above.
Solution
2. Close the gap XY with a copper wire
In the first case
3. Record the Voltmeter and ammeter V = I1 x R1 = 2A x 100Ω = 20 V
readings.
The voltage is the same in the second case,
4. Repeat the experiment with a Nichrome V = I2R2. => I2 = V2 /R2 = 20𝑉÷ 3Ω =
wire. 6.667A

OBSERVATION PLOTTING GRAPHS OF VOLTAGE

AGAINST CURRENT
- The greatest current flows through the
circuit when the copper wire is connected - Resistance of a material can be found by
than when Nichrome wire is connected. calculating the slow of the voltage (y-axis)
against current (x-axis) on the graph.
CONCLUSION
EXAMPLE
- Different materials have different electrical
resistance. Using the information in the table below

EXAMPLE
1. The voltage and current through a device
in a circuit are 2V and 0.002A respectively.
Calculate the resistance of the device. A. Draw a graph of voltage (y-axis) against
current (x-axis).

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 59
B. Use the graph to calculate the resistance - Resistance R, of a material decreases with
of the wire. an increase of the thickness or the diameter
of the material.
SOLUTION
- Therefore, resistance of the wire varies
a. Graph of voltage against current
inversely with its cross sectional or
thickness.

3. TEMPERATURE

- Increase in the temperature of a conductor

leads to increase in p.d. across the
conductors.

4. TYPE OF MATERIAL OF A
CONDUCTOR

FACTORS THAT AFFECT - Different wires are made up of different

RESISTANCE OF MATERIALS materials that have different resistance.

(WIRE) CHAPTER THIRTEEN

1. LENGTH OF THE WIRE
EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
- When the length of the wire increases, the - The three main effects of electric current
resistance also increases. are;

- The resistance (R) of wire is directly 1. Heating effect

proportional to its length.
2. The magnetic effect
- This means that:
3. Chemical effect
• Short wire = low resistance
1. THE HEATING EFFECT
• Longer wire = Higher resistance
- When current flows through a resistive
2. THICKNESS OF THE WIRE material, heat energy Is produced.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 60
- Electrical energy provided by the - Therefore, electric current has the heating
cell/battery is changed to heat energy. effect.

- Nichrome wire produces a lot of energy - The electrical energy has been converted
because it has high resistance. into heat energy.
EXPERIMENT 1:
FACTORS AFFECTING HEATING
AIM: To demonstrate the heating effect of EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT
electric current.
a. The current passing through it.
MATERIALS: 40cm Nichrome wire, b. Resistance of the conductor.
thermometer, beaker, water, connecting c. The time for which current flows.
wires, cells and stopwatch.
APPLICATIONS OF HEATING
EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

1. ELECTRIC FILAMENT LAMPS

(TORCHES)

- An electric filament lamp uses tungsten of

high resistance in order to give light.

- When current flows through a highly

resistive tungsten filament, heat is produced.
PROCEDURE
- The filament becomes hot red then glows.
1. Set up the experiment as shown above.
- The sealed glass bulb contains a mixture of
2. Record the initial temperature of water.
nitrogen and argon
3. Connect Nichrome wire at point X and gases at a low pressure.
start the stopwatch immediately.
- Air is not used because it could oxidize the
DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION tungsten wire.
- The presence of these gases reduces the
- Noticed that temperature increasing with
oxidation of the tungsten.
time.
2. ELECTRIC HEATING ELEMENT

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- A heating element is made from Nichrome - The common standard values of available
wire which has high resistance. fuses are 2A, 5A, and 13A.

- When current flows through the heater, - If an appliance has a required amount of
heat is produced to very high resistance. current of 8A, the correct fuse to protect the
appliance is 10A.
- Appliances like electric kettle, laundry
iron, heater, hotplate, toaster, roaster etc. - Fuse rating is defined as the amount of
which convert electrical energy into heat has current that a fuse can allow to pass through.
heating element.

BIMETALLIC STRIP

- It is a strip made up of two metals, copper

and iron placed side by side.

- When biometric strip is heated, copper gets

longer than iron because it expands more
than iron. • Live wire (L) is red or brown.

• Neutral wire (N) is blue or black.

• Earth wire (E) is Yellow or green or both.

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN
- It is used as switch in electric circuit. ELECTRIC CURRENT

- When it is used as a switch it is called - Electric current flowing through a

thermostat. conductor generates a magnetic field around
the conductor.
FUSE
- The direction of current and magnetic field
- A fuse is the device that controls the
is found by using the right hand rule.
amount of current flowing into appliance.

- The wire melts as soon as the current

through it exceeds its rated value.

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 62
 • Increasing current when the number of
windings per unit length is constant.
• The number of turns per unit length when
the current is kept constant.

APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETS
IN EVERY DAY LIFE

a. the electric bell

WAYS OF INCREASING THE
b. simple d.c electric motor
STRENGTH OF MAGNETIC FIELD
- An electric motor is a device which
PRODUCED IN A WIRE
converts electrical energy to mechanical
- It can be increased by: energy.

• Increasing the number of cells which will - The motor is found to work faster when:
cause an increase in the amount of current. a. The current in the coil is increased.
b. A stronger magnet is used.
• Coiling the wire. A long coiled wire is
c. More turns of the coil of the wire are
called Solenoid.
used.
d. The area of the coil in magnetic field is
increased.
e. Many coils are used with more split ring
parts in many plane.

3. CHEMICAL EFFECT OF AN
SIMPLE ELECTROMAGNET
ELECTRIC CURRENT
- An electromagnet is a device made by coils
of an insulated wire wound on magnetic - When current passes through the liquid, it
material. breaks the liquid into ions.
WAYS OF INCREASING THE
- The passing of current through the liquid
MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED IN A
and breaking down the liquid is called
SOLENOID
Electrolysis.
- It can be increased by:

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- The substance which can conduct current - When is closed, gas bubbles rise on an
in aqueous or liquid is called electrolyte. electrode.

EXPERIMENT: - No bubbles when carbon rods removed.

AIM: To investigate the chemical effect of CONCLUSION.

electric current.
- All this shows that there are chemical
MATERIALS: Container, cells, copper reactions taking place in the solution.
sulphate solution, carbon rods, switch and
- Therefore current has a chemical effect.
connecting wires.
- Chemical cells are classified as either
primary or secondary cells.

USES OF CHEMICAL EFFECT OF AN

ELECTRIC CURRENT
a. Electroplating is a planting process that
uses electric current.

b. Electrolysis is used to manufacture pure

PROCEDURE metals such as pure copper commercially
from compound solutions.
1. Setup the experiment as shown above.
c. Electrolytic capacitors are widely used in
2. Pour copper sulphate solution in the radio receivers i.e. the capacitor is made by
container. the electrolysis of ammonium borate.

3. Close the switch. CHEMICAL CELLS

- A chemical cell consists of two different
4. Observe what is happening in the
metals called electrodes and a conducting
solution.
liquid called electrolyte.
5. Remove the carbon rods from the solution
PRIMARY CELLS
and observe.
- In primary cells, chemical energy is
OBSERVATION directly changed into electric energy. There
are two types of primary cells namely:

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simple primary cell (wet) and dry cell - It produces low voltage of about 1V.
A. WET CELL
B. DRY LECLANCHE’CELL
- A wet cell has liquid electrolyte that covers - It consist of a carbon rod which is
all internal parts. surrounded by manganese (IV) oxide mixed
with carbon powder dipped in ammonium
- A good example is known as simple cell.
chloride paste and a zinc case.

- A simple primary cell has zinc and copper

plates as electrodes and dilute sulphuric acid
ADVANTAGES OF
as the electrolyte.
LECLANCHE’CELL
When the copper and the zinc plates are 1. Chemicals used are relatively cheap
connected to a bulb, zinc plate starts to 2. A relatively high electrical energy is
dissolve in the sulphuric acid. Positive zinc produced
ions dissolve into sulphuric acid leaving 3. The depolarizer used is solid and a poor
electrons on the zinc plate. These electrons conductor of electric current.
are the sources of the electric current from DISADVANTAGES
zinc to copper plate. At the same time 1. It polarizes if used continuously
hydrogen ions leave the solution and are 2. It uses depolarizer. More hydrogen is
deposited on the copper [plate. They pick evolved than it can react with.
electrons from the copper plate to form 3. It cannot provide large currents
hydrogen gas.
SECONDARY CELLS
DEFECTS IN A SIMPLE CELL
- It can be charged with electricity.
- Polarization -This is the formation of
- The chemical reactions are reversible.
bubbles of hydrogen on the copper rod.

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- A commonly used secondary cell is the usefully store is referred to as the capacity of
lead acid accumulator. the cell.

- The capacity of the cell is measured in

ampere-hour (Ah). If the cell can maintain a
current of 3A for 10 hours, then its capacity
is 3 x 10 = 30Ah.

ADVANTAGES OF A SECONDARY
CELL
1. It is cheap to make
CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF AN
2. It can produce large currents
ACCUMULATOR
3. It can be recharged
1. The plate should always be covered with DISADVANTAGES OF A SECONDARY
the electrolyte. CELL
1. The electrolyte is corrosive.
2. Charge the cell regularly.
2. It produces gases which may explode if
3. Never short cut circuit the cells. ignited.
3. It cannot produce large currents in cold
4. When recharging, leave the screw caps
weathers.
off the cell or loosen them to allow the gas
formed during the charging process to CHAPTER FOURTEEN
escape.
MAGNETISM
5. Avoid direct flame with the cell as the - Magnet are materials that attract other
hydrogen and oxygen gas is formed, may materials.
combine and explode.
TYPES OF MAGNET
6. The terminals should be cleaned
- Magnets are named according to their
occasionally with hot water.
shapes: Bar Magnet, U-shaped magnet,
CAPACITY OF AN ACCUMULATOR Horse shoe magnet, Ring magnet.
- The amount of energy which a cell can
- Another type of magnet is called ceramic
or magnadur magnet.

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 - They are stronger than other magnets. To identify magnetic and non-magnetic
substances
- It has its poles at its face. They are
APPARATUS: Iron steel nails, copper
greyish/black in colour.
metal, Zinc, bar magnet, Cobalt, wood,
MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES/MATERIALS Glass rods.

- Magnetic substance are substances that are PROCEDURE

attracted to a magnet. 1. Place some iron steel nails on the bench.

- Examples Are Iron, steel, cobalt and 2. Bring a bar of magnet close to the iron
nickel. nails and record what happens.
3. Repeat the experiment with other
- These metals are called ferrous metals and
materials such as copper, zinc, cobalt, steel,
their magnets are called Ferro magnets.
Sulphur, brass, wood, rock, cork, nickel,
- Magnetic substance contains magnetic plastic, pens, wax, glass rods, carbon,
particles called domains and that is why they aluminum, paper, chalk etc.
can be attracted.
4. Record your observations in a tabular
NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS form shown in table below.

- Are materials that are not attracted to a

magnet.

- Examples Are Aluminum, copper, zinc,

brass, tin and all nonmetals. OBSERVATION

- Non-magnetic materials are called non- - Other materials are attracted while other
ferrous materials. materials are not.

- Nonmagnetic substances does not contain CONCLUSION

magnetic substances.
- Those attracted are called magnetic
EXPERIMENT: substances while those that are not attracted
are called nonmagnetic substances.
AIM: To identify magnetic and nonmagnetic
substances. POLES OF A MAGNET

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- Magnetic poles are the places in a magnet
where the total attractive force seems to be
concentrated.

- A straight line drawn passing through these

ends is called the magnetic axis of the
magnet. PROCEDURE

- We have two types of poles: 1. Set up the experiment as shown above.

1. North seeking pole or simply the North 2. Suspend an unmarked bar magnet
Pole (N).
3. Make the magnet swing until it stops.
2. South seeking pole or South Pole (S).
OBSERVATION

- The bar magnet swings to and fro and

finally rests in a north-south direction of the
- In order to easily identify the poles of a earth.
magnet, the ends are usually painted in
CONCLUSION
different colours.
- The side of a magnet which points to the
- The N-Pole is painted Red while the S-
North is called North Pole (N-Pole).
Pole is painted white or blue.
- The side of a magnet which points to the
South is called South Pole (S-Pole).

NOTE: It is possible to identify the poles of

EXPERIMENT:
bar magnet bringing closer to the one pole of
AIM: To identify poles of an unmarked marked magnet.
magnet.
BASIC/FIRST LAW OF MAGNET.
MATERIALS: Unmarked magnet, string,
- It states that unlike poles attract each other
retort stand.
while like poles repel each other.

EXPERIMENT:

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 68
AIM: To observe the effect of bringing like
poles together and unlike poles together.

PROCEDURE

1. Bring the North Pole of one magnet closer

to the South Pole other magnet and observe
what happens.
CONCLUSION
2. Bring the same poles of the two magnets
together and observe what happens. - Therefore, like poles repel each other while
unlike poles attract each other.
OBSERVATION
- In summary
- When N-Pole of one magnet brought
closer to the S-Pole of another magnet, there
will be attraction.

MAGNETIC FORCE

- This is the force of attraction and repulsion

provided by a magnet.

- Magnetic forces are strongest at the poles.

- When N-Pole of one magnet is brought

closer to a N-Pole of another magnet, there
will be repulsion.

- It has the following characteristics:

1. It is either attractive or repulsive

BY C.MPAZIRA@LISS Page 69
2. It is attractive only a magnetic material

3. It is greater at the poles.

4. It acts in all directions.

5. It increases when the distance between

separations decreases.

MAGNETIC FIELD

- A magnetic field is a space or region

- Region X, is the region where magnetic
around a magnet in which magnetic force
force is not experienced and is called
experienced.
Neutral point.
- It is represented by lines called magnetic
- When unlike poles are facing each other,
field lines.
the field lines will be drawn as:
- These lines are drawn from North Pole to
South Pole.

USES OF MAGNET

1. Used in magnetic doors catches.

2. Used in magnetic switches.

3. Used in production of electricity.

- Magnetic field is strongest where the field
4. Used in radio speakers.
lines are closest together (at the poles).
5. Used in electric motors.
- When like poles are facing each other, the
field lines will be drawn as: 6. Used in generators.

7. Used in magnetic screw drivers.

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8. Used in transformers.

9. Used in electric bells.

WAYS OF TAKING CARE OF MAGNET

4. Avoid bringing them close to the source 1. Avoid storing them with like poles facing each
other.

2. Avoid hitting them with hard objects.

3. Avoid dropping them.of heat.

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