MAEN303CCT

Comparative Literature

M.A. English
(Third Semester)

Directorate of Distance Education

Maulana Azad National Urdu University
Hyderabad-32, Telangana- India
 ©Maulana Azad National Urdu University, Hyderabad
Course: Comparative Literature

ISBN: 978-81-975411-4-8
First Edition: June, 2024

Publisher : Registrar, Maulana Azad National Urdu University, Hyderabad

Publication : 2024
Copies : 1800
Price : 190/-
Copy Editing : Dr. Shah Alam, DDE, MANUU, Hyderabad
Dr. S M Fasiullah, DDE, MANUU, Hyderabad
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Printer : Print Time & Business Enterprises, Hyderabad

Comparative Literature
For
M.A. English
3rd Semester

On behalf of the Registrar, Published by:

Directorate of Distance Education
Maulana Azad National Urdu University
Gachibowli, Hyderabad-500032 (TS), India
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 (SLM Based on UGC CBCS)
Editorial Board

Prof. Gulfishaan Habeeb Professor of English, DDE, MANUU

(Programme Coordinator)

Dr. Shah Alam Assistant Professor of English (Contractual)/

Guest Faculty, DDE, MANUU

Dr. S M Fasiullah Assistant Professor of English (Contractual)/

Guest Faculty, DDE, MANUU
Programme Coordinator
Prof. Gulfishaan Habeeb
Professor of English, DDE, MANUU

Content Writers Unit No.

● Dr. Sajaudeen Nijamodeen Assistant Professor, Center for Diaspora Studies, 1, 2
Chapparban Central University of Gujarat.

● Dr. Shaikh Suhel Samad Associate Professor in English, Sir Sayyed College of 3, 14, 16
Arts, Commerce and Science, Aurangabad.

● Dr. Shamsudheen P Assistant Professor, PG dept of English, MES Arts & 4

Science College, Perinthalmanna, Kerala.

● Dr. Raeesabegam Usmani Asst. Prof., SOL, NMIMS, University, Hyderabad 5, 6

● Dr. Shah Alam Asst. Prof. of English (C), DDE, MANUU, Hyd. 7, 8

● Dr. Sadaf Fareed Asst. Prof., Dept of English, Women’s College, AMU, 9, 10
UP.

● Dr. Shahul Hameed MP HSST English, Govt. HSS Irimbiliyam, Malappuram, 11, 12
Kerala.

● Dr. Amina Hussain Assistant Professor, Sarojini Naidu Centre for 13

Women’s Studies, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi.

● Ms. Sheetal Lalotra Faculty, Centre of Management and Humanities, 15

Punjab Engineering College Chandigarh.

Proofreaders:
First : Ms. Saba Khatoon & Ms. Nausheen Ali
Second: Ms. Nausheen Ali & Ms. Saba Khatoon
Final : Dr. Shah Alam & Dr. S M Fasiullah
 CONTENT
Message Vice Chancellor
Message Director
Introduction to the Course Coordinator

Unit Page No.

1. History and Evolution of Comparative literature 11
2. Significance of Comparative Literature in Indian Context 29
3. Benjamin, Walter: excerpt from The Task of the Translator 44
4. Jonathan Culler: Comparative Literature, at Last 61
5. Jane Eyre: Background, Plot, Characters 75
6. Jane Eyre: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical Appreciation 93
7. Wide Sargasso Sea: Background, Plot, Characters 109
8. Wide Sargasso Sea: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical Appreciation 121
9. Hamlet: Background, Plot, Characters 134
10. Hamlet: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical Appreciation 148
11. The Seagull: Background, Plot, Characters 161
12. The Seagull: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical Appreciation 173
13. (a) Arun Kolatkar: ‘Turnaround’ 184
(b) Faiz Ahmed Faiz: ‘Subh-e-Aazadi’
(c) Gurajada Appa Rao: ‘Love the Country’
14. (a) Habba Khatoon: ‘Lol of the lonely Pine’ 208
(b) Amir Khusrau: ‘Just by Casting a glance’
(c) Tagore: ‘Give me Strength’
15. (a) Kamala Das: ‘My Mother at Sixty six’ 229
(b) Andre Breton: ‘Five ways to Kill a Man’
(c) Derek Walcott: ‘A Far cry from Africa’
16. (a) Emily Dickinson: ‘I M Nobody! Who are You?’ 247
(b) Khalil Gibran: ‘Children’
(c) Pablo Neruda: ‘Clenched Soul’
Sample Question Paper 267
 Message
Maulana Azad National Urdu University (MANUU) was established in 1998 by an Act of the
Parliament. It is a central university with NAAC accreditation and the mandate of the university is: (1)
promotion of Urdu language, (2) accessibility and availability of professional and technical education in
Urdu medium, (3) providing education through traditional and distance learning mode, and (4) a specific
focus on women’s education. These are the points that distinguish this central university from all other
central universities and give it a unique feature. It has been emphasized even in the National Education
Policy 2020 to achieve education in mother tongues and regional languages.
The very objective of promotion of knowledge through Urdu is meant to facilitate the
accessibility of contemporary knowledge and disciplines to Urdu knowing community. For a long time,
there has been a dearth of course material in Urdu. The non-availability of books in Urdu is a matter of
concern and Urdu University considers it a privilege to be part of the national process of providing course
material in mother tongue/home language as per the vision of NEP 2020. Further, the Urdu speaking
community is at a disadvantage in gaining updated knowledge and information in emerging areas or
newer knowledge in existing fields due to non-availability of reading material in Urdu. The unavailability
of content related to the above domains of knowledge has created an atmosphere of apathy towards
attaining knowledge that could significantly affect the intellectual abilities of the Urdu knowing
community. These are the challenges that Urdu University is confronted with. The scenario of Self
Learning Materials (SLM) is also not very different. The unavailability of course books in Urdu at
school/college level comes under discussion at the commencement of every academic year. Since the
medium of instruction of Urdu University is only Urdu and it offers almost all the courses of important
disciplines, the preparation of books of all these subjects in Urdu is the most important responsibility of
the University. To achieve these objectives, MANUU makes available course material in the form of Self
Learning Material (SLM) to the students of Distance Learning. The same is also available for sale to
anyone interested in gaining knowledge through Urdu. To further provide access to learning, eSLM in
Urdu is available for free download from the University website.
I am immensely pleased that due to the hard work of the concerned faculty and full cooperation
of the writers, the process of publications of books has begun on a massive scale. To facilitate the students
of Distance Learning, the process of preparing and publication of Self Learning Material (SLM) is of
paramount importance to the University. I believe that we will be able to meet the requirements of a large
Urdu knowing community through our Self Learning Material and will fulfill the mandate of this
University and justify our presence in this country.

With best wishes,

Prof. Syed Ainul Hasan

Vice Chancellor
MANUU, Hyderabad
 Message
In the present era, distance education is recognized as a very effective and useful mode of
education all over the world and a large number of people are benefiting from this mode of education.
Maulana Azad National Urdu University also introduced the distance learning mode since its
establishment in view of the educational needs of the Urdu speaking population. Maulana Azad National
Urdu University started in 1998 with the Directorate of Distance Education and the regular programmes
commenced from 2004, and subsequently various departments have been established.
The UGC has played a vital role in efficiently regulating the education system in the country.
Various programs running under Open and Distance Learning (ODL) mode at DDE are approved by
UGC-DEB. The UGC-DEB has emphasized on synchronizing the syllabi of distance and regular mode to
enhance the level of distance learning students. Since Maulana Azad National Urdu University is a dual
mode university catering to both distance and traditional mode of learning, to achieve its goal in line with
the UGC-DEB guidelines, Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) was introduced and Self Learning
Materials are being prepared afresh for UG and PG programmes containing 6 blocks with 24 units and 4
blocks with 16 units respectively.
The Directorate of Distance Education offers a total of seventeen (17) programmes comprising of
UG, PG, B.Ed., Diploma, and Certificate programmes. Along with this, programmes based on technical
skills are also being started. A huge network of nine Regional Centers (Bengaluru, Bhopal, Darbhanga,
Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Patna, Ranchi, and Srinagar) and six Sub-Regional Centers (Hyderabad,
Lucknow, Jammu, Nooh, Varanasi, and Amravati) was established to facilitate the students. Apart from
this, an extension center has also been established in Vijayawada. More than one hundred and sixty
Learner Support Centres (LSCs) and twenty Programme Centres are run simultaneously under these
Regional and Sub-Regional Centers to provide educational and administrative support to the students.
The Directorate of Distance Education makes full use of ICT in its educational and administrative
activities, and offers admission to all its programs through online mode only.
The soft copies of Self Learning Material (SLM) for students are made available on the website
of the Directorate of Distance Education and the links of audio and video recordings are also made
available on the website. In addition, facilities of E-mail and WhatsApp groups are being provided to the
students through which the learners are informed about various aspects of the program such as course
registration, assignments, counselling, examinations, etc. In addition to regular counseling, additional
remedial online counseling is being provided from the last two years to improve the academic standards
of the students.
It is expected that the Directorate of Distance Education will play a vital role to bring
educationally and economically backward population into the mainstream of contemporary education. In
near future, changes will be made in various programmes under the New Education Policy (NEP-2020) in
view of the educational needs and it is hoped that this will help in making the Open and Distance
Learning system more efficient and effective.

Prof. Mohd Razaullah Khan

Director, Directorate of Distance Education
MANUU, Hyderabad
 Introduction to the Course

The M.A. English programme is designed to give a sound knowledge of English Language, Literature and
Literary Theory so as to empower the prospective students for higher studies and employment, apart from
helping them prepare for competitive exams. It is spread over two years (four semesters) minimum
duration. The objectives of the programme are as follows:
a. to provide a sound base in the English language
b. to provide insights into the development of English and the phonological, morphological, syntactical
and stylistic aspects of language
c. to provide knowledge in the teaching of English
d. to explore the various literatures in English
e. to provide exposure to the different genres, movements and periods of English literature
f. to facilitate critical and analytical abilities
g. to introduce literary theory and criticism
h. to build confidence among learners with language skills in English
i. to enable the working target group to enhance their qualifications and
j. To facilitate higher education in the open distance learning mode.
At the end of the two-year post graduate programme in M.A. English, the learner would have mastered
the theoretical knowledge of the English language and literature. The learners would be able to appreciate
literatures in English, take up critical analysis, understand the different movements, periods and concepts
in the study of English language and literature. The two-year programme will prepare the learner for
competitive examinations, for employment and for research by developing their skills, apart from leading
to refinement.
The course “Comparative Literature” aims to enable the learners to appreciate and understand the diverse
cultures and societies through glimpses of world literature. The literary devices employed in various
genres across different time and geographic zones may interesting reading. You are expected to make
comparative and contrastive analysis of literature produced in different
countries. The course is divided into four Blocks and each Block has four Units.
This SLM is supplemented by audio-video lessons. You may visit IMC MANUU YouTube channel
http://youtube.com/u/imcmanuu for the complete list of AV lessons in English.
With you in your journey through the fields of English language and literature!

Prof. Gulfishaan Habeeb

Programme Coordinator
Comparative Literature
 Unit - 1: History and Evolution of Comparative Literature

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 History and Evolution of Comparative Literature
1.2.1 Various Schools of Comparative Literature
1.2.1.1 The French School
1.2.1.2 The German School
1.2.1.3 The American School
1.2.1.4 The Indian School
1.2.2 Comparative Literature as an Approach
1.2.3 Translation as a tool of Comparative Literature
1.2.4 Understanding Comparative Literature through Reader Response Theory
1.2.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.3 Learning Outcomes
1.4 Glossary
1.5 Sample Questions
1.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1.0 Introduction

Comparative literature is the study of literature across cultures, languages, periods,

nations, ideologies, and disciplines. It emerged as a discipline in Europe during the 19th century
when literary scholars like Johann Gottfried Herder and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe began
studying literature in various languages, cultures, and times to understand the commonalities,
differences, and influences across borders. This study aids in comprehending the "other," but in
reality, it assists in broadening our understanding of ourselves and distancing us from narcissistic
narrowness. The Department of Comparative Literature at the University of Buffalo describes it
as "the study of two or more literatures in comparison (e.g., English and German) and their
multi-dimensional components, which may encompass historical, gender, economic, cultural,
social, philosophical, religious, and linguistic factors of the distinct cultures being analyzed."
One of the primary reasons for the emergence of comparative literature during the 19th
and 20th centuries is the advancement in industrialization, information and communication

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technology (ICT), globalization, migration, the rise of anti-colonial voices, shifts in critical
thinking, the emergence of new intellectual paradigms such as post-colonial studies, gender
studies, women's studies, socio-political upheavals, etc.
Comparative literature stems from literature, linguistics, philosophy, history,
anthropology, and cultural studies. It is both a multidisciplinary and an interdisciplinary field
aiming for a multidimensional and comprehensive understanding of two different phenomena.
Initially, it involved the study of literary and cultural expressions across national, linguistic,
ideological, and disciplinary boundaries. From its origins in exploring literature across nations
and languages, comparative literature has evolved into an interdisciplinary approach within the
humanities and social sciences. The method of comparison can be applied to various subjects,
themes, periods, texts, phenomena, histories, cultures, movements, arts, politics, societies, etc.
Initially, comparative literature focused on analyzing and understanding two or more
texts from different languages or countries. However, it can also examine two different texts by
different authors in the same or different languages. Translation plays a significant role in
comparing texts from distinct languages, remaining a major pillar of comparative literature. A
comparatist is an individual engaged in comparative study/analysis. A proficient comparatist in
languages requires proficiency in two or more languages, coupled with a deep understanding of
two or more cultures. There can also be a comparison within a language of two different texts.
Similarly, a comparatist in social sciences needs an understanding of two or more social
phenomena or factors within society to compare multiple aspects. In this context, knowing two
languages is not crucial; understanding two phenomena or factors for comparison is essential.
According to the Department of Comparative Study at Ohio State University, "Comparative
Literature focuses on studying literature from diverse cultures, nations, and genres, exploring
relationships between literature and other forms of cultural expression. It raises questions about
the role of literature in society, how literature evolves over time as a form of art, and its
interactions with values, social movements, and political contexts?”.
In the rapidly evolving local and global social landscapes of today, comparative literature
assumes amplified significance due to increased mobility and the shrinking of time and space
which subsequently led to bringing two or more cultures closer. Its importance escalates as
various nations and individuals intermingle. Creating sustainable, peaceful, and respectful
societies necessitates a deep understanding and appreciation of diverse cultures, languages,

12
people, and traditions. This comprehension stands as a crucial factor in striving for harmonious
coexistence within our interconnected world with diversities.
Check your progress
Do you know?
Comparative literature is the study of literature across cultures, languages, periods,
nations, ideologies, and disciplines, emerging in 19th-century Europe with scholars like
Johann Gottfried Herder and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. It aids in understanding
diverse cultures and broadening our perspectives. The field is multidisciplinary, involving
literature, linguistics, philosophy, history, anthropology, and cultural studies, aiming for a
comprehensive understanding of different phenomena. Comparative literature initially
focused on analyzing texts from different languages or countries but has evolved to
include interdisciplinary approaches within the humanities and social sciences.
Translation and proficiency in multiple languages are crucial for comparatists. Today,
comparative literature is vital in our globalized world, promoting a deep understanding
and appreciation of diverse cultures, which is essential for fostering harmonious
coexistence.

1.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

● provide an introduction to the fundamentals of comparative literature

● define comparative literature

● explore the various schools within this discipline

● trace its emergence, and elucidate its relevance in contemporary society and
scholarship within the humanities and social sciences

1.2 History and Evolution of Comparative Literature

In the realm of science and information and communication technology (ICT), with a
growing awareness of 'differences' and the consciousness surrounding them, the study of
literature, particularly comparative literature, becomes essential. Literature serves as a mirror

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reflecting society, portraying contemporary life, habits, styles, cultures, religions, and politics.
Engaging with literature aids in understanding society at large. Reading comparative literature
not only involves comprehending the 'other,' as we perceive it, but also delves into discovering
aspects we have yet to explore. It represents a process of broadening our understanding of the
world, cultures, people, and literature, which we previously categorized as 'other,' though, in
reality, they are an integral part of us.
In multicultural, multilingual, and multi-religious societies such as India and South Africa,
comparative literature holds particular significance due to the visibility of linguistic, cultural, and
religious diversities within these contexts. Unlike European countries where crossing national
borders is essential for comparison, comparative literature within India assumes a different
relevance and significance. It provides distinct approaches to understanding the 'other,' fostering
mutual understanding within a society.
In his article "Comparative Literature," published in the Encyclopedia of Translation and
Interpretation (2022), Rodriguez Lius discusses the origins of comparative literature in the 19th
century alongside emerging fields like comparative law and comparative philology. His focus
lies within the European context. Lius emphasizes that comparative literature aims to identify
commonalities among various legal systems, languages, and, specifically, different literary works.
The term's origin remains a topic of debate, with its initial developments traced back to
France. The earliest record of the term appears in Jean-François-Michel Noël's volume, Cours de
littérature comparée, published in 1816, though it significantly differed from the eventual
concept of comparative literature. The pioneers in this field include Abel-François Villemain,
Philarète Chasles, and Jean-Jacques Ampère. Charles-Augustin Saint-Beuve notably contributed
to establishing comparative literature as a formal field during a conference in 1868, having
previously discussed "compared literary history" in 1840.
The first specialized journal on this subject was published in Cluj, Romania, in 1877 by
Hugo Meltzl, under various titles translating to 'comparative literature journal.' It was later titled
Acta Comparationis Litterarum Universarum in 1879. The term gained prominence in English
through Hutcheson Macaulay Posnett's work published in 1886, specifically named Comparative
Literature (Rodriguez 2022).
Comparative literature has become an accepted discipline worldwide. Its establishment
initially occurred in France but eventually gained recognition in both American and European
universities. Gerald Gillespie, in an article featured in Aspects of Comparative Literature:

14
Current Approaches edited by Chandra Mohan (1989), listed several western universities where
comparative studies were initiated as a formal discipline. He notes that while Comparative
Literature has primarily focused on European languages, efforts have been made to expand
towards non-European traditions. This ongoing evolution signifies a global integration of non-
European literary concepts, evident through the contributions of American Sinologists and
Japanologists like James Liu (Stanford University), Wai Lim Yip (University of California, San
Diego), Peter Lee (University of Hawaii), Pauline Yu (University of Minnesota), and Earl Miner
(Princeton University).
Further, Gillespie delineates five trends shaping literature understanding post-World War
II, including the erosion of national boundaries in literary theory, declining prestige of literary
history, widening rejection of authors as the focal point of literary institutions, growing
importance of aesthetic considerations, and a general trend towards "scientific" approaches and
revisionary philosophies of literature:
1. One trend is the accelerated crumbling of national frontiers in literary theory, and to some
extent even in interpretive practices. The United States is by no means the only larger
country where critical 'schools' of specifically foreign pedigree compete with a spectrum
of native tenets and habits, and where critical co-operation and conflation lead to strange
hybrids and new waves. Smaller nations like the Netherlands and Hungary experience
such cross-currents, too.
2. A second trend has been a severe decline in the prestige of literary history, despite the
influential example of great practitioners such as Ernst Robert Curtius lasting into the
second half of our century, and intermittent newer attempts to reconstitute a historical
approach. This decline has been felt in the allied field of the history of ideas which once
boasted figures like Wilhelm Dilthey, Arthur O. Lovejoy, et al.
3. A third trend has been the widening rejection of the notion that those creative authors are
the organizing center of literary institutions or that the interpretation of works of art is
units and documents of literary history. In North America, this has meant a turning away
even from the anti-biographies, text-oriented, New Criticism of forties and fifties.
4. A fourth commitment trend is the widespread reputation of aesthetic consideration as
truly significant except as elements in the sociology of literature and the greatly expanded
interplay between literary studies and the human sciences.

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 5. The fifth trend is the on-rolling general trend towards putative “scientific” approaches
and revisionary philosophies of literature” (Gillespie, 1989)
Check your progress
Definition and Relevance
Comparative literature involves studying literature across cultures, languages, periods,
nations, ideologies, and disciplines.
It reflects society, portraying contemporary life, habits, styles, cultures, religions, and
politics.
It helps understand and appreciate diverse cultures, aiding in the mutual understanding
within societies.
Historical Context
Comparative literature emerged in the 19th century, alongside fields like comparative law
and philology.
It began in France, with pioneers like Abel-François Villemain and Jean-Jacques Ampère.
The first journal on comparative literature was published in Romania in 1877 by Hugo
Meltzl.
Evolution and Trends
The discipline has evolved globally, influenced by European and American academic
paradigms.
Trends shaping literature understanding include the decline of national boundaries in
literary theory and the prestige of literary history, rejection of authors as the organizing
center, growing importance of aesthetics, and scientific approaches to literature.
1.2.1 Various Schools of Comparative Literature:
The study of comparative literature encompasses diverse approaches and perspectives. It
comprises three prominent schools: the French, German, and American schools, which laid the
groundwork for our initial understanding of this field. In more recent times, the Indian school of
comparative literature has contributed significantly, offering unique viewpoints and enriching the
broader understanding within this discipline. Moreover, there exist numerous other schools and
associations of comparative literature worldwide, varying across nations, regions, and languages.
1.2.1.1 The French School:
The establishment of comparative literature as a discipline and its global dissemination
owe credit to French intellectuals. The study of comparative literature in French commenced

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during the second and third decades of the twentieth century, exerting a profound influence on
the literary landscape until World War II. Pioneering this discipline were notable figures like
Abel Francois Villemain (1790-1870), who delivered a series of lectures in Paris between 1824
and 1829. His works, Tableue de la literature au VIIIe siecle and Tableue de la literature en
Moyen Age en France, en Italie, en Espagne et en Anglettere, were foundational. His such as
Philarete Charles and Jean-Jacques Ampere extended Villemain's legacy. Philarete Charles (1798
– 1873) extensively connected French literature with other European literary traditions,
producing over forty volumes of criticism. Claudio Gullen, in The Challenges of Comparative
Literature, highlighted Charles's comparisons between authors, countries, and literature from
Germany, France, Spain, England, among others. Charles characterized French genius as
exceptionally congenial, embracing all emotions and thoughts from diverse civilizations, setting
France apart yet allowing a profound understanding of others.
As the twentieth century dawned, the tradition of comparative literature in France
blossomed further, notably after Joseph Texte's contributions. Fernand Baldensperger (1871-1958)
published "Goethe en France" in 1904. Paul Hazard's work in Revue de literature compare (1921)
also significantly impacted comparative literature in France. In 1931, Paul Van Tighem's
pioneering manual on comparative literature solidified its standing as a discipline and influenced
its global reception.
Early French comparatists were guided by empiricist and positivist approaches, seeking
the origins and influences shaping literary texts. Notable critical thinkers and philosophers within
this school, including structuralists and deconstructionists like Marcel Proust, Jacques Derrida,
Roland Barthes, among others, explored semiotic, linguistic, philosophical, mythological, and
cultural dimensions within comparative literature.
1.2.1.2 The German School:
The German school of comparative literature flourished along side the French school,
spanning from the mid-nineteenth century to the period of World War II. Among the prominent
figures within this school were scholars and critics such as Peter Szondi, Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe, and Friedrich Schlegel. Peter Szondi played a pivotal role in fostering comparative
scholarship at the Free University, Berlin. He achieved this by inviting renowned contemporary
critics, including Jacques Derrida, Lionel Trilling, Pierre Bourdieu, Theodor Adorno, and others,
to contribute to the field.

17
 This school of thought emphasized delving into the historical and cultural contexts of
literary works. Its emergence coincided with the rise of nationalism in Germany, leading to a
particular emphasis on national and cultural identities within literature. Scholars within this
school explored how these identities contributed to shaping the collective psychology of the
masses during that era.
Further, the German school approached comparative literature with a profound emphasis
on understanding literature within its historical, cultural, and societal backgrounds. This focus on
context allowed for a deeper exploration of how literature reflected and influenced the national
and cultural identities prevalent at the time. The scholars within this school scrutinized the
interconnections between literary works and the socio-political environment, unraveling the
intricate relationships between literature, cultural identity, and mass psychology during their
historical contexts.
1.2.1.3 The American School:
A study of the American school of comparative literature delineates the reasons for its
emergence as a discipline, distinct from its European counterparts, which stemmed from the
diverse racial, cultural, linguistic, ethnic, national, and religious backgrounds arising from the
influx of immigrants since Columbus's voyages in 1492. Early concepts such as the "Melting
Pot" and Transcendentalism laid the groundwork for the burgeoning of Comparative Literature in
America.
By the mid-20th century, a surge of new ideas reshaped American societal, political, and
intellectual spheres, catalyzed by post-war issues, the civil rights movement, feminist activism,
migration, globalization, and technological advancements. This milieu, influenced by European
academic paradigms, saw the ascendancy of post colonialism, feminism, cultural studies,
ethnicity, and race studies as pivotal elements in shaping comparative studies in the USA.
Claudio Guillen underscored crucial reasons behind the ascension of comparative literary studies
in America:
The Fascism of 1930 caused a massive migration to the new world of a large
number of esteemed artists intellectuals and scientists from all the latitudes and
longitudes of Europe. The Universities of North America, in contrast to their European
counterparts, recognized degrees granted by institutions in foreign countries; they did not
regard themselves as closed enclaves. As a result, they benefited to a remarkable extent
from such conjunction of the spirit of learning, reaching new heights in specialties as

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 diverse as the history of art, Physics, Sociology, Psychology, Psycho-analysis,
Architecture, Political Science, History of Science, Linguistic-and also comparative
literature". (Claudio Guillen, P. 60)
It was in September 1958, at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, the
'International Comparative Literature Association' (ICLA) was established during its Second
Congress. Scholars and critics such as Harry Levin, Renato Poggioli, Northrop Frye, Roland
Mortier, Haskell Block, Anne Balakian, A. Owen Albridge, Walter Holler, Antonio Alatorre,
Guillermo de Torre, Francisco Lopez Estrada, among others, participated in this event.
1.2.1.4 The Indian School:
The Indian school of comparative studies offers a distinctive perspective to the evolution
of comparative literature, given India's diverse tapestry of region, culture, language, races,
ethnicity, and tradition. This adds a multilingual, multicultural, and transnational dimension to
the study of diversities within the discipline. Indian comparatists engage in the comparative
analysis of various Indian languages and literatures, encompassing Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Tamil,
Malayalam, Gujarati, Assamese, Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, and more. Translation serves as a
critical tool in comparing these linguistic traditions. Prominent figures in Indian comparative
studies include Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Sukanta Chaudhuri, A. K. Ramanujan, Bijay Kumar
Das, Sisir Kumar Das, Meenakshi Mukherjee, Harish Trivedi, and R. K. Singh.
Significant strides in the field can be observed through the establishment of departments
of comparative literature and/or courses in various Indian universities, such as Jadavpur
University, Jawaharlal Nehru University, University of Calicut, University of Hyderabad,
University of Mumbai, EFL University, Central University of Gujarat, University of Delhi, and
Maulana Azad National Urdu University, among others. Further, the Comparative Literature
Association of India (CLAI) stands as the national association for scholars and students of
comparative literature in India.CLAI actively advocates for a more comprehensive study of
literature and culture by leveraging the tools of comparative literary studies. Originating in 1987,
CLAI emerged from the merger of the Indian National Comparative Literature Association
(INCLA) and the Comparative Indian Literature Association (CILA) in Kolkata and Delhi,
respectively. Its major objectives include:

● To spread the concept of comparative literature among members of the academic

community especially those involved in the single literature disciplines, and among other
individuals, associations of institutions genuinely interested in Comparative Studies.

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 ● To further national interaction through awareness of comparative literature among the
linguistic states of India.

● To promote the ideal of one world by appreciation of comparative literature beyond

national frontiers, and in pursuance thereof to rise above separate identities of single
national literatures so that the all-embracing concept of Viswa-Sahitya as visualized by
Tagore or Goethe’s Weltliteratur may be realized as a measure of international
understanding.

● To encourage interdisciplinary studies among educational institutions and other related

bodies to promote the study of literature and other arts.
(Source: CLAI https://www.clai.in/)
Likewise, today almost every country has its own association of comparative literature,
contributing to and drawing from the global framework of comparative literature.
Check your progress
Prominent Schools
French School: Established comparative literature as a formal field, focusing on
empiricist and positivist approaches.
German School: Emphasized historical and cultural contexts of literature, influenced by
nationalism.
American School: Distinct due to diverse backgrounds and influences of post-war issues,
civil rights movement, and globalization.
Indian School: Unique due to India’s multicultural and multilingual context, with
significant contributions to comparative literature.
Key Figures and Contributions
French: Abel-François Villemain, Jean-Jacques Ampère, Charles-Augustin Saint-Beuve.
German: Peter Szondi, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schlegel.
American: Harry Levin, Renato Poggioli, Northrop Frye.
Indian: Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Sukanta Chaudhuri, A. K. Ramanujan.
Institutions and Associations
Departments and courses in Indian universities like Jadavpur University, Jawaharlal
Nehru University, University of Calicut, and others.

20
 Comparative Literature Association of India (CLAI) promotes comparative studies and
interdisciplinary approaches.
Check your progress
1. Can you explain the significance of comparative literature in understanding diverse
cultures?
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Identify the key historical figures and their contributions to the development of
comparative literature.
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Describe the primary trends that have shaped the understanding of literature post-
World War II.
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Compare the approaches of the French, German, American, and Indian schools of
comparative literature.
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Discuss the role of institutions and associations like CLAI in promoting comparative
literature studies.
_____________________________________________________________________
6. Reflect on how comparative literature aids in fostering mutual understanding and
harmonious coexistence within multicultural societies.
_____________________________________________________________________
1.2.2 Comparative Literature as an Approach:
"Comparative Literature", as Henry Remak says, "is the study of literature beyond the
confines of one particular country, and the study of the relationship between the literature on one
hand and the other areas of knowledge and belief, such as the art (i.e. painting, sculpture,
architecture, music), philosophy, history, the social sciences, politics, economic, sociology, the
sciences, religion, etc on the other hand. In brief, it is the comparison of one literature with other
spheres of human expression" (Comparative Literature; Method and Perspective).
An intriguing facet of comparative literature is its contribution to and popularization of a
comparative approach in scholarly pursuits, applicable to any subject, theme, or discipline. It
necessitates comparison, not only among different languages or countries but also within a single
language or country. This comparison extends beyond texts to encompass culture, art, writers,

21
experiences, religion, movements, and other aspects essential for a comprehensive comparative
perspective.
1.2.3 Translation as a Tool of Comparative Literature:
The history of translation dates back to ancient tales like the biblical story of the Tower of
Babel in Christianity and historical accounts such as Cicero's era (106 – 43 BC), along with
stories from ancient Babylon (3rd Millennium BC). Translation serves as a vehicle for removing
language barriers and introducing diverse languages, cultures, societies, and literatures from
across the globe. Its significance extends beyond the realm of linguistic studies, as Bijay Kumar
Das coined it as "Linguistic Bridge–Building." Translation holds a crucial role in humanistic
discourse within the domain of comparative literature. Comparative literature acts as a conduit
for global humanism, akin to how translation serves as a bridge between languages and
literatures. According to Bijay Kumar Das, translation plays a pivotal role in 'Nation building' in
nations like India, Africa, and Canada. Similarly, comparative studies contribute significantly to
fostering 'world humanism,' promoting global integrity, harmony, and peace.
Translation plays a pivotal role in comparative studies, especially when comparing texts
in different languages. For instance, when comparing an Urdu novel with an English one, a
knowledge of both the languages is necessary. If one lacks proficiency in both languages,
translating the Urdu text into English or vice versa becomes essential for a comparative analysis.
Susan Bassnett and Lefeverse underscored the significance of translation, highlighting its
shaping influence on global development. They stated: “With the development of translation
studies as a discipline in its own right... translation has been a major shaping force in the
development of the world, and no study of comparative study can take place without regard to
translation" (11).
However, it is essential to recognize that comparison within a language is also feasible.
This form of comparison involves analyzing aspects of texts within the same language, yet
stemming from different cultures, genres, settings, times, nations, or genders. For instance, the
comparative study of Virginia Woolf and Arundhati Roy, despite their cultural, national, and
temporal disparities, is viable because both authors write in English. Similarly, exploring themes,
styles, periods, genres, ideologies, or identities within the same language across two or more
texts is another facet of comparison. Examples include contrasting the English dramas of
Shakespeare and modern Indian English dramas of Girish Karnard, or examining the poetry of
Robert Frost and William Wordsworth. Within the Urdu language, comparative analysis of the

22
ideologies of Mohammad Iqbal and Faiz Ahmad Faiz falls into this category of 'within' language
studies.
While translation is integral to comparative literature, it is crucial to acknowledge that
comparative studies can exist without translation. Translation becomes essential when comparing
texts in different languages, especially if one lacks proficiency in those languages. Although
scholars like Susan Bassnett highlight translation studies as a primary discipline with
comparative literature as a subsidiary area, others like Bijay Kumar Das emphasize that
translation is inseparable from comparative literature. Their varied perspectives likely arise from
different contexts or priorities concerning the role of translation in comparative studies.
1.2.4 Understanding Comparative Literature through Reader Response Theory:
The reader response theory provides an intriguing lens through which we can
comprehend comparative literature and its interpretation by readers from diverse backgrounds. It
emphasizes that the meaning of a text is not solely embedded in words but also in the interaction,
experiences, background, and interpretation that a reader brings while engaging with it. Readers
incorporate certain preexisting notions to connect and interrelate with the text. Despite aiming
for objectivity, readers' subjective experiences inevitably influence their understanding. N.
Krishnaswamy, in his Contemporary Literary Theory, contends that: "We cannot assume an
objective, impartial, and detached stance, as our consciousness is entwined with historical and
sociocultural 'phenomena,' which becomes deeply personal and inwardly absorbed" (12).
The doctrine of phenomenology, founded by the German philosopher Edmund Husserl,
underscores the role of the receiver or perceiver in constructing meaning. Husserl posits that our
consciousness and the external world warrant philosophical exploration. According to him, the
'phenomenon' that appears in our consciousness encapsulates the fundamental attributes and
universal essence of things. Wolfgang Iser, adopts a phenomenological approach to interpreting
texts. In his essay, "The Reading Process: A Phenomenological Approach," he contends that
readers, while engaging with a text, construct a world of imagination that shapes 'the virtual
dimension' of the text's meaning. Iser highlights the importance of understanding "unfamiliar"
experiences while retaining our identity as readers. He explores how an active reader can
maintain their own identity while engaging with "unfamiliar" material and yet remain familiar,
referring to Poulet's conclusion: "Whatever I think is a part of my mental world. And yet here I
am thinking a thought that manifestly belongs to another mental world, which is being thought in
me just as though I did not exist. Already the notion is inconceivable and seems even more so if I

23
reflect that, since every thought must have a subject which is alien to me… Whenever I read, I
pronounce is not myself."
When we read works like Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex" or Shakespeare's "Hamlet," we often
notice some parallels between the character of Hamlet or King Oedipus and ourselves, mentally
identifying with the 'I' as the reader, in alignment with Poulet's observation. However, upon
finishing the text, we cannot maintain the same emotions and thoughts experienced while reading.
We strive to identify similarities and differences between the protagonist and ourselves.
Therefore, while studying comparative literature, we do not rigidly adhere to the "blend" of any
specific nation or region, whether American, African, or any Western style. Instead, we seek to
discern and assess standard values and establish a connection between the "self" and the "others."
This approach allows us to comprehend the "others" similarly to how we understand ourselves,
aiming to relate to the unfamiliar, as Iser states, "the unfamiliar to be understood."
1.2.5 Let Us Sum Up:
The study of comparative literature is a journey that humbles us, reminding us that
neither are we inherently superior nor is anyone else. Instead, it teaches us that every culture has
its own Shakespeare, Ghalib, Wordsworth, Milton, Dickens, Jane Austen, Virginia Woolf,
Kalidasa, and many more luminaries. Through comparative literature, we cultivate a deep cross-
cultural appreciation, nurturing an interdisciplinary mindset and fostering critical thinking. It
allows us to comprehend others in a harmonious, mutual manner, dismantling the rigid binary of
'us versus them.'
This field is pivotal in comprehending diversities, recognizing their relevance and
importance, particularly in diverse, multicultural societies. Engaging with comparative literature
enriches students by refining their skills in comparison, critical analysis, interdisciplinary study,
cross-cultural understanding, and research methodologies. Moreover, it opens doors to the vast
realm of world literature, enriching one's understanding of global perspectives, cultural diversity,
and cross-cultural competence.

1.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should have gained an understanding of Comparative
Literature, its meaning, origins and evolution through the different schools. You should have also
understood the importance of translation in the study of comparative literature.

24
1.4 Glossary

Intersectionality:
Intersectionality stands as a framework for socio-cultural or literary studies. Kimberlé
Williams Crenshaw, an American civil rights advocate, introduced this concept in 1989.
According to the Oxford Dictionary intersectionality is “the interconnected nature of social
categorizations such as race, class, and gender, regarded as creating overlapping and
interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage.”
Intertextuality:
Intertextuality, coined and developed by Julia Kristeva in 1966, delves into studying the
relationship between two or more texts. It examines how they influence one another directly and
indirectly by borrowing various elements. This approach was further developed by theorists such
as reader-response theorist Roland Barthes, the Formalist Mikhail Bakhtin, and the Structuralist
Ferdinand de Saussure.
Interdisciplinarity:
Interdisciplinarity is a comprehensive and integrated approach used to understand novel
or unique phenomena like globalization, migration, comparative literature, global studies,
diaspora, and more. It arose due to the inadequacy of traditional disciplinary frameworks in
studying emerging phenomena. It integrates methods, approaches, skills, and techniques from
various disciplines in the Humanities and Social Sciences.
Translation:
Translation refers to the act of rendering one text from one language into another. Its
definition has expanded to encompass emotions and artistic forms in recent times.
Cultural Studies:
Cultural studies holds equal importance in comparative literature departments.
Sometimes, separate departments for comparative literature and cultural studies exist due to the
distinct development of cultural studies as a field. It is an interdisciplinary field that emerged in
the mid-20th century, emphasizing the relationship between culture and society. Cultural studies
explores the connection between various cultural aspects (literature, art, religion, media, style,
food, etc.) and social, political, economic, and historical processes and developments.

25
1.5 Sample Questions

1.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. Which article by Rodriguez Lius discusses the origins of comparative literature?
(a) “Comparative Studies”
(b) “Comparative Literature”
(c) “Literature in Context”
(d) “Translation and Interpretation”
2. In which year was the term “Comparative Literature” first recorded?
(a) 1824
(b) 1877
(c) 1816
(d) 1886
3. Who published the first specialized journal on comparative literature in Cluj, Romania?
(a) Abel-François Villemain
(b) Hugo Meltzl
(c) Jean-Jacques Ampère
(d) Hutcheson Macaulay Posnett
4. What was one of the reasons behind the emergence of comparative literature in America?
(a) The rise of nationalism
(b) The diverse backgrounds of immigrants
(c) The influence of Asian scholars
(d) The spread of digital technologies
5. Where was the International Comparative Literature Association established?
(a) Paris, France
(b) Berlin, Germany
(c) Chapel Hill, USA
(d) Cluj, Romania
6. Which scholar highlighted translation’s role in nation-building in nations like India, Africa,
and Canada?
(a) Susan Bassnett

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 (b) Lefeverse
(c) Bijay Kumar Das
(d) James Liu
7. Which scholar used a phenomenological approach to interpret texts?
(a) Fernand Baldensperger
(b) Roland Barthes
(c) Wolfgang Iser
(d) Philarete Charles
8. What is one of the key objectives of the Comparative Literature Association of India (CLAI)?
(a) To publish exclusive literary works
(b) To spread the concept of comparative literature
(c) To promote single national literatures
(d) To limit studies to European languages
9. Who delivered lectures in Paris that were foundational to the French school of comparative
literature?
(a) Abel-François Villemain
(b) Philarète Chasles
(c) Jean-Jacques Ampère
(d) Charles-Augustin Saint-Beuve
10. Which scholar emphasized that translation has been a major shaping force in global
development?
(a) Bijay Kumar Das
(b) Gerald Gillespie
(c) Susan Bassnett
(d) Henry Remak
1.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. What constitutes the primary objective of comparative literature?
2. What role does translation play within the realm of comparative literature?
3. Define cross-cultural understanding in the context of comparative literature.
4. Who were the pioneering French scholars involved in the development of comparative
literature?

27
5. What does CLAI stand for in the context of comparative literature?
1.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. What were the prevailing common factors contributing to the emergence of comparative
literature?
2. What are the distinct schools of comparative literature and what contributions have they made
to this field of study?
3. In what ways does comparative literature serve as a valuable research methodology?

1.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Mohan, Chandra. Aspects of Comparative Literature. 1989.

2. Gullen, Claudio. The Challenges of Comparative Literature.
3. Prawer, S.S. Comparative Literary Studies. 1973.
4. Das, Bijay Kumar. A Handbook of Translation Studies. 2005.
5. Rodriguez, Luis Pegenaute. "Comparative Literature." ENTI (Encyclopedia of Translation
and Interpretation), AIETI, 2022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6366248.

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 Unit – 2: Significance of Comparative Literature in Indian Context
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Significance of Comparative Literature in Indian Context
2.2.1 Introduction to Comparative Literature
2.2.2 Definition and Scope of Comparative Literature
2.2.3 Introduction to Comparative Literature in India
2.2.4 Understanding Comparative Literature
2.2.5 Diversity of India: Cultures, Languages and Literatures
2.3 Learning Outcomes
2.4 Glossary
2.5 Sample Questions
2.6 Suggested Learning Resources

2.0 Introduction

Comparative literature holds significant relevance in the Indian context due to the
country's rich cultural diversity, multilingualism, and complex historical heritage. Here are
several reasons why:
Multilingualism: India is home to hundreds of languages and dialects. Comparative
literature provides a platform to explore and analyze literary works across different languages,
allowing scholars to understand the interconnections and influences between various linguistic
traditions.
Cultural Diversity: India's cultural landscape is incredibly diverse, with each region
having its own distinct literary traditions, themes, and styles. Comparative literature enables
scholars to examine these diverse literary traditions, identify commonalities, and appreciate the
unique cultural perspectives reflected in different literary works.

29
 Historical Perspective: India has a rich literary heritage that spans thousands of years.
Comparative literature allows for the examination of how literary movements, themes, and
genres have evolved over time, providing insights into the socio-cultural and historical contexts
in which these works were produced.
Colonial and Postcolonial Studies: India's colonial history has had a profound impact
on its literature and culture. Comparative literature provides a framework for analyzing colonial
and postcolonial narratives, exploring issues of identity, power dynamics, and resistance in
literary texts produced during and after the colonial period.
Translation Studies: Translation plays a crucial role in comparative literature, enabling
the exchange of literary ideas and narratives across linguistic and cultural boundaries. In the
Indian context, where many literary works exist in multiple languages, translation studies are
essential for making these texts accessible to a wider audience and fostering cross-cultural
dialogue.
Overall, comparative literature in the Indian context serves as a dynamic field of inquiry
that fosters a deeper appreciation of the country's rich literary heritage, promotes cultural
exchange and dialogue, and contributes to a broader understanding of global literary traditions.

2.1 Objectives

After going through the Unit, the students will be able to:
 know the importance of Comparative Literature in academics.
 understand the significance of Comparative Literature globally in general and in Indian
context in particular.
 have the knowhow of historical perspectives of Comparative Literature.
 have a historical and contextual analysis Comparative Literature studies.

2.2 Significance of Comparative Literature in Indian Context

2.2.1 Introduction to Comparative Literature:

Comparative literature is a field that explores literature across different cultures,
languages, and periods. It examines how literary texts from various traditions interact, influence

30
each other, and contribute to our understanding of human experiences and the world. Here's an
introductory overview:
Key Concepts: Some key concepts in comparative literature include intertextuality (the
relationship between texts), translation (the process of rendering texts from one language to
another), reception theory (how texts are interpreted by different readers and cultures), and
literary influence (how one author or tradition impacts another).
Methodologies: Comparative literature employs various methodologies, including close
reading (analyzing texts in detail), historical contextualization (examining texts in their historical
and cultural contexts), comparative analysis (identifying similarities and differences between
texts), and theoretical frameworks (applying theories from literary criticism and other
disciplines).
Global Perspectives: Comparative literature embraces a global perspective, challenging
the dominance of Western literature and promoting the study of non-Western and marginalized
literary traditions. This global approach fosters cross-cultural understanding and appreciation for
the rich diversity of world literature.
Implications: Comparative literature has important implications for understanding
cultural exchange, globalization, and the construction of literary canons. By studying how
literary texts travel across borders and interact with different cultural contexts, scholars gain
insights into the dynamics of cultural influence and the complexities of identity formation.
In essence, comparative literature offers a dynamic and inclusive approach to studying
literature, fostering dialogue between different cultures and enriching our understanding of the
human experience through the exploration of diverse literary traditions.
2.2.2 Definition and Scope of Comparative Literature:
Comparative literature is an academic discipline that examines literature from different
cultural, linguistic, and national contexts. Its scope encompasses the comparative study of
literary works, authors, genres, movements, and themes across diverse cultural traditions. Here's
a breakdown of its definition and scope:
Definition: Comparative literature involves the analysis, comparison, and interpretation
of literary texts from multiple languages and cultures. It seeks to understand how literature
reflects and shapes cultural identities, historical contexts, and universal human experiences.
Comparative literature scholars explore connections, influences, and interactions between

31
literary traditions, often employing interdisciplinary approaches that draw on fields such as
literary theory, cultural studies, linguistics, and history.
Scope:
 Cross-cultural Comparison: Comparative literature examines literary texts from
different cultural contexts, including Western and non-Western traditions. It explores
similarities, differences, and exchanges between literary works and traditions, shedding
light on the diversity of human expression and cultural values.
 Multilingual Analysis: Comparative literature involves the study of texts written in
various languages. Scholars may analyze translated works to facilitate cross-cultural
understanding and explore the challenges and nuances of translation.
 Interdisciplinary Exploration: Comparative literature incorporates insights from
diverse disciplines, including literary theory, philosophy, anthropology, sociology,
psychology, and history. This interdisciplinary approach enriches the analysis of literature
by considering its socio-cultural, political, and historical dimensions.
 Thematic and Genre Studies: Comparative literature explores recurring themes, motifs,
and genres across different literary traditions. Scholars may focus on specific themes (e.g.,
love, identity, migration) or genres (e.g., poetry, drama, novels) to analyze how they are
expressed and interpreted in various cultural contexts.
 Historical and Contextual Analysis: Comparative literature considers the historical,
political, and social contexts in which literary works are produced and received. Scholars
examine how historical events, cultural movements, and ideological shifts influence
literary production, reception, and interpretation.
Comparative literature offers a broad and inclusive framework for studying literature
across cultures, languages, and historical periods. It fosters cross-cultural dialogue, expands
literary canons, and deepens our understanding of the complexities of human expression and
cultural diversity.
2.2.3 Introduction to Comparative Literature in India:
Comparative literature in India is a dynamic and thriving field that explores the rich
literary traditions of the Indian subcontinent in dialogue with global literary canons. Here's an
introductory overview:
Historical Context: Comparative literature in India has deep roots, dating back to
ancient times when Sanskrit scholars engaged in comparative studies of Indian epics, scriptures,

32
and philosophical texts. However, the modern discipline of comparative literature emerged
during the colonial period, influenced by interactions with Western literary traditions and
colonial education systems.
Multilingualism and Diversity: India's linguistic and cultural diversity is a hallmark of
comparative literature studies in the country. Scholars explore literary works written in various
Indian languages, including Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, and many others. This
multilingual approach enriches comparative analyses and fosters a deeper understanding of
India's literary heritage.
Translation and Reception: Translation plays a crucial role in comparative literature
studies in India, facilitating the exchange of literary texts across linguistic and cultural
boundaries. Scholars analyze translated works and their reception in different linguistic
communities, exploring issues of fidelity, cultural adaptation, and power dynamics in the process
of translation.
Global Dialogues: Comparative literature in India engages in dialogues with global
literary traditions while also asserting the significance of indigenous literary expressions.
Scholars critically examine the impact of globalization, diasporic literature, and transnational
cultural flows on Indian literature, highlighting both its cosmopolitanism and its rootedness in
local cultures.
Challenges and Opportunities: Comparative literature in India faces challenges such as
linguistic diversity, uneven access to resources, and the dominance of English-language literature
in academic discourse. However, it also presents opportunities for cross-cultural exchange,
decolonizing knowledge production, and revitalizing lesser-known literary traditions.
Comparative literature in India offers a vibrant platform for exploring the rich tapestry of
Indian literary expressions in dialogue with global literary discourses. It celebrates the diversity
of Indian languages and cultures while engaging with broader questions of literary theory,
cultural identity, and human experience.
2.2.4 Understanding Comparative Literature:
Understanding comparative literature involves delving into the exploration of literary
texts across different cultures, languages, and periods to uncover connections, similarities, and
differences. Here's a breakdown:
Cross-Cultural Analysis: Comparative literature examines how literary works from
diverse cultural backgrounds interact, influence each other, and reflect universal human

33
 experiences. It explores themes, motifs, and narrative techniques that transcend cultural
boundaries, fostering an appreciation for the diversity of global literary traditions.
Multilingual Perspective: Comparative literature encompasses the study of literature
written in various languages, including translations. Scholars analyze how linguistic differences
shape literary expression and interpretation, and they explore the challenges and opportunities of
translating texts across languages.
Theoretical Frameworks: Comparative literature employs various theoretical
frameworks to analyze literary texts, such as structuralism, poststructuralism, feminism,
postcolonialism, psychoanalysis, and reader-response theory. These theories offer different
perspectives on how texts are produced, interpreted, and experienced across cultures.
Methodological Tools: Comparative literature utilizes diverse methodological tools,
including close reading, comparative analysis, historical contextualization, reception theory, and
translation studies. Scholars employ these tools to identify patterns, influences, and
transformations in literary texts as they move across cultural and linguistic boundaries.
Critical Dialogue: Comparative literature fosters critical dialogue between different
literary traditions, encouraging scholars to engage in cross-cultural exchanges and rethink
conventional interpretations of texts. Through comparative analysis, scholars uncover new
insights into the complexities of human experiences and cultural interactions.
Comparative literature offers a dynamic and inclusive approach to studying literature,
transcending linguistic and cultural barriers to explore the universal themes, motifs, and
narratives that unite humanity. It promotes cross-cultural understanding, enriches literary
scholarship, and celebrates the diversity of global literary expressions.
2.2.5 Diversity of India: Cultures, Languages and Literatures:
India is renowned for its remarkable diversity in cultures, languages, and literatures,
reflecting its long history of civilization, migration, and cultural exchange. Let's explore each
aspect:
1. Cultures:
 Regional Diversity: India is home to a vast array of regional cultures, each with its own
distinct traditions, customs, and practices. From the vibrant festivals of Kerala to the
colorful attire of Rajasthan, the cultural landscape of India is incredibly diverse.

34
  Religious Diversity: India is the birthplace of several major religions, including
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Each religion has left an indelible mark on
Indian culture, shaping its art, architecture, festivals, and social customs.
 Cuisine and Cuisine: Indian cuisine varies significantly from region to region, reflecting
local ingredients, cooking techniques, and cultural influences. Whether it's the spicy
curries of the south or the aromatic biryanis of the north, Indian cuisine offers a
tantalizing journey for the taste buds.
 Arts and Crafts: Indian arts and crafts showcase a rich tapestry of creativity and
craftsmanship, from intricate silk sarees to ornate temple carvings. Each region boasts its
own unique artistic traditions, including painting, sculpture, pottery, and textile weaving.
2. Languages:
 Linguistic Diversity: India is one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world,
with over 22 officially recognized languages and hundreds of dialects. The major
language families in India include Indo-Aryan (e.g., Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi), Dravidian
(e.g., Tamil, Telugu, Kannada), and Austroasiatic (e.g., Odia, Santali).
 Official Languages: While Hindi and English are the official languages at the national
level, each state in India has its own official language(s) as well. This linguistic diversity
reflects the country's complex history of political, social, and cultural interactions.
 Literary Traditions: Each language in India boasts a rich literary heritage, with ancient
epics, classical poetry, and modern literature that reflect the unique cultural and linguistic
identity of its speakers. From the Sanskrit epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana to the
Tamil Sangam poetry, Indian literature encompasses a vast and varied literary landscape.
3. Literatures:
 Ancient Texts: Indian literature has a long and distinguished history, with ancient texts
dating back thousands of years. The Vedas, Upanishads, and epics like the Mahabharata
and Ramayana are foundational texts that have shaped Indian culture and thought.
 Classical Literature: Indian classical literature encompasses works in Sanskrit, Tamil,
and other classical languages, including epic poems, lyrical poetry, philosophical treatises,
and dramatic plays. Writers like Kalidasa, Valmiki, and Thiruvalluvar have made
enduring contributions to Indian literature.
 Modern Literature: Indian literature underwent a renaissance in the 19th and 20th
centuries, with the emergence of modern writers who grappled with issues of social

35
 reform, identity, and colonialism. Figures like Rabindranath Tagore, Premchand, R.K.
Narayan, and Mahasweta Devi have left an indelible mark on Indian literature.
In summary, the diversity of India's cultures, languages, and literatures is a testament to
the country's rich and multifaceted heritage. It reflects the complexities of Indian society, its
deep-rooted traditions, and its ongoing cultural evolution.
2.2.6 Significance of Comparative Literature in India:
• how comparative analysis enhances our understanding of individual literary works and
their socio-cultural contexts.
• Explore the role of comparative literature in academic settings, including universities
and research institutions.
• Discuss the importance of incorporating comparative approaches in literature curricula
to foster critical thinking and intercultural competence.
Comparative analysis plays a crucial role in enhancing our understanding of individual
literary works and their socio-cultural contexts in several ways:
Identifying Patterns and Themes: Comparative analysis allows readers to identify
recurring patterns, themes, and motifs across different works. By comparing multiple texts from
the same period or culture, readers can discern commonalities and differences, shedding light on
prevalent ideas, values, and concerns within a particular socio-cultural context.
Contextualizing Literature: Literature does not exist in a vacuum; it is deeply
embedded within socio-cultural contexts. Comparative analysis helps situate individual works
within broader historical, political, and cultural frameworks. By examining how different texts
respond to similar social or historical events, readers gain insights into how literature both
reflects and shapes the societies in which it is produced.
Exploring Cultural Diversity: Comparative analysis allows for the exploration of
cultural diversity within and across literary traditions. By examining works from different
cultures or regions, readers can appreciate the rich tapestry of human experience and gain a
deeper understanding of the complexities of identity, ideology, and worldview.
Highlighting Literary Influence: Comparative analysis reveals the interconnectedness
of literary texts and traditions. By tracing influences and intertextual references between works,
readers can uncover layers of meaning and significance that might not be apparent when
analyzing texts in isolation. This approach helps elucidate how literary movements evolve over
time and how individual works contribute to broader literary traditions.

36
 Challenging Assumptions and Stereotypes: Comparative analysis encourages readers to
question assumptions and stereotypes about particular cultures or literary traditions. By
juxtaposing diverse texts and perspectives, readers are prompted to critically evaluate
preconceived notions and recognize the complexity and nuance inherent in cultural expression.
Broadening Perspectives: Comparative literature exposes students to a wide range of
literary traditions, genres, and themes from diverse cultures and languages. By studying texts
from different socio-cultural contexts, students gain a broader understanding of human
experiences, beliefs, and values. This exposure encourages them to question their own
assumptions and develop empathy and respect for cultural differences.
Encouraging Critical Analysis: Comparative approaches challenge students to critically
analyze literary texts by examining similarities and differences across cultures. They learn to
identify underlying themes, motifs, and narrative techniques, as well as the socio-historical
contexts that shape literary production. This analytical process enhances their ability to engage
with complex ideas and construct well-reasoned arguments.
Promoting Intercultural Dialogue: Comparative literature fosters intercultural dialogue
and exchange by encouraging students to explore connections and contrasts between different
literary traditions. Through discussions and collaborative projects, students learn to appreciate
the richness of cultural diversity and recognize the universal themes that transcend linguistic and
geographical boundaries. This dialogue promotes mutual understanding and breaks down
stereotypes and prejudices.
Developing Language Proficiency: Comparative literature curricula often involve the
study of texts in their original languages or through translations. This exposure to different
linguistic structures and literary styles enhances students' language proficiency and fluency. It
also enables them to engage more deeply with the cultural nuances and subtleties embedded in
the texts, thereby expanding their communicative competence.
Cultivating Critical Awareness: Comparative approaches in literature curricula cultivate
critical awareness by encouraging students to examine the ways in which power dynamics,
colonial legacies, and socio-political factors influence literary production and reception. They
learn to interrogate dominant narratives and to recognize marginalized voices and perspectives
within the literary canon. This critical consciousness empowers students to challenge injustice
and advocate for social change.

37
 Preparing Global Citizens: In an increasingly interconnected world, intercultural
competence is essential for effective communication and collaboration across cultural boundaries.
Comparative literature equips students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to
navigate diverse cultural landscapes and to engage meaningfully with people from different
backgrounds. It prepares them to become informed and empathetic global citizens capable of
addressing complex global challenges.
Incorporating comparative approaches in literature curricula is essential for fostering
critical thinking and intercultural competence among students. By exposing them to a diverse
range of literary texts and perspectives, comparative literature prepares students to engage
thoughtfully with the complexities of the human experience and to navigate an increasingly
interconnected world with empathy, understanding, and respect. Comparative analysis deepens
our appreciation of individual literary works by placing them in dialogue with one another and
with the socio-cultural contexts from which they emerge. By fostering a nuanced understanding
of literature and its cultural significance, comparative analysis enriches our engagement with
texts and broadens our perspective on the world.
2.2.7 Future Directions and Challenges:
• Examine the challenges faced by scholars and practitioners of comparative literature in
India, such as linguistic barriers and funding constraints.
• Discuss potential opportunities for overcoming these challenges and advancing the field
of comparative literature.
Scholars and practitioners of comparative literature in India encounter various challenges,
including linguistic barriers and funding constraints, which can significantly impact their
research and academic pursuits.
Linguistic Barriers: India is a linguistically diverse country with hundreds of languages
spoken across its regions. While this diversity enriches the field of comparative literature by
providing a vast array of literary traditions to study, it also poses challenges. Scholars may face
difficulties in accessing and analyzing literary texts written in languages with which they are not
familiar. Translation efforts are essential but often insufficient, as nuances and cultural contexts
may be lost in translation. Moreover, the dominance of certain languages, such as English and
Hindi, can marginalize literary works in regional languages, hindering their inclusion in
comparative studies.

38
 Limited Resources and Funding Constraints: Comparative literature research requires
access to a wide range of resources, including books, journals, databases, and archival materials.
However, many academic institutions and research centers in India face resource constraints,
which can impede scholars' ability to conduct thorough comparative analyses. Additionally,
funding for research projects in comparative literature may be limited, especially for
interdisciplinary or multilingual studies. This lack of financial support can hinder scholars'
efforts to undertake ambitious research projects or attend conferences and workshops essential
for academic networking and collaboration.
Institutional Support and Recognition: Comparative literature is sometimes overlooked
or undervalued within academic institutions in India, which may prioritize more traditional
disciplines. As a result, scholars working in this field may struggle to receive adequate
institutional support, including access to research facilities, mentorship, and opportunities for
professional development. Furthermore, the lack of recognition for comparative literature as a
distinct academic discipline can hinder scholars' career advancement prospects and funding
opportunities.
Political and Cultural Sensitivities: India's complex socio-political landscape can
present challenges for scholars engaged in comparative literature research, particularly when
examining sensitive or controversial topics. Censorship, political pressure, and cultural taboos
may restrict the scope of inquiry or discourage scholars from exploring certain themes or literary
works. Negotiating these challenges while upholding academic integrity and intellectual freedom
requires careful navigation and sometimes entails self-censorship to avoid backlash or
persecution.
Addressing these challenges requires collaborative efforts from scholars, academic
institutions, funding agencies, and policymakers. Initiatives to promote linguistic diversity,
increase funding for comparative literature research, enhance institutional support, and safeguard
academic freedom are crucial for fostering a vibrant and inclusive scholarly community in India.
2.2.8 Conclusion:
Concluding an introduction to comparative literature would ideally tie together the key
themes, goals, and methodologies discussed in the text. Here's a sample concluding note:
"In wrapping up our exploration of comparative literature, we have embarked on a
journey through the rich tapestry of global literary traditions, unveiling both the universal human
experiences that unite us and the diverse cultural landscapes that define us. From the nuanced

39
analysis of themes and motifs to the examination of translation, intertextuality, and cross-cultural
influences, we have witnessed the power of comparative literature to transcend boundaries and
foster a deeper understanding of ourselves and others.
As we conclude, let us remember that the essence of comparative literature lies not only
in the study of differences but also in the celebration of connections. It challenges us to engage
with texts as windows into different worlds, inviting us to empathize with perspectives beyond
our own. Through this interdisciplinary lens, we gain insight into the complexities of human
existence and the myriad ways in which literature reflects and shapes our shared reality.
Moving forward, may our journey in comparative literature inspire us to continue
exploring, questioning, and seeking common ground amidst diversity. Let us embrace the
transformative potential of literature to bridge divides and cultivate empathy, fostering a more
interconnected and compassionate global community."

2.3 Learning Outcomes

After going through the Unit, the students are expected to:
 understand the importance of Comparative Literature.
 know the significance of Comparative Literature discipline in Indian context.
 know the influence of cultures on Comparative Literature.
 have the understanding of challenges in Comparative Literature discipline.

2.4 Glossary

Incredibly: Amazingly
Fostering: Nurturing
Intertextuality: The relationship between texts, especially literary ones
Literary Canons: It is the collection of works considered representative of a period or genre
Nuances: A subtle difference or distinction in expression, meaning, response, etc.
Recurring: Continual
Hallmark: A mark or sign of authenticity or excellence
Tapestry: Complexity

40
Structuralism: Structuralism is a method of interpreting and analysing such things as
language, literature, and society, which focuses on contrasting ideas or elements of structure
and attempts to show how they relate to the whole structure.
Poststructuralism: Poststructuralism refers to a way of thinking that emphasizes the radical
uncertainty of knowledge (particularly knowledge in language) and posits that “truth” is not a
fixed concept, but instead constantly changes based on your cultural, political, social, and
economic position in the world.
Feminism: The belief that women should have the same rights and opportunities as men
Postcolonialism: The historical period or state of affairs representing the aftermath
of Western colonialism
Psychoanalysis: Psychoanalytic theory is based on the assumption that individuals have
unconscious thoughts, desires, memories, and feelings which may cause clinical symptoms.
Reader-Response Theory: It focuses on the reader or audience reaction to a particular text,
perhaps more than the text itself.
Motifs: An idea that is used many times in a piece of writing
Tantalizing: Making you want something that you cannot have or do; tempting

2.5 Sample Questions

2.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. India is home to hundreds of languages and dialects.
(a) True (b) False
2. Comparative literature allows for the examination of how literary movements, themes, and
genres have evolved over time.
(a) True (b) False
3. India's colonial history has no impact on its literature and culture.
(a) True (b) False
4. Translation plays a crucial role in comparative literature.
(a) True (b) False
5. Some of the key concepts of comparative literature are intertextuality, translation, reception
theory, and literary influence.

41
 (a) True (b) False
6. Comparative literature does not employ close reading methodology.
(a) True (b) False
7. Comparative literature is an academic discipline that examines literature from different
cultural, linguistic, and national contexts.
(a) True (b) False
8. Comparative literature explores recurring themes, motifs, and genres across different literary
traditions.
(a) True (b) False
9. India's linguistic and cultural diversity is a hallmark of comparative literature studies in the
country.
(a) True (b) False
10. Comparative literature in India faces challenges such as linguistic diversity, uneven access to
resources, and the dominance of English-language literature in academic discourse.
(a) True (b) False
2.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. Give a brief introduction to Comparative Literature.
2. Discuss in brief the key concept of Comparative Literature.
3. Analyze the historical perspective of Comparative Literature in short.
4. Describe in short the importance of translation in Comparative Literature.
5. How linguistic barriers affect Comparative Literature studies?
2.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. What is the significance of Comparative Literature discipline in a multilingual and
multicultural country like India?
2. What are the challenges of Comparative Literature studies?
3. What are the scopes of Comparative Literature in India?

42
2.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Ahmad, Aijaz. "'Indian Literature': Notes towards the Definition of a Category." In Theory:
Classes, Nations, Literatures. Aijaz Ahmad. London: Verso, 1992.
2. Das, Sisir Kumar. A History of Indian Literature. Vol 1: 1800-1910: Western Impact / Indian
Response. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1991.
3. George, K.M., ed. Comparative Indian Literature. Madras and Trichur: Macmillan and Kerala
Sahitya Akademi, 1984-85. 2 vols.
4. Majumdar, Swapan. Comparative Literature: Indian Dimensions. Calcutta: Papyrus, 1985.

43
 Unit - 3: Walter Benjamin: excerpt from The Task of a Translator

Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 The Task of the Translator
3.2.1 Walter Benjamin as a Critic
3.2.2 Function of Translation
3.2.3 Translation as a Mode / Translatability
3.2.4 Kinship of Languages
3.2.5 The Poet and the Translator
3.2.6 Fidelity and License
3.2.7 Errors in Harry Zohn’s Translation
3.3 Learning Outcomes
3.4 Glossary
3.5 Sample Questions
3.6 Suggested Learning Resources

3.0 Introduction

The essay, The Task of the Translator, was originally titled Die Aufgabe des Ubersetzers.
It takes into account the German translated version of Baudelaire's Tableaux Parisiens by Walter
Benjamin. It was a foreword to Tableaux Parisiens. Tableaux Parisiens consists of eighteen
poems which Benjamin incorporated in the second edition of his work Les Fleurs du Mal
(Flowers of Evil) in 1861.
The essay perceives translation in its inter-linguistic dimensions. In this essay, Benjamin
deals with the aspects of communication in language. The essay also focuses on the historical
features of languages. Benjamin rejects the role of the audience in both critical appreciation of
the work as well as literal translation. According to him, translation is a mode. Some literary
works possess the feature of translatability. The original text is related to the translated text.
Translation can thus be considered as an afterlife of the original. Benjamin conceptualizes
translation as reflection of the original and translation and original as parts of the larger domain
i.e. language.

44
3.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 know the contribution of Walter Benjamin as a critic and a translator

 understand the significance of translation
 consider translation as a mode and know the task of the translator
 determine kinship of languages inherent in translation
 distinguish between the poet and the translator
 discuss fidelity and license as contradictory concepts in translation
 show how errors in Harry Zohn’s translation of Walter Benjamin’s essay The Task of
the Translator alters its original intended meaning

3.2 The Task of the Translator

As already pointed out in the “Introduction,” in this essay, Benjamin perceives translation
in its inter-linguistic dimensions. He lays down the role of a translator and his responsibilities.
This essay provides an insightful reading into Comparative literature where the role of
translation is immense. Benjamin rejects the role of the audience in both critical appreciation of
the work as well as literal translation. So, according to him, translation is not audience or reader-
centric.
3.2.1 Walter Benjamin as a Critic:
Born on 15 July 1892, into a rich Jewish family, Walter B. Benjamin attended a boarding
school in Haubinda, Thuringa. There he was associated with the liberal educational reformer,
Gustav Wyneken. Later, he wrote for Der Anfang, a journal which was devoted to Wyneken’s
ideas about the spiritual purity of youth. He actively participated in the Youth Movement.
Walter B.S. Benjamin was a German Jewish philosopher, cultural critic and essayist. He
was influenced by German idealism, Romanticism, Western Marxism and Jewish mysticism. He
made significant contributions to aesthetic theory, literary criticism and historical materialism.
Being an associate of the Frankfurt School, he had friendship with the dramatist Bertolt Brecht
and the Kabbalah scholar Gershom Scholem.
“The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” (1935) and “Theses on the
Philosophy of History” (1940) are his well-known essays. He also wrote essays on Baudelaire,

45
Goethe, Kafka, Kraus, Leskov, Proust, Walser and translation theory. He translated the section of
Baudelaire's “Les Fleurs du Mal” and parts of Proust's “A la recherche du temps perdu” into
German. The ideas of Brecht, Adorno, Scholem, Eric Gutkind and Ludwig Klages inspired him.
Marxism, Jewish mysticism and occultism influenced his works.
Walter Benjamin received summa cum laude award in 1919 for his Ph.D thesis titled The
Concept of Art Criticism in German Romanticism. He had to withdraw his thesis from the
University of Frankfurt in 1925. But it was published in book form in 1928 and garnered good
reviews in journals and newspapers. It also formed the core of a seminar course taken up by
Theodore W. Adorno at Frankfurt University in 1932-33.
Walter Benjamin was exiled in 1933. The Institute for Social Research funded him for his
academic activities during 1930s. This enabled him to complete works like “The Work of Art in
the Age of its Technical Reproducibility” and “The Arcades Project.” Walter Benjamin stayed in
French concentration camps for Germans in 1939 during World War. Benjamin returned to Paris
but fled again due to the advent of German Army in 1940. He tried to emigrate to Spain illegally,
but was stopped by the customs officials. He became frustrated and committed suicide on 27
September 1940 on the border of Spain.
Check your progress
1) Explain Walter Benjamin's contribution to cultural and critical thought.
2) What was Benjamin's work on translation?
3) What were the influences on Benjamin's work?
3.2.2 Function of Translation:
Benjamin disregards the role of reception in critical appreciation of any literary work.
The consideration of reader in the evaluation of literature is a flawed idea. He opines that all art
unravels man's nature and existence but, is not concerned with his response. He argues that
translation is not meant for the reader who does not read the original. It entails that he considers
translation as a form. Translation merely seems to convey ideas inherent in the original.
Benjamin regards the assumption of translation holding true to the original as futile. For him,
literary work is not about communication.
He believes that translation must not attempt to reproduce the meaning of the original as
it is not necessary to appreciate it. According to him, any translation which provides only
information is a bad translation. He contends that a literary work not only conveys the meaning

46
but also possesses aesthetic qualities. Hence, the translator can reproduce the same features of
the original in the translated text only if he is also a poet.
The translators do not possess the qualities of a poet in most of the cases. So this often
results in inferior translation. Benjamin argued that the original is not aimed at the reader. So the
question of translation aiming at the reader does not arise.
Check your progress
 Explain Walter Benjamin's view on reception of any literary work.
 What is the function of literary work, according to Benjamin?
 What are the causes of inferior translation, according to Benjamin?
3.2.3 Translation as a mode / Translatability:
Walter Benjamin does not regard the function of language as communication necessary in
relation to translation. He considers translation as a form which depends on the extent to which
the original can be translated. Translatability entails two meanings; first, an adequate translator to
be found and second, whether the work demands to be translated. A work which has all the
qualities of being great needs to be translated. It ascertains whether a particular work has the
features that can enable its translation.
Some literary works are characterized by their translatability. It does not mean that they
should be translated. The significance of an original text is seen in the translated texts. The
original text is related to its translation. Even a good translation comes nowhere near the original
in terms of its significance. Translation emerges from the original text; hence it can be
considered as its afterlife. The original gains significance through translation. The original text is
translated later. The translation does not take place immediately after the original creation. It is
through translation that the original text reaches a wider audience. The original becomes more
popular after its translation. Conversely, only popular texts are translated. Benjamin points out
that the philosopher understands natural life via the phases of history. Every concept is
evolutionary. It has its own history. Similarly, the history of the great works of art takes into
consideration the earlier works, their significance in the age of the artist and its future impact and
relevance. This concept is similar to T.S. Eliot's notion of 'tradition' wherein he stressed the need
to understand the present works in the light of the past works and their potential impact on the
future. The work acquires much significance if it is able to retain its relevance in the future.
Translatability thus holds its relevance in the future. Hence, translatability is a quality of a select
few works that are significant and famous. Benjamin laid more emphasis on the literary works

47
when translating than on the ability of the translator. He pointed out that the task of the translator
is to "renew" great works.
Check your progress

 What does Benjamin mean by translatability?

 How can translation be considered an afterlife of the original?
 What is the task of the translator?
3.2.4 Kinship of Languages:
Translation of the original work has a special purpose. As the purposes of all forms of life
are reflected in their nature and significance, similar is the case with translation. According to
Benjamin, the aim of translation is to show reciprocal relationship between languages.
Translation represents kinship of languages which is ever present. Benjamin suggests that
kinship does not indicate similarity. So, translations do not show it by portraying the form and
meaning of originals exactly. Benjamin rejects the concept of the kinship of languages based on
similarity or common origins. However, he suggested the concept of pure language, which
indicates that languages are complementary in nature.
Benjamin is apprehensive that the kinship of languages can be shown without portraying
the form and meaning of the original exactly. Hence, the theory of translation cannot encapsulate
this accuracy and could never point out the significant criteria to be taken care of in a translation.
But the kinship of languages is evident in a translation very precisely as compared to the similar
nature of two literary works. The association between an original and a translation can be seen in
the light of cognitive theory. As there can be no objectivity in cognition, similarly translation
cannot be done if it aims to be similar to the original. Translation has a special purpose.
Translation is transformative; the original text changes in due process. Benjamin suggests
that the temporal aspect should be taken into account for the translation process. Time brings
changes both in the original and its translation. Time effects changes both in the original as well
as its translation. Time effects change in the native language of the translator also. Therefore,
translation is provisional. Benjamin refers to the historical development of language. He suggests
that words and their meanings undergo change. Even the writer's literary style may become
outdated with the passage of time. Translation is bound to oversee the growth of its own
language. Eventually, it renews the language. Thus, the translator observes the historical
evolution of the original language and then develops his own new, renewed language.

48
 The kinship of languages manifests in translation not because of similarity between the
original and the translated text. Kinship does not mean similarity. Benjamin observes that the
relatedness of two languages cannot be seen either in two literary works or words. The kinship of
languages lies in the motive laid bare in each language. These languages correlate with each
other as their intentions are similar. Thus, Benjamin evolves a notion of "pure language" which
envisions an amalgamation of the different world languages. He suggests that this language
should be the medium of the translator's domain. A single language cannot evince this
relationship between languages. This relationship can be experienced only when one language
passes into another language. But no translator can manage all the world languages in a single
sample of translation. The translator just highlights the interaction of two languages in the large
linguistic domain that comprises all languages, the pure language. Benjamin points out that
languages supplement each other in intention.
Benjamin distinguishes between das Gemeinte (what is meant) and Art des Meinens (the
manner of meaning it) to explain the relationship between languages captured in a pure language.
He points out that the French word pain and the German word Brot are two ways which mean
'bread'. These are different manners used to refer to the same object - bread. Thus pain, brot and
bread are the words related to each other and fall in the domain of pure language. These words
possess the same meaning but are expressed differently. The different words belonging to the
different languages of the world evince the various ways how the same object unravels meaning.
The translator aims to convey in his own language the way other languages unravel meaning.
The translator must not just translate the words pain or brot as bread but reveal how 'bread'
means differently in French and German. For example, the German word brot includes the short
word which means the colour red. It is evinced in the sound of the English word bread which
rhymes with the colour red. However, this association between bread and redness is not evident
in the French words pain and rouge bearing the same relation. Benjamin advocates the poetic
mode of perception of what words mean in translation too. He considers Art des Meinens, the
form crucial in translation than das Gemeinte, the content. For him, manner of meaning is
exclusive to the other language and the meaning that is evolved is the same in all the languages.
Hence, the translator should not disclose the content of the original, but its way of representing
the meaning.
The authentic translation reflects in the target language the way in which a foreign
language evinces meaning and shows the typical manner of meaning observed in the original.

49
Benjamin points out that authentic translation can be done through the exact transliteration of the
syntax, which hints that words are important in translation. The sentence is meaningful but an
obstacle for a translator. It is necessary to ignore what the foreign text is about. It is essential to
dismantle sentences into words and syntactical components and transmit them into one's own
language by exact transliteration of syntax.
The chief purpose of translation remains elusive. It cannot be translated as the
association between the content and language is not the same in the original and translation. The
content and language is unitary in the original but multi-layered in translation.
Benjamin suggests that translation is provisional. Translation cannot claim permanence
but its goal is to reach the higher level of linguistic domain. Translation transfers not only subject
matter but also exalts language.
Check your progress

 How does translation represent kinship of languages?

 What is Walter Benjamin’s notion of ‘pure language’?
 How is translation provisional in nature, according to Walter Benjamin?

3.2.5 The Poet and the Translator:

The original text continues to acquire fame and significance with the passage of time.
Romanticists had a special ability to analyze literary works. But they never looked at translation
seriously and focused on literary criticism. However, their own translations acknowledge the
existence of its literary mode. The poet may not be a translator. Even literary history does not
suggest that great poets were famous translators and little-known poets were indifferent
translators. Eminent poets as Luther, Voss and Schlegel were good translators. Holiderlin and
Stefan George were poets as well as translators. Translations are different. Hence, the
translator’s task is different from the poet’s work.
The job of the translator is to find the factors that impact on the language he uses for
translation that create the reflection of the original. The translator must direct specific intentions
towards the target language, which creates an echo of the original. The concept of echo
establishes the relationship of the translator with language, which is different from the
relationship the poet has with language. The relationship of translation with language is oriented
towards language as a whole. This feature of translation distinguishes it from the work of the
poet. The poet focuses only on certain linguistic contextuality. The poet’s intention is

50
spontaneous and primary while the translator’s intention is secondary. In a translation,
integration of many languages into one whole language is done. Such a language is the language
of truth and philosophical in orientation. A good translation reflects the intention of the original
in a harmonious manner. Thus, translation is tucked between poetry and philosophy. Translated
works are not clearly defined but leave an impact on literary history.
Check your progress

 What was the attitude of Romanticists towards translation?

 What is the difference between the poet and the translator?
 How does language evolve in a translation?

3.2.6 Fidelity and License:

Walter Benjamin relates translation with reproducibility, which is a feature of cultural
forms like photography and cinema. The concepts of fidelity and license are crucial in a
discourse on translation. The liberty of exact replication and fidelity to the word are no longer
tenable in translation. In translation, fidelity to words cannot completely replicate the original’s
meaning.
Benjamin suggests that sense in a poetic work does not imply meaning alone. It suggests
connotations of words too. So 'fidelity' to translation appears to be a misnomer. Words possess
emotional connotations. Literal translation of syntax diminishes the theory of reproduction. It is a
barrier to the clear understanding of text. Holderlin's translations of Sophocles prove this point.
Fidelity in reproducing the form hinders the content or the meaning. So literalness is not
synonymous with sense. The provision of a license enables even the bad translators to provide
some meaning. According to Benjamin, the successful translator must endeavor to reach the core
of an original work and then try to replicate it. He must not take only the words at their face
value and the etymological changes historically, but also the connotations of a word. The context
should be taken into account during translation.
The association between the original and the translation is similar to the fragments of a
larger language. The languages must complete each other. So translation should not attempt to
simply convey sense. The language of the translation must express the intention of the original. It
should not aim to reproduce but act as a supplement to the language. Fidelity is ensured by
literalness, which affirms that languages should be complemented. A general translation must

51
have transparency. It should allow the pure language of the original to unravel. This is possible
through the exact transliteration of the syntax. It suggests that words are crucial for a translator.
Fidelity and license in translation are contradictory concepts. License essentially means
freedom to render sense, but it is not considered important. Benjamin suggests that in a pure
language, all information is extinguished. This extinction of meaning is freedom from the
communicative aspects of language. He holds that language is pure only when it does not
communicate. According to Benjamin, the communication of information cannot be transmitted
accurately. In a language, context decides the meaning. Translation has the ability to regain pure
language. To achieve this ability, a free translation uses its own language. The job of the
translator is to unravel the pure language which shows allegiance to another language. The task
also includes breaking the barriers of one's own language. Translation reflects the original
minimally in sense and utilizes the freedom minimally in sense and utilizes the freedom to
pursue its own linguistic path. The German philosopher and poet Rudolf Pannwitz blames
translation for attempting to focus only on the source language rather than the target language.
The flaw of the translator, according to Benjamin, is that he is obsessed with his own language
and never considers the essence of the foreign language.
Benjamin further points out that adhering to the norms of foreign language also depends
on the extent to which the original is translatable. The low quality language and the bulky
information make the translation impossible. If the level of the work is high, it becomes
translatable. Translations are untranslatable due to the loose meaning attached to them. Benjamin
praises the German romantic poet Friedrich Holderlin for his translations of the Greek tragic
drama Sophocles and refers to them as models. He points out that all great texts, particularly
sacred writings, are more translatable. It suggests that they are translatable as these texts contain
the truth and the language is truthful too. Benjamin suggests that translation should resemble the
original and literalness and freedom should intertwine in both the original and translation. He
regards the nature of Scriptures as ideal for all translation.
Check your progress
 Explain how fidelity and license in translation are contradictory concepts.
 What must the successful translator attempt to do, according to Walter Benjamin?
 What is the prototype of all translations, according to Walter Benjamin?

52
3.2.7 Errors in Harry Zohn’s Translation:
Walter Benjamin’s “Die Aufgabe des Ubersetzers” was translated into English as “The
Task of the Translator” by Harry John in 1968. This version is quite well-known to English
readers. However, there are some errors in this translation.
The first error can be seen in the following sentence:
“gewisse Relationsbegriffe ihren guten, ja vielleicht
besten Sinn behalten wenn sie nicht von vorne
herein ausschliesslich auf den Menschen bezogen
warden”.
(Benjamin 1980:10)
“certain correlative concepts retain their meaning, and
possibly their foremost significance, if they are
referred exclusively to man.”
(Benjamin 1968:70)
The negative is omitted, which changes the meaning and it becomes difficult to follow
Benjamin’s argument. Paul de Man considers this omission significant as it does not reveal
Benjamin’s emphasis on the inhuman and mechanized operation of language.
The second omission occurs in the sentence below:
“Wenn aber diese derart bis ans messianische
Ende ihrer Geschichte wachsen. ….”
(Benjamin 1980:14)
“If, however, these languages continue to grow
in this manner until the end of their time…”
(Benjamin 1968:78)
Zohn does not translate the word “messianisch.” It is crucial due to the emphasis on the
influence of messianism on Benjamin and this essay.
The third omission can be found in the sentence below as Benjamin talks about
“Wesenhafte Kern”, which is the main task of the translator:
“Des erreichr es nicht mir Stumpf und Stiel, aber in
ihm steht dasjenige, was an einer Ubersetzung
mehr ist als Mitteilung. Genauer lasst sich dieser
wesenhafte Kern als dasjenige bestimmen, was

53
 an ihr selbst nicht wiederum ubersetzbar is.”
(Benjamin 1980:15)
“The transfer can never be total but what reaches
this region is that element in a translation which
goes beyond transmittal of subject matter. This
nucleus is best defined as the element that does
not lend itself to translation.”
(Benjamin 1968:75)
Here, Zohn does not translate the words “an ihr” and “wiederum” which suggests that an
object of the translator’s main task is beyond his reach. This implies that the aspect of
“wessenhafte kern” reflected in a translation cannot be translated again. It ensues that translation
of a translation blocks access to the core of the language. Benjamin here refers to the
translatability of the text but the clarification is not perceptible.
The fourth omission takes place in a sentence wherein Benjamin discusses the issue of
fidelity and freedom in translation.
“Treue and Freiheit- Freiheit der sinngemassen
Wiedergabe und in ihrem Dienst Treue gegen das
Wort- sind die althergebrachten Begriffe in
jeder Diskussion von Ubersetzungen.”
(Benjamin 1980:17)
“The traditional concepts in any discussion of
translation are fidelity and license- the freedom
of faithful reproduction, and in its service,
fidelity to the word.”
(Benjamin 1968:79)
Zohn leaves the words “sinngemassen Wiedergarbe”. This makes it difficult for the
audience to understand that freedom which Benjamin makes reference to is the same freedom
emphasized by Horace, Dryden and other translation theorists to abandon word-for-word
translation and seek to transfer content (meaning) in a translation. This omission causes a
misunderstanding of Benjamin’s text/essay which can be seen in the below passage translated by
Zohn.
“Wenn Treue and Freiheit der Ubersetzung

54
 seit jeher als widerstrebende Tendenzen
betrachtet wurden so scheint auch diese
tiefere Deutung der einen beide nicht zu
versohnen, sondern im Gegenteil alles Recht
der andern abzusprechen. Denn worauf bezieht
Freiheit sich, wenn nicht auf die Wiedergabe des
Sinnes, die aufhoren soil, gesetzgegebend zu
heissen?”
(Benjamin 1968:18-19)
“Fidelity and freedom have traditionally been
regarded as conflicting tendencies. This
deeper interpretation of the one apparently does not
serve to reconcile the two; in fact, it seems to deny
the other all justification. For what is meant by
freedom but that the rendering of the sense is no longer
to be regarded as all important?”
(Benjamin 1968:79)
Zohn’s translation implies that the reevaluated idea is freedom and this reinterpretation
renders the issue of fidelity futile. It is contrary to what Benjamin’s text argues. The above
passage offers the meaning of the word Wortlichkeit as a reinterpretation of fidelity which
Benjamin refers to. Hence, the concept implied through this reevaluation is freedom. The last
sentence could have been like this:
“For what can the point of freedom be, if not the reproduction
of meaning, which is no longer to be regarded as normative?”
Check your progress
 What are the errors in Harry Zohn’s translation of Walter Benjamin’s essay The
Task of the Translator?
 What is the impact of Harry Zohn’s leaving the translation of the word
“messeianisch”?
 What change in meaning occurs when Zohn does not translate the words
“sinngemassen Wiedergarbe”?

55
3.3 Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to have an understanding of Walter
Benjamin's translation of Baudelaire's Tableaux into German and his contribution to aesthetic
theory and literary criticism. You should be able to know that translation should not make an
effort to transfer the meaning of the original, but communicate the aesthetic qualities of the
original. You should remember that the poet’s intention is primary and spontaneous while the
intention of the translator is secondary. Fidelity and license are contradictory concepts in relation
to translation. Fidelity envisions likeness to the original, whereas license to convey the sense
empowers translator to take liberty with original. You should also know that some errors are
observed in Harry Zohn’s translation of Walter Benjamin’s essay The Task of the Translator.
These errors inadvertently deviate the meaning which Benjamin sought to explicate originally.

3.4 Glossary

Detrimental: Causing harm or damage

Symphony: Agreement, balance
Divergence: Separation
Unfathomable: Incapable of being fully explored or understood
Contingently: Dependent on or conditioned by something else
Apodictically: Incontestable, logically certain
Plausible: Possibly true, reasonable
Corporeality: Bodily existence
Tenuous: Very weak or uncertain
Antecedents: A thing or an event that exists or comes before another
Convergence: Junction, intersection
Cognition: Perception
Immanent: Inherent; existing, operating or remaining within
Hackneyed: Stereotyped
Quaint: Old-fashioned or unfamiliar

56
Perpetual: Everlasting, constant
Hallowed: Holy, revered
Superfluous: More than wanted; not needed
Reverberation: A continuing effect; an echoing sound
Ideational: Being of the nature of a notion or concept
Depository: A place, especially a large building, for storing things
Muse: Inspiration
Banausic: Relating to ordinary people or ordinary jobs
Rudiments: A basic principle or element or a fundamental skill
Fidelity: The quality of being accurate or close to the original
Impedes: To interfere with or slow the progress of
Arcade: Gallery
Reconcile: Adapt, adjust, conform
Stratum: Layer
Pre- Predominance, advantage
ponderance:
Abyss: A difficult situation that brings trouble
Vouchsafed: To tell or give something to someone
Watershed: Turning point, crucial factor
Dogma: A fixed religious belief
Interlinear: Having the same text in various languages or versions on alternate lines
Prototype: The first example of something, from which all later forms are
developed
Elusive: Illusory, puzzling
Disjunction: Disunion
Exalted: Dignified
Harmonize: Integrate
Connotation: A feeling or idea suggested by a particular word
Dialect: A regional variety of language

57
Fleetingly: Momentary
Conceivable: Possible to believe
Hallmark: Characteristic
Dominion: Sway
Reciprocal: Mutual
Kinship: Relationship between members of the same family
Analogous: Related
Posterity: Future generations
Flux: Continuous change
Supra Having significance outside the historical process
historical:

3.5 Sample Questions:

3.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. Benjamin believes that the notion of an ideal __________ is an obstacle in the artistic premise
of art.
(a) Writer (b) Receiver
(c) Translator (d) Critic
2. According to Benjamin, translation is a _________.
(a) Mode (b) Creative
(c) Secondary (d) None of these
3. The translation of important works of world literature marks their stage of ________.
(a) Creativity (b) Originality
(c) Criticism (d) Continued life
4. The function of translation is to express the reciprocal relationship between ________.
(a) Original and translated text (b) Languages
(c) Critical text (d) Writer and translator
5. The central ________ of languages evince a distinctive convergence.
(a) Relationship (b) Creativity
(c) Kinship (d) None of these

58
6. The association between content and language is not same in the original and the ______.
(a) Critical text (b) Translation
(c) Poem (d) None of these
7. __________ ignored translation in their theoretical writings.
(a) Classicists (b) Romanticists
(c) French writers (d) Victorians
8. Benjamin suggests that the intention of the translator is _____.
(a) Primary (b) Good
(c) Derivative (d) Superfluous
9. Fidelity and ______ are the two traditional concepts in discussion of translation.
(a) Spontaneity (b) Naturalness
(c) License (d) Accuracy
10. Words possess emotional __________.
(a) Connotations (b) Feelings
(c) Intensity (d) None of these
3.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. What are the characteristics of inferior translation?
2. What is the task of a translator, according to Walter Benjamin?
3. Examine the historical concept of languages.
4. Distinguish between the poet and the translators.
5. What does Benjamin consider the prototype of all translations? Why?
3.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. Discuss translation as a mode.
2. Examine kinship of languages in relation to translation.
3. "Fidelity and License are contradictory concepts in the discussion of translation". Elaborate
with reference to Walter Benjamin’s The Task of a Translator.

59
3.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1.https://www.konstfack.se/PageFiles/46686/Walter%20Benjamin%20-%20The%20task%20
of%20the%20Translator.pdf
2. Benjamin, Walter. "The Work of Art in the Age of its Technological Reproducibility". Vol.3.
Ed. Howard Eiland and Michael, W. Jennings. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: The
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002. 101-133. Print.
3. Benjamin, Walter. "The Task of the Translator". Selected Writings. Vol.1 1913-1926. Ed.
Marcus Bullock and Michael W. Jennings. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London:
The Belknap Press, 1996. 253-263. Print.
4. Brodersen, M. Walter Benjamin: A Biography. London and New York: Verso.1996.
5. Dorsch, John. "Walter Benjamin and 'The Task of the Translator': An Interpretation based
on his influence by Phenomenology." Munich, GRIN Verlag, 2014.
https://www.grin.com/document/ 412283.
6. Douglas, Robinson. Translation as a Form. London: Routledge, 2002.
7. Dibbell, Julian. "After Babelfish." FEED Magazine. 2000. Web. 14 May, 2014.
http://www.juliandibbell.com/texts/ feed_babelfish.html
8. Eiland, H. and Jennings. M.W. Walter Benjamin: A Critical Life. Cambridge, M.A. and
London: Harvard University Press, 2014.
9. Eiland, H. “Translator’s Introduction”. EW, pg. 1-13. 2011.
10. Ferris, D.S. ed. The Cambridge Companion to Walter Benjamin. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. 2004.
11. Leslie, E. Walter Benjamin: Critical Lives. London: Reaktin Books.2007.
12. Osborne, P. ed. Walter Benjamin: Critical Evaluation in Cultural Theory. Vol 1: Philosophy,
Vol 2:Modernity,Vol 3: Appropriations. London and New York: Routledge.2005.
13. Smith, G. ed. On Walter Benjamin: Critical Essays and Recollections. Cambridge, M.A.and
London: MIT. 1988.

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 Unit - 4: Comparative Literature, at Last
By Jonathan Culler

Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Comparative Literature, at Last: Jonathan Culler
4.2.1 Introduction to Comparative Literature
4.2.2 Key Aspects of Comparative Literature
4.2.3 Comparative Literature: Benefits of the Study
4.2.4 About the Author: Jonathan Culler
4.2.5 Jonathan Culler: Major Contributions
4.2.6 Contributions to Critical Theory
4.2.7 The Literary in Theory: Jonathan Culler
4.2.8 Comparative Literature, at Last: Jonathan Culler
4.2.9 Detailed Summary: Comparative Literature, at Last
4.2.10 Summing Up
4.3 Learning Outcomes
4.4 Glossary
4.5 Sample Questions
4.6 Suggested Learning Resources

4.0 Introduction

Structural linguistics, a prominent movement in the 20th century, revolutionized how we

understand language. It shifted the focus from the historical evolution of languages to their
underlying systems and structures. This approach had a profound impact on various fields,
including comparative Literature and critical theory. In comparative literature, structuralism
offered tools for analyzing the similarities and differences between literary works across
languages. By delving into the "grammar" of literature, scholars could identify recurring patterns
and themes that transcended cultural boundaries. As far as critical theorists are concerned,
structural linguistics provided a foundation for critical theory movements like deconstruction.
These movements challenged the idea of a single, fixed meaning in a text, emphasizing the role
of language systems in creating meaning through relationships between words and concepts.
Ferdinand de Saussure is considered as the father of structural linguistics. He proposed that
language functions like a system of signs, where meaning is generated not by individual words

61
but by their relationships within the system. Roman Jakobson, building on Saussure's work,
explored the various elements that create meaning in language, such as sound systems and
grammatical rules. Claude Lévi-Strauss, a prominent anthropologist, applied structuralist
principles to analyze myths and social structures, revealing underlying patterns and relationships.
While structural linguistics offered powerful tools, its application to literature was not
always straightforward. Jonathan Culler, a literary critic, cautioned against simply transplanting
linguistic techniques onto literature. He argued for a nuanced approach that acknowledges the
unique "grammar" of literature in creating meaning. His work, particularly Structuralist Poetics,
played a crucial role in bridging the gap between structuralism and literary theory. Structural
linguistics, with its emphasis on systems and structures, continues to influence various academic
disciplines. Delving deeper into the works of Saussure, Jakobson, and Lévi-Strauss, along with
Culler's insightful critiques, can provide a deeper understanding of this fascinating approach to
language and its enduring impact.

4.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 introduce the essay Comparative Literature, at Last by Jonathan Culler
 shed light into concepts, ideas and developments of comparative literature
 discuss the scope of comparative literature as a genre of study in the modern era
 help the learner to develop an insight into the future of comparative literature as
a genre of study
 develop an insight into contributions and the theoretical perspective of Culler

4.2 Comparative Literature, at Last: Jonathan Culler

4.2.1 Introduction to Comparative Literature:

Comparative literature is an academic discipline that extends the scope of studies of
various literary and cultural expressions beyond and across the boundaries of linguistic, national,
geographic, gender, religious, social, historical, philosophical and disciplinary parameters. It
examines the universal aspects of literature and cultural expressions. It analyses literary texts

62
disregarding the limitations of approaching and studying them within the language of their origin
or individual contexts.
The ancient Greeks and Romans had been practicing the comparison between the
classical literature of their time and that of the Persians and the Egyptians. Medieval Europe had
been greatly influenced by the classical texts and comparison had been the hallmark of standard
literature during the time. The Enlightenment movement in the eighteenth century may be
considered the early form of modern comparative literature. The Italian and French philosophers
emphasized the importance of studying the vernacular literature within the context of cultural
and historical milieu. They investigated the thread between literary productions and social fabric
underlining the cultural relations across the texts.
Comparative literature developed as a discipline in the eighteenth century. French
scholars like Abel-François Villemain (1790-1870) and Philarète Chasles (1798-1873) were
eager to explore the historical and cultural connections between French and other European
literatures. German scholars like August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845) and Johann Wolfgang
von Goethe (1749-1832) highlighted the concept of "world literature", emphasizing a broader
recognition of global literary traditions.
The first journal of comparative literature, A Review of Comparative Literature (1921),
was published in France. Comparative literature has been evolving constantly incorporating the
latest theoretical frameworks, extending its relevance beyond Western traditions, and mingling
with different cultural contexts. In short, comparative literature emerged as a discipline from
multiple sources under various historical, cultural and intellectual influences. It keeps its
dynamic existence in evolution and adaptation from perspectives and interpretations of literature
across cultures.
4.2.2 Key Aspects of Comparative Literature:
 Comparative Study. Comparative literature analyses the thematic similarities, stylistic
features, and historical influences that are common in literary texts produced in different cultural,
linguistic, and historical contexts and periods. It explores the similarities between the literary
texts produced in different environments.
 Intertextuality. Comparative literature delineates the interconnections between literary
texts produced in dissimilar literary domains. It investigates the interplay between literary texts
and describes how references, allusions and meanings from multiple texts are knitting a web of
relationships across time and space.

63
  World Literature: Comparative literature promotes and contributes to the existence
of world literature. It appreciates the diversity of global literary productions and unites them
under the scope of world literature.
 Interdisciplinary. Comparative literature adopts insights and methods from history,
philosophy, anthropology, sociology etc. to analyze literary texts. In doing so, it promotes an
interdisciplinary approach to literary studies.
4.2.3 Comparative Literature: Benefits of the Study
 Improves Analytical Skills and Critical Thinking. Comparing and contrasting diverse
texts enables the learners to identify cultural patterns, analyze linguistic arguments and develop
new interpretations.
 Promotes Understanding and Cultural Awareness. While exposed to different literary
traditions, comparative literature encourages learners to foster a better appreciation for different
cultures and the unique perspectives they handle.
 Develops Communication and Language Skills. Engagement with multiple texts in
various languages enables learners to foster the potential to learn different languages and
improve their communication skills.
 Fosters Skills for Diverse Careers. The skills like critical thinking, analytical and
communication skills developed through comparative literature studies enable the learners to opt
for careers in various departments like academia, mass media, education, and international
affairs.
Check your progress
1. How do you define comparative literature?
____________________________________
2. What are the key aspects of comparative literature?
___________________________________________
3. What are the benefits of comparative literature study?
_____________________________________________
4.2.4 About the Author: Jonathan Culler
Jonathan Culler, born in 1944, is a prominent American literary critic. He is particularly
recognized for his work in structuralism, literary theory, and criticism. Culler's career flourished
at Cornell University where he held the distinguished title of Class of 1916 Professor of English
and Comparative Literature. Culler's writings have significantly impacted the field. His book,

64
Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of Literature (1975) is credited as
one of the first introductions to French structuralism for the English-speaking world. Another
influential work, Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction (1997), is praised for its innovative
approach to the subject. His book, The Literary in Theory (2007) discusses the notion of theory
and literary history's role in the larger realm of literary and cultural theory. For Culler, ‘Theory’
is not a single idea, but a vast toolbox. It draws from various fields like linguistics, anthropology,
Marxism, and psychoanalysis to analyze literature.
Culler has been a phenomenal figure in academia. He has been a fellow of prestigious
institutions like the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the British Academy, Brasenose
College, Oxford and University, Yale University etc. Modern Language Association of America
awarded the James Russell Lowell Prize for outstanding book of criticism in 1976 for
Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of Literature. His Literary Theory:
A Very Short Introduction, a contribution to the ‘Very Short Introduction’ series was praised for
his technical mastery. The book has been appreciated globally when translated into 26 languages,
including Kurdish, Latvian, and Albanian. The book has reserved eight chapters to address issues
and problems relating to literary theory.
In Theory of the Lyric (2015), Culler approaches the Western lyric tradition from Sappho
to Ashbery. He delineated the two dominant models of the lyric after exploring the major
parameters of the genre. 1) Lyric as the expression of the author's affective experience. 2) Lyric
as the fictional representation of the speech act of a persona. According to Culler, these models
limit and ignore the rhythm and sound patterns of lyric poetry.
4.2.5 Jonathan Culler: Major Contributions
Jonathan Culler's major contributions lie in the realm of literary theory, particularly in
making complex ideas accessible and promoting new schools of thought. Here are some
highlights:
Demystifying Structuralism: Culler's book, Structuralist Poetics, is a landmark. It
introduced the then-complex ideas of French structuralism to English-speaking audiences. This
book played a key role in bringing this influential school of thought to a wider critical discussion.
Making Theory Approachable: Works like Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction
showcase Culler's ability to explain dense theoretical concepts clearly and concisely. These
works have made complex ideas accessible to a broader range of readers.

65
 Championing New Movements: Culler's writings have been instrumental in promoting
critical theory movements like structuralism, post-structuralism, and deconstruction. He has
helped scholars and students understand and engage with these new ways of analyzing literature.
In essence, Culler's work bridges the gap between complex theoretical concepts and literary
analysis. He has been a key figure in shaping how we understand and interpret literature.
4.2.6 Contributions to Critical Theory:
Jonathan Culler argues that structural linguistics offers a powerful tool. It allows us to
analyze not just how language works, but also how meaning is generated in human cultures,
which Culler sees as similar to language systems. However, in his book Structuralist Poetics, he
warns against simply transplanting linguistic techniques to literature. Instead, he proposes
uncovering the unique "grammar" of literature that creates meaning. Structuralism, at its core,
believes that meaning arises from underlying systems. Every action or creation, like an utterance
in language, relies on pre-existing rules and conventions to be understood.
Jonathan Culler challenges the traditional view of literary theory as a tool for uncovering
a text's hidden meaning. Instead, he argues that theory should focus on the act of interpretation
itself. He emphasizes the role of the "competent reader," who actively engages with the text. To
understand how meaning is constructed, Culler identifies recurring elements in texts that
different readers interpret in varied ways. He proposes two categories of readers: the critic, who
analyzes the text based on their own experiences, and future readers who will build upon the
work of previous interpreters.
Some critics argue that Culler blurs the lines between literature and writing in general.
John R. Searle, for example, suggests Culler's explanation of deconstruction makes Jacques
Derrida seem clearer and more accessible, but also downplays the complexity of his ideas. Searle
further criticizes Culler for neglecting the influence of earlier philosophers like Husserl and
Heidegger on Derrida's work.
Check your progress
1. Who is Jonathan Culler?
_____________________________________
2. How do you identify Culler as a structuralist?
______________________________________
3. What are the contributions of Jonathan Culler?
________________________________________

66
4.2.7 The Literary in Theory: Jonathan Culler
The essay “Comparative Literature, at Last” is the last of the twelve chapters in the book
The Literary in Theory (2007) by Jonathan Culler. The book invites the readers into major
discussions on the bond between literature and theory. It reserves discussions on literature under
three sections - theory, concepts and critical practices. Culler looks into the shifting role of theory.
He argues that theory must exist embedded within literature and cultural practices. It must not
exist as a separate entity like an ‘eclipse’ of literature. He points the fingers towards theories like
structuralism which overshadowed the literary and cultural texts. He highlights the importance of
correlation between theory, literature and cultural studies. He believes that theory can possess
literary qualities evading the gap between these entities. Theory can illuminate and construct
‘literary qualities’ in texts. He suggests an edit to the concept of ‘literary’ and expanding its
meaning to a higher level. He believes that the presence of theory must be felt in textual and
cultural analysis, avoiding the focus on the mere ‘literariness’ of texts. He acknowledges
the emerging resistance towards theory within literary and cultural studies. He observes that the
resistance originates from a threat to conventional interpretations or dissatisfaction with intricate
terminology. Culler argues that practicing with theory provides significant tools for uncovering
the complexities of texts and nurturing critical thinking.
Culler underlines the dynamic and evolving nature of theory. He promotes regular
treatment with theory to perfect and retain its application to the transforming landscape of
literature and cultural studies. In short, "Literary in Theory" promotes critical insights into the
correlation between theory and literary texts. It emphasizes the advantages of using theory to
evaluate texts, decode multiple interpretations, and expand our knowledge of the literary
landscape.
The book also analyses various literary concepts employed in cultural and literary
theories. He investigates and explores the processes involved in the construction of literary and
cultural texts, the role of the reader in generating meaning in texts, the connection between
verbal/nonverbal signs and their meanings etc. Culler attempts to decode the ways that various
individuals interpret texts and various factors influence them to formulate their interpretation. He
is curious to know how language and actions produce effects on readers and create realities for
them. He does not spare the question unattended referring to the notion of ‘all-knowing narrator’
existing in various texts.

67
 Check your progress
1. What is the role of theory in literary analysis, according to Jonathan Culler?
________________________________________________________________
2. What are the major discussions in Literary in Theory?
_______________________________________________
4.2.8 Comparative Literature, at Last: Jonathan Culler
Jonathan Culler demands an updation in the understanding of comparative literature in
Comparative Literature, at Last. He denies the conventional approach of focusing on "source
studies" and "influence" as the basic taglines of the discipline. He proposes a universal
perspective to comparative studies and suggests treating the discipline as a "transnational
phenomenon."
Culler points out the criticism targeted to comparative literature in the wake of new
branches of studies like ‘cultural studies’. A decline in comparative analysis and a shift towards
fields like cultural studies are the reasons behind the challenges paused against the comparative
approach. Comparative literature is marginalized due to the resistance to this shift and clinging to
its conventional limitations. Culler highlights the need for revitalizing the genre and proposes
key strategies for the purpose: 1) The Centrality of literature is to be reasserted. Culler insists on
maintaining the centrality of literature and emphasizes it as the core focus of comparative
literature. The development of cultural studies and other interdisciplinary genres challenges the
traditional notion of comparative literature. Comparative literature should remain crucial to the
analysis of literary texts. 2) The concept of comparison is to be expanded. Culler demands a
strategic change in the traditional notions of comparative literature. It must expand the focus
beyond the influence and source studies of literature. A wider range of comparative approaches
to be promoted in the field like analysis of literary forms, genres, themes, and theoretical
frameworks across geographical and temporal boundaries. 3) Integrate new theoretical
approaches. Culler promotes comparative literature to integrate prevailing critical theories and
methodologies to evaluate and interpret literature insightfully. This attitude will liberate
comparative literature to become an integral and vibrant field in the academic landscape.
4.2.9 Detailed Summary: Comparative Literature, at Last
Central Argument

68
 Jonathan Culler argues for a paradigm shift in conventional methods of comparative
literature practices, which focuses on tracing sources and influences of literary texts. He
proposes a new approach anchored on intertextuality.
Traditional Approaches
Culler believes that traditional approaches need to be updated according to the
developments in literary and cultural studies. The limitations of conventional approaches
like ‘source hunting’ and ‘influence studies’ are emphasized in his criticism. He observes that
these approaches often lead to reductionist readings that overemphasize the influence of one text
on another, neglecting the complexity and autonomy of each text. He argues that this approach
often neglects the interconnection between texts within a broader literary and cultural context.
Intertextuality and New Comparative Literature
Culler emphasizes the relevance of incorporating an intertextual approach to the
comparative literature. He observes intertextuality as the web of connections between texts,
which are in dialogue with each other, referring, alluding and drawing meaning from each other.
Culler believes that the intertextual approach will enhance comparative literature to a richer and
novel understanding of texts through the unending chain of conversations between the texts
across various cultures and historical periods.
Benefits of the New Approach
The new comparative literature approach focuses on intertextuality. Culler believes that
this approach will strengthen comparative literature. It can explore how the texts shape and are
shaped by other texts. It can present a deeper understanding of the texts, their meaning and
significance. The focus on textual relations can develop comparative literature to new heights.
Intertextuality will liberate comparative literature beyond the limitations of nation or language. It
can foster relations between texts from alien cultures and languages. The national boundaries
will transcend under the new approach.
Importance of Theory
Culler highlights the prominence of critical theory in the analysis of intertextual
relationships. A strong theoretical base must be supportive of the intertextual analysis of texts.
Culler suggests that the new comparative literature must allow for a broader understanding of
global literary traditions. The analysis of diverse literary traditions and texts will lead
comparative literature into the front of world literature. In short, he urges for a paradigm shift in
comparative literature, urging a move away from source-hunting and influence studies towards a

69
more intertextual approach. He emphasizes the importance of understanding texts to each other,
fostering a richer and more interconnected understanding of literature across cultures and
throughout history.
Check your progress
1. What is the central argument in Comparative Literature, at Last?
_______________________________________________________
2. What are the flaws of traditional approaches in comparative literature, according to
Culler?
________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the new approach to comparative literature proposed by Jonathan Culler?
____________________________________________________________________
4.2.10 Summing Up:
At the end of this Unit, the learner should have gleaned from Jonathan Culler's
observations on the future of comparative literature. The essay might challenge the reader to
reconsider the traditional definition and scope of comparative literature. Culler invites the
reader’s to think out of box, when arguing for a more inclusive approach that embraces
literatures from various cultures and genres, not just limited to European works. Culler reminds
the reader the need to adapt and evolve over time while emphasizing a new approach to
comparative literature.
The reader is introduced to the ways for comparative literature to revitalize the field by
incorporating new theoretical frameworks and engaging with a wider range of texts. The
traditional focus on tracing influences between literatures might be critiqued. Culler proposes a
shift towards a more intertextual approach, analyzing how literary works interact and create
meaning within a broader cultural context.
The reader can see Culler suggesting new approaches for the future direction of
comparative literature. This could involve embracing new technologies, collaborating with other
disciplines, and fostering a more global perspective. The reader could be delighted to the way
they can contribute to the development and innovation of ideas comes to them according to the
demand of their age.
The demand for a paradigm shift in comparative literature has been the need of the hour
to survive the genre as an independent discipline. "Comparative cultural studies" a notion
proposed by Canadian comparatist Steven Totosy de Zepetnek could be a derivation of what

70
Culler proposed in the essay. Virk Tomo, Slovenian literary historian and essayist, in
Comparative Literature versus Comparative Cultural Studies alarms against this notion,
observing that it would evoke fatal consequences for comparative literature as a discipline.
Attention to the possibilities of the development of comparative literature as an independent
discipline for the future is the solution. A functional pragmatic reading of the literary and cultural
texts must be promoted.

4.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should gained knowledge about comparative literature. You
should have also got an idea about The Literary in Theory by Jonathan Culler and a detailed
understanding of Comparative Literature, at Last.

4.4 Glossary

Comparative Literature: A field of study that analyzes literature across languages and cultures.
Interdisciplinarity: Drawing knowledge and methods from multiple disciplines.
Canon: The established body of works considered important within a culture or literary tradition.
Hegemony: The dominance of one culture or ideology over others.
Heterogeneity: The existence of diverse elements or perspectives.
Hermeneutics: The theory and practice of interpretation, particularly of texts.
Deconstruction: A philosophical and literary movement that challenges the idea of fixed
meaning in texts.
Postcolonialism: The study of the cultural legacy of colonialism.
World Literature: Literature considered on a global scale, not just within national boundaries.
Historiography: The study of how history is written and interpreted.
Discourse: A system of thought or communication shared by a group of people.
Cultural Exchange: The transmission of ideas, practices, and creative works between cultures.
Reception Theory: The study of how audiences receive and interpret literary works.
Canon Formation: The process by which certain works become accepted as part of a literary
canon.

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Comparative Methodology: The specific methods used to compare and analyze literature across
different cultures.

4.5 Sample Questions

4.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. The main argument of comparative literature, according to Jonathan Culler, likely focuses on:
(a) Defining a universal literary canon.
(b) Rethinking the traditional scope of comparative literature.
(c) Promoting the study of only European literature.
(d) Establishing clear boundaries between literature and criticism.
2. In the context of comparative literature, "heterogeneity" refers to:
(a) The dominance of a single culture in literary studies.
(b) The existence of diverse literary traditions and perspectives.
(c) A focus on historical accuracy in literary analysis.
(d) The strict adherence to established literary forms.
3. Which concept is most closely associated with deconstruction, a movement discussed in
comparative literature?
(a) The creation of a fixed and universally accepted meaning for a text.
(b) The idea that texts have inherent and stable interpretations.
(c) The emphasis on the historical context in shaping literary meaning.
(d) The exploration of how texts can have multiple and unstable meanings.
4. Interdisciplinarity in comparative literature likely involves:
(a) Limiting the field of study to literature alone.
(b) Drawing insights from other disciplines like history and philosophy.
(c) Focusing solely on the formal elements of literary works.
(d) Prioritizing the national origin of the author over the work's content.
5. World literature, as a concept explored in comparative literature, emphasizes:
(a) The superiority of Western literary traditions.
(b) The importance of national identity in literary analysis.
(c) The study of literature on a global scale, transcending national boundaries.

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 (d) The strict adherence to established literary genres.
6. The concept of "hegemony" is relevant to comparative literature because it examines:
(a) The objective evaluation of literary merit.
(b) The dominance of certain cultures or ideologies in literary studies.
(c) The influence of historical events on specific literary works.
(d) The strict classification of literature into different periods.
7. When discussing "canon formation" in comparative literature, we are likely concerned with:
(a) The process by which certain works become widely recognized and influential.
(b) The censorship of specific literary works based on moral or political reasons.
(c) The chronological order in which literary works are studied.
(d) The stylistic features that define a particular literary movement.
8. Reception theory, a concept explored in comparative literature, focuses on:
(a) The author's original intention in creating a literary work.
(b) The historical context in which a literary work was written.
(c) The way audiences interpret and respond to literary works throughout history.
(d) The technical skills required for successful literary analysis.
9. In comparative literature, "historiography" is most likely relevant to understanding:
(a) The specific techniques used for close reading of literary texts.
(b) The different ways literary history has been written and interpreted.
(c) The influence of prominent literary critics on specific works.
(d) The recurring themes and motifs found across various literary traditions.
10. Why might comparative literature challenge traditional ideas about literature?
a) It emphasizes the importance of strict grammar rules in writing.
b) It encourages a narrow focus on a single national literature.
c) It questions fixed meanings and explores the cultural context of literature.
d) It discourages the analysis of literary form and style.
4.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. In Culler's view, how might comparative literature need to evolve to stay relevant?
2. What are some potential benefits of a more interdisciplinary approach in comparative
literature?
3. How does the concept of "heterogeneity" challenge traditional views of literary canons?

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4. Briefly explain how deconstruction, as discussed in comparative literature, might influence the
way we read and interpret texts.
5. Compare and contrast the concept of "world literature" with a focus on national literature.
4.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. What are the limitations of traditional approaches in comparative literature, according to
Culler?
2. Discuss the scope of the intertextual approach in comparative literature.
3. Theory must be the backbone of literary analysis. Discuss in the light of Culler’s point of view.

4.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Virk, Tomo. (2003). Comparative Literature versus Comparative Cultural Studies.

CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture 5.4 (2003). https://doi.org/10.7771/1481
4374.1202.
2. Apter, Emily & Martha Nussbaum (2003). (Eds.) The Future of Comparative Literature.
3. Culler, Jonathan (2000). Comparative Literature: A Very Short Introduction.
4. Comparative Literature Association. On Comparative Literature. https://www.acla.org/
5. Bassnett, Susan. (2006). Reflections on Comparative Literature in the Twenty-First
Century. Comparative Critical Studies 3.1- 2: 3-11.
6. Bernheimer, Charles, and others. (1993). The Bernheimer Report. In Charles Bernheimer
(ed.), Comparative Literature in the Age of Multiculturalism, pp. 39-48. Baltimore:
The John Hopkins University Press.
7. Chotiudompant, Suradech. (2006). Comparative Literature: Recent Debates on an
Imagined Discipline. MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, (Special Issue), No.11, 88
108.

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 Unit - 5: Jane Eyre: Background, Plot, Characters
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Jane Eyre: Background, Plot, Characters
5.2.1 Charlotte Bronte: Life, Career and Death
5.2.2 Jane Eyre
5.2.3 Background
5.2.4 Plot
5.2.5 Characters
5.2.6 Conclusion
5.3 Learning Outcomes
5.4 Glossary
5.5 Sample Questions
5.6 Suggested Learning Resources

5.0 Introduction

The first edition of Charlotte Bronte's novel Jane Eyre appeared in the year 1847 under
the title Jane Eyre: An Autobiography, interestingly mentioning the editor’s name as “Currer
Bell.” ‘Currer Bell’ was her pen name that she used for the longest time since women writers
were neither widely read nor critically appreciated in that era. Ironically, women writers were
barely considered capable of producing potential literary works. However, after the publication
of Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bronte rose to fame in no time, since it was and has been widely
regarded as a significant literary work. The author could leave her mark in the literary world
through the novel which is considered as a realistic description of a Victorian woman's inner life.
Women’s struggles with her natural desires and social positioning and gave the genre of novel
writing a renewed honesty. It helped her get a lot of attention and readers, too.

5.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 familiarize you with British literature of the nineteenth century

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  enable you to comprehend British prose style (novel writing) of the nineteenth century
 make you critically appreciate the British novel in general and other works written by
Bronte sisters in particular
 facilitate a comparative study of the novel

5.2 Jane Eyre: Background, Plot, Characters

5.2.1 Charlotte Bronte: Life, Career and Death

Charlotte was born to Patrick Bronte and Maria Branwell. A third child of the family, she
was born in Thornton, Yorkshire, in the year 1816. Charlotte mainly lived in Haworth, a small
town on the Yorkshire moors, where her father was appointed curate in 1820. Mrs. Bronte,
Charlotte’s mother passed away in the year 1821 from cancer, as largely believed to be the
reason of her death. Later, the children, namely Charlotte, her four sisters Maria, Elizabeth,
Emily, Anne, and their brother Branwell were taken in by their infamous, unpleasant, maiden
aunt Elizabeth Branwell. In addition to getting freedom to explore the moors, their father also
encouraged them to read whatever books they liked.
Mr. Bronte decided to enrol his four oldest girls in the Cowan Bridge school for the
daughters of poor clergy members when it first opened in 1824. Most literary critics and
biographers agree that description of Lowood School in Jane Eyre is a good representation of
how bad things were there. Maria and Elizabeth, her two oldest sisters also died in 1824 from
tuberculosis that they believed to have got at school because it was not well run. Their father
removed Charlotte and Emily from Cowan Bridge school after this tragedy.
The "Glass Town" is a collection of stories written by the remaining four siblings, who
were inspired by the gift of beautiful set of toy soldiers gifted by their father. It was written
during the time when both of them were grieving their sisters' demises and the vacuum that it
created. They were also looking for a means to end their apparent loneliness. In these early
writings, the kids collaborated to construct a fully imagined world called the imaginary West
African empire of Angria. Until her early twenties, Charlotte constantly changed and added to
parts of the Angria story, creating several important characters and places. These stories are full
of fancy, dramatic, and repetitive than Charlotte's later produced mature and realistic adult fiction.
However, Charlotte's writing style did improve because of these stories.

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 After discovering that he had a severe lung condition, Patrick gathered the courage and
decided that his daughters should go to school and get education. It will become their means of
financially independent survival, in case of his demise. Charlotte enrolled in Miss Wooler's
school at Roe Head in 1831. Even though Charlotte was shy, lonely, and had trouble in school,
she made two friends for life: Mary Taylor and Ellen Nussey. Charlotte was given a chance to
work as a teacher at her own school Roe Head, but she opted to go back to Haworth instead.
Charlotte returned to Roe Head in 1835 as a governess, possibly dissatisfied with the solitude of
life at Haworth and seeking a busy career. Because she believed that being a governess was akin
to serving someone as a slave and that she was temperamentally unsuited for the job, 1838 she
was ultimately forced to resign. Regrettably, the most suitable job opportunity for middle-class
women in Victorian England was to become a governess. Charlotte endured two more
unsatisfactory governess positions because the family needed the money, feeling like an
undervalued servant in the homes of affluent families. She did not enjoy living in other people's
homes.
Charlotte came up with the concept of opening her school at Haworth to find a job that
would enable her independence. She registered as a student at the Pensionnat Heger in Brussels
at 26 to improve her French fluency and learn German to increase her teaching credentials before
starting this endeavour. Charlotte developed a deep yet one-sided passion for Monsieur Heger
while feeling free to live and lead her life individually in a foreign country. He was the married
headmaster of the school. Charlotte spent two years in Brussels before leaving for England. She
could not enrol even one pupil, so her attempt to start school was unsuccessful.
On the other hand, Charlotte started focusing all her attention on polishing her writing
skills. Charlotte decided that she, Anne, and Emily should try to self-publish a book of poems as
she heard of Emily’s writings. 1846 they reached their goal by writing under male names like
Currer Bell, Acton Bell, and Ellis Bell. This was because female authors were not taken seriously
in the Victorian era and before that time. These determined women kept writing even after
Poems, their first book, failed to make money. They each started drafting a novel, thrilled to be
writing full-time. Agnes Grey by Anne and Wuthering Heights by Emily both found publishers.
Several publishers did not want to publish The Professor by Charlotte, partly about her
adventures in Brussels and partly based on her life. Charlotte, who had previously refused to give
up, started composing Jane Eyre in 1846 while visiting Manchester with her father, who had to
undergo cataract surgery. Charlotte kept a journal throughout his recovery to make notes. Jane

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Eyre was published in several editions, the first published on October 16, 1847, after Smith,
Elder, and Company consented to publish the finished book. It was an immediate hit, catapulting
Charlotte to literary stardom. She also received an impressive 500 pounds, or 25 times what she
was paid as a governess.
Nevertheless, family tragedy quickly overshadowed the joys of literary achievement.
Branwell, Anne and Charlotte's siblings, passed away in 1848, just after they told their publishers
who the "Bells" really were. Branwell, a failure for his own family, as he never lived up to his
family's high standards, ultimately died as an opium addict and drunkard. Soon after, Emily and
Anne passed away. Despite finishing Shirley, her second book, in 1849, Charlotte was left
emotionally broken by the loss of her surviving siblings. She only gained recognition in the
literary world after her sisters, who were her biggest fans, could no longer celebrate her success
with her. Following the release of this work, Charlotte travelled to London, where she met
several notable contemporary authors, such as William Thackeray and Elizabeth Gaskell.
The Reverend Arthur B. Nicholls, who had served as Mr. Bronte's vicar at Haworth since
1845, made an engagement proposal to Charlotte in 1852. Charlotte had previously turned down
several marriage proposals in the hopes of finding genuine love; however, the ultimate and
profound loss of her three siblings may have convinced her to take Nicholls' proposal seriously.
Charlotte claimed to respect Nicholls but not love, indicating that their union lacked the intense
emotion shared by Jane and Rochester. Charlotte's father did not want her to marry Nicholls, so
she turned him down at first. Nicholls left Haworth in 1853., the same year Villette came out.
The ceremony was held on June 29, 1854. The time helped in subsiding Reverend Bronte's
opposition to the marriage. After her marriage, Charlotte struggled to find the time to write
because she was required to care for her ailing father and carry out the responsibilities of a
minister's wife. During the early phases of her pregnancy, sometime around the year 1854,
Charlotte contracted pneumonia on her regular soggy and long walk on the moors. The disease
resulted in her demise on March 31, 1855, one month before turning 39. Her two books were
posthumously released in 1857 The Professor, composed in 1846 and 1847, and Mrs. Gaskell's
Life.
Check your Progress
1. When was Charlotte born?
____________________________________
2. Mention the name of her last novel.

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 ____________________________________
3. What literary legacy did she leave behind?
____________________________________
5.2.2 Jane Eyre:
Mrs. Reed, the ruthless and wealthy aunt of young Jane Eyre, cares for her as an orphan.
One of the few acts of compassion in the house that Jane encounters is from a servant named
Bessie. She used to entertain her with stories and songs. Jane was locked up in the red chamber
by her aunt as a punishment for arguing with her cruel and bullying cousin John. It was the same
place where her uncle passed away. She begins to feel the presence of her deceased uncle and
faints there in a horrifying state. She sees Bassie when opens her eyes a long time ago. She also
sees Mr. Lloyd, the kind-hearted chemist present there. It was he who suggested Mrs. Reed to
send away Jane to the school.
After arriving at Lowood School, Jane discovers that her life is everything but ideal when
she sees herself being surrounded by different types and kinds of mates and teachers. However,
unfortunate enough, Mr. Brocklehurst, the headmaster, turned out to be a vicious, dishonest, and
nasty man. He used school money to facilitate his family's luxurious lifestyle while preaching to
his students about leading a life in poverty and misery. Jane has a good friend named Helen
Burns in school, who becomes both valuable and sometimes irritating due to her robust and
martyr-like approach to the problems at the school. Again, misfortune was not leaving her. Helen,
her newly made friend, dies from consumption as a severe typhus outbreak hits the school. The
pandemic, however, did become the major factor that caused Mr. Brocklehurst to leave the
school by highlighting the unsanitary conditions. In the series of misfortunes at a very young age
and quite a short period, Jane's life substantially improves after a group of more compassionate
guys replaces Brocklehurst. Subsequently, she stayed at Lowood school for a total period of eight
years—six as a student and two as a teacher.
Soon, Jane began to yearn for novel and different experiences as she began to work as a
teacher for two years. She begins to apply for vacancies. An excellent job lands in her lap, and
she accepts a job as a governess at Thornfield Manor, where she instructs a bubbly French kid
named Adèle. Mrs. Fairfax runs the estate. She is a housekeeper in charge of the house and the
estate. The estate owner Rochester is a dark, handsome and passionate man who owns Thornfield.
Jane initially begins to like him and, over the period, falls in love with him. One night a fire
broke out in the estate. Fortunately, Jane was awake, and she helped Rochester escape a fire. It

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was believed to have happened by a drunken servant named Grace Poole. Nevertheless, Jane
concludes that she has yet to be given the complete story because Grace Poole is still employed
at the estate. One day Rochester brings Blanche Ingram, a stunning but cruel lady, to the estate.
Jane is shocked and becomes miserable as Jane anticipates Blanche becoming engaged to
Rochester. However, instead, Rochester proposes to Jane, who happily accepts it with a surreal
air.
Their wedding was soon arranged. As the happy couple Jane and Rochester prepare to
exchange their vows, an interruption of the loud, unknown male voice suddenly declares that
Rochester already has a wife. it was Mr. Mason. He introduced himself as the brother of that
secret wife of Mr. Rochester. Her name was Bertha. Mr. Mason publicly claims Rochester
married his sister Bertha a few years ago when he was in Jamaica. He also added that she was
still alive. The hall, including Jane, was shocked and silent. In addition, Rochester did not even
try to defend himself or deny the allegations by Mr. Mason. Shockingly enough, he slowly
explains that Bertha has long gone mad but still lives with him in his care.
He then takes everyone to Thornfield to introduce Bertha. Jane was struggling to digest
this newly revealed truth. However, they see Bertha Mason, who is crazy and has a terrible
mental state, walking around the house and growling like an animal. This is why Rochester
keeps Bertha hidden in his home in the third story. The secret was shared only by him and the
housekeeper, Grace Poole, who used to look after her. Then, Jane realized Bertha set the
mysterious fire in the estate. She was the one who was making strange, loud noises in the third
story. The heartbroken Jane flees Thornfield without planning where to go.
Jane became homeless when she left the estate in a heartbroken state of mind. One day
she ran into three siblings who live in a manor known as Marsh End or Moor House. They
proposed to take her in. Their names were Diana Rivers, Mary Rivers, and St. John Rivers. Jane
accepts the proposition as she has no other choice. Though, she soon becomes acquainted with
them. St. John helps Jane land a position as a teacher at a charitable school in Morton. One day,
he declares that the Rivers siblings are her cousins, her uncle John Eyre passed away and left her
a substantial legacy of 20,000 pounds. She verifies the information and immediately distributes
the sum equally from her inheritance.
St. John plans to embark on a missionary journey to India. He strongly advises Jane to
accompany him as his wife. Jane agrees to travel to India as his companion but not as his wife. St.
John almost persuades her to change her mind about wedding. However, one night she suddenly

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hears Rochester's voice screaming her name across the moors. She understands that her love for
him can never change. She discovers that Bertha had burned the entire estate to the ground upon
her return to Thornfield. Rochester managed to keep the servants alive but suffered eye and hand
loss in the process. Jane comes to know that she should head to Ferndean, where Rochester now
resides with his two domestic helpers, John and Mary.
Rochester and Jane come closer once again. They shortly get married. Here, the novel
also comes to an end and Jane writes that she has been happily married for ten years now.
Rochester and Jane live in perfect equality with a beautiful child. Rochester also regained vision
in one eye.
Check your progress
1. Who was Jane Eyre?
_______________________________________
2. Why was she put in care of her uncle’s family?
_______________________________________
3. Why was she sent away to a residential school? What was the name of the school?
___________________________________________________________________
5.2.3 Background:
Maria Branwell and Patrick Bronte welcomed Charlotte into the world on April 21, 1816,
in Yorkshire, England. Charlotte's relative, a devoted Methodist, assisted her brother-in-law in
raising children because her mother passed away when Charlotte was five years old. In 1824,
Charlotte and her sisters Maria, Elizabeth, and Emily went to Cowan Bridge, a school for
ministers' daughters. Charlotte and Emily were brought home after a tuberculosis epidemic
claimed lives of Maria and Elizabeth. Charlotte returned to school a few years later in Roe Head,
England. In 1835, she was hired as a teacher at the school, but after some time. However, she
soon decided to work as a private governess. She landed a good job in 1839 where she was
supposed to live with and tutor the children of the affluent Sidgewick family. She left the job in
no time because it was making her feel miserable. She did continue her job hunt as a governess.
She also realised that her dream of opening a school wouldn’t be practically feasible anytime
soon. The second time, Charlotte was just as unhappy with her job as a governess, so she asked
her sisters for help to start making more serious plans for opening a school.
The Bronte sisters' schooling failed, but their literary endeavours were practical. Their
stories, poems, and plays were early indicators of a shared writing talent that eventually led

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Emily, Anne, and Charlotte to take up the career as novelists. At a young age, the children
invented a fictitious world called Angria. Charlotte proposed that she, Anne, and Emily work
together on a book of poems once they were adults. The three sisters wrote under masculine pen
names: Charlotte used ‘Currer Bell’, Emily used ‘Ellis’, and Anne used ‘Acton Bell’. After their
poetry collection did not get much attention from the public, the sisters decided to write their
books under the same pseudo names. While Charlotte's first book, The Professor, unfortunately
could not get published in her lifetime, whereas Anne and Emily both created their masterpieces
in 1847. Charlotte penned Jane Eyre in the same year. The book was one of the best-reviewed
and best-selling books of its time. It criticised Victorian ideas about gender and social class.
Jane Eyre contains autobiographical elements. The loss of Charlotte's sisters at Cowan
Bridge brings to mind Lowood School and the worst experiences she had there. It was there that
her closest friend died from tuberculosis. Some of Mr Brocklehurst's hypocritical religion comes
from the Reverend Carus Wilson, the Evangelical pastor at Cowan Bridge School. By basing the
fictional Lowood school on the school that had treated her so poorly, Charlotte exacted
vengeance on it. The tragic tuberculosis death of Jane's companion Helen Burns makes
Charlotte's sisters Maria and Elizabeth's deaths from the same illness during their time at Cowan
Bridge school come to mind. Also, John Reed's fall into alcoholism and disintegration is likely
based on the life of Branwell Bronte, Charlotte Bronte's brother, who became addicted to opiates
and alcohol in the years before he died. Jane eventually takes on the role of governess, just like
Charlotte, giving her a neutral vantage point to watch and analyse Victorian society's oppressive
social ideals and customs in the nineteenth century.
The novel has the characteristics of a Bildungsroman genre. It is a style of writing where
the writer tells the story of a child's development. This genre primarily focuses on the feelings
and experiences accompanying and inspiring that child's growth into adulthood. Jane Eyre's plot
is structured in this way. Jane shows five different parts of her main character’s life, each of
which happened in another place: her childhood time being spent in Gateshead, the early
education pursued at the Lowood School, her time as a governess at Thornfield estate, the good
time spent at with the Rivers family at Morton and Marsh End (also called Moor House), and her
happy reunion after a lot of struggle with Rochester that turns into their marriage at Ferndean.
These encounters help Jane develop into an experienced woman who develops the ability to look
back at her past as a narrative in the book.

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 In addition, Jane Eyre's Bildungsroman style written plot and social criticism are filtered
through the horror story. The Gothic subgenre also has Germanic roots, like the Bildungsroman.
It became popular in England at the end of the eighteenth century. Usually, it is about
supernatural events, lonely places, and strange things that happen, all of which are meant to
make you feel scared and nervous. Jane's experiences with ghosts, secret plans, and supernatural
things give the book a solid, lasting sense of fantasy and mystery.
After Jane Eyre was a success, Charlotte told her publisher who she was and went on to
create several other books, including Shirley in 1849. She rose to the esteem of the intellectual
community of London over the ensuing years. However, she felt dejected and lonely after the
deaths of her sister Anne in 1849 and her brothers Emily and Branwell in 1848. She married
Reverend Arthur Nicholls in 1854 despite not being in love with him. The following year, she
passed away from pneumonia while still pregnant.
Check your progress
1. Does the novel share autobiographical traits with the author’s life?
__________________________________________________
2. Name the publication house that agreed to publish Jane Eyre.
__________________________________________________
3. How did Charlotte die?
_________________________________________________
5.2.4 Plot:
The first-person story of Jane Eyre is presented from the viewpoint of Jane, a seemingly
"plain" girl who faces many difficulties in life. Jane's life is chronicled throughout the book, from
childhood to adulthood.
Jane is living with her aunt Mrs. Reed, at the start of the book. She is treated horribly by
Mrs. Reed and her kids, and one night Mrs. Reed confines Jane in the "Red Room," rumoured to
be a haunted chamber in the household. She is seen reading by herself in the breakfast room at
the beginning of the book, attempting to escape the Reed family and find some solitude. This,
however, is short-lived because Jane's tormentor Master John Reed, who is also her cousin shows
up. He calls Jane a "rat," implying that she is needy, unappreciative, and a beggar since she
depends on his mother's fortune. An altercation starts when Jane strikes back. Jane is abducted
and put in the "Red Room" after Mrs. Reed instructs her staff to break up the brawl. The Red
Chamber, a 'haunted' chamber in the home, is where Jane thinks she first encounters her uncle's

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ghost. She slams the door repeatedly to be allowed outside because she is scared of this, but no
one answers. Jane has a fever that almost kills her.
Jane is sent to a residential school namely Lowood School by Mrs. Reed, where the
headmaster, Mr. Brocklehurst, also mistreats her. The school's conditions are terrible, and Helen
Burns, Jane's dearest friend, passes away from consumption. Jane's time at Lowood School was
anything but enjoyable. Mr. Brocklehurst, the school's headmaster, was a harsh and dishonest
man. He encouraged self-sacrifice from his students, while ironically maintaining a comfortable
lifestyle for himself and his family with the money collected from the student's tuition, keeping
the pupils in poverty. It was claimed that Lowood School was based on the institution Charlotte
and her sisters attended. Her two older sisters had ailments that caused them to pass away before
puberty. It is believed that Charlotte's sister Maria was the model for Jane's companion Helen
Burns, who passed away from consumption. Jane's situation improves as a group of officials with
higher moral standards takes over the institution. She spent six years as a student at Lowood,
then continued for two more years as a teacher.
Jane quit the job in search of a change and accepted the role of governess at Thornfield
Manor for Adela Varens, Mr. Edward Rochester's daughter. She was content with her
surroundings, including the beautiful old house, the peaceful library, her tiny room, the garden
with its enormous chestnut tree, and the large meadow with its thorny trees. Jane could never
have felt at ease with Mr. Rochester if he had been a heroically gorgeous young man. He had a
broad, protruding brow, a harsh, square mouth, and a square jawline, but despite this, the plain
little governess felt inexplicably pleased in his presence. But she couldn't get close to him
because of his character. Adela Varens is not Mr. Rochester's child; instead, she is the daughter of
a Parisian dancer who tricked him and abandoned the young girl. He revealed a lot to her, but she
could not draw any conclusions about the peculiar cloud that always hung over his joyous
occasions, his apparent fondness for Jane, or his decision to keep some deep sorrow from her.
Then Thornfield experienced the strangest events. Jane arrived home one evening to
discover Mr. Rochester's open room door and his bed on fire. She mightily struggled to
extinguish the fire and jolt him out of the coma the smoke had put him in. He instructed her to
keep quiet about what happened. Later, while Mr. Rochester was hosting a sizable gathering at
Thornfield, Mr. Mason from Spanish Town in Jamaica arrived. That evening, a call for assistance
woke Jane up. The guests were awakened when she entered the hall. Mr. Rochester was coming

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down the stairs from the third floor with a candle in his hand. He convinced the visitors to return
to their rooms, stating, "A servant has had a nightmare."
However, Jane was obligated to care for Mr. Mason all night as he lay in a bed on the
third level with severe arm and shoulder injuries. Jane deduced that a woman had caused the
wounds based on sporadic cues. After calling for a doctor, Mr. Rochester had the injured man
transported in a coach before morning, with the doctor keeping an eye on him. Jane receives an
unexpected summons to Gateshead to visit her dying aunt, Mrs. Reed. She gets a letter from John
Eyre in Madeira asking his niece, Jane, to get in touch with him through Mrs. Reed. He implied
that he might adopt her because he was single and without children. It had a three-year expiration
date. Mrs. Reed had never attempted to give it to Jane since she despised her too much to help
her succeed.
When Jane returns to Thornfield, Mr. Rochester proposes, which she accepts since she
loves him and has faith in him. On the day of their wedding, suddenly a man named Mr. Mason
appeared with an announcement that this wedding can not take place since Mr. Rochester is
already married his sister Bertha Mason and she is still alive.
When pressed for an explanation, the speaker, a London-based lawyer named Mr. Briggs,
produces documentation establishing that Mr. Rochester had wed Bertha Mason in Spanish Town,
Jamaica, fifteen years ago. And to confirm that the woman is still alive and in Thornfield, he
produces Mr. Mason. Edward Rochester frankly and recklessly admits that he had wed, as the
attorney said, that his wife was still alive, and that he had kept her at Thornfield in secret for
years. She was insane and hailed from a family of lunatics who had been idiots for three
generations. His father and brother, who wanted him to marry into a wealthy family, had
conspired to entice him into the marriage.
To determine what kind of being Thornfield had been duped into espousing and whether
or not he had the right to breach the vows, Rochester asks the clergyman, the lawyer, and Mr.
Mason to visit Thornfield. He leads them to the third floor when they return to Thornfield. A fire
was burning in a room without windows, surrounded by a high, sturdy fence. A lamp was
hanging from the ceiling by a chain. A dependable maidservant was hunched over the fire,
cooking something. A figure was seen moving back and forth in the deep shade at the room's far
end. At first glance, it was impossible to identify what it was. It appeared to be crouching on all
fours while grabbing and growling like a crazy wild beast. However, it was dressed, and a thick

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mane of untamed, dark, grizzled hair hid its head and features. Everybody was shocked when Mr.
Rochester introduced her as his insane wife. the guests immediately left.
That evening, Jane snuck out of Thornfield. She offered the driver of the first coach she
saw the few shillings she had and asked him to transport her as far as he could for the money. He
dropped her off in the moorlands at a crossroads 36 hours later. She moved through the heather.
She ate bilberries that evening and slept beneath a crag. She was brought into Marsh End, the
residence of the Reverend St. John Rivers, a young and aspirational minister from the nearby
community of Morton, two days later, starving and soaked. Jane had nothing but kindness from
Mary and Diana, his two sisters. They were about to resume their governing duties in a sizable
southern English metropolis.
St. John hired Jane to be the headmistress of the girls' school in Morton. He intended to
work as a missionary in India. Jane was invited to accompany him and become his wife.
However, something prevented her from agreeing; he felt called to go on a mission, but she did
not. Then he told her that her uncle had passed away and left her 20,000 pounds. Mr. Briggs, a
solicitor in London, attested to this. Jane also learned that St. John, Mary, and Diana's mother
had been her father's sisters, making them the rightful heirs to her uncle in Madeira. She insisted
that they receive a portion of the legacy.
One evening, St. John was pressuring Jane to make a choice. She almost caves into his
pressure, even though she doesn't love him. Even though there was just one candle, there was
plenty of moonlight in space. She realises she can't leave the man she loves when she hears a
voice yell, "Jane! Jane!" across the moors. She left for Thornfield the following day. She
travelled two miles to the Rochester Arms in 36 hours. She ventured to Thornfield with much
trepidation, only to see a burned-out ruin.
She discovered that Thornfield Hall had burned down the year before, around harvest
time, when she returned to the inn. In the middle of the night, the fire started. Rochester had
attempted to save his wife. They could hear her shouting from a mile away after she scaled the
roof and stood there waving her arms. Rochester had entered the ceiling. He called her name, and
the audience responded, "Bertha!" She yelled as he drew closer before bolting away. She was
dead on the pavement the next moment.
After removing him from the rubble, a surgeon had to amputate Rochester's hand
instantly; he was alive but severely injured. One of his hands had been crushed to the point of
necrosis. Additionally, they were irritated and lost vision in the other eye. He was currently in

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Ferndean, a manor home on a farm he owned some thirty miles from where Thornfield Hall once
stood. Jane discovered him there, miserable, helpless, and disabled. Now that he is liberated,
Jane can say the well-known phrase, "Reader, I married him."
When Edward Rochester's firstborn was placed in his arms, he could see that the child
had inherited his own eyes, just as they had once been – big, dazzling, and black. Eventually, the
sight came back to Edward Rochester's eye. He realised that time, with a whole heart, that God
had tempered justice with mercy.
It is a bildungsroman novel. It is a narrative about enduring personal hardship and finding
the strength, tenacity, and intelligence to overcome obstacles. The female protagonist passes the
test of time, society, and many unfortunate yet challenging circumstances. However, she never
loses hope and stops trying until she reaches her destiny as an individual woman who builds her
life on her terms.
5.2.5 Characters:
Jane Eyre: The story follows Jane's physiological and psychological development from
her unhappy childhood spent with the obnoxious Reed family to her happy married life in
Rochester at Ferndean. Jane's development depends on reading, schooling, and creativity,
contributing to her eventual success. Jane, the central protagonist and narrator, is a young woman
with a plain demeanour. She is an educated, kind, and honest woman. She deals with
discrimination, first from her own extended family and then in society at large. She was a woman
who grew up an orphan while making adjustments and accepting what life had thrown at her
over the period. Through her journey, she encountered many who threatened her individuality,
independence, and suitability to live as she liked. However, she defies all the threats as a strong-
willed woman and finds her way through all her challenges. She successfully defends her beliefs
in equality, the dignity of the individual, and high morals and ethics. She prioritises both kinds of
fulfilment—emotional as well as intellectual. She takes her decisions and stands by them. She
even fights for what she believes is ethically correct. She is a woman who poses apparent
challenges to the Victorian societal norms that are biased toward a Second Sex and showcases
her strong advocacy in fighting for what she believes in.
Rochester, the male protagonist in the novel, owns Thornfield. He employs Jane. He is a
handsome and wealthy man with a dashing personality. However, he carries some secrets that
strikingly add to the suspense and thrill of the story. He falls in love with Jane. He goes on to set
aside his societal etiquette and what he calls norms of decency and class discrimination to

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connect with Jane. These steps show his honest and genuine efforts to further connect with Jane.
He is an ardent world traveler who has traveled across Europe through adulthood. Sometimes he
behaves in a reckless and impetuous manner. However, he acquires the sympathies of his readers
since he has been through significant challenges and struggles that life has thrown at him,
including his early marriage to Bertha Mason. Nonetheless, he tries to undo his doings by
publicly accepting his mistakes and proposes to begin a new life with Jane after paying for his
recklessness. Jane falls in love with Rochester despite his not-so-likeable demeanour and
unappealing appearance because she feels they mostly share similar values. He is the first to
promise her genuine love, a good home, and a happy family life. However, the novel is set in the
Victorian era, representing men's superiority over women. In addition, Edward Rochester, the
male protagonist, is showcased as socially and economically superior to Jane but she is his
intellectual equal. However, Jane will only get married to Rochester once she has amassed
wealth and a family. She has been on the verge of giving up on her passion entirely. She waits
until her lack of money, loneliness, or passion does not affect her too much. After the book,
Rochester also loses his manor house and sight, making him weaker, while Jane has grown
stronger. Although Jane claims they are equal, the marital dynamic has ultimately shifted in
Jane's favour.
St. John is Jane's cousin. He meets up with Jane accidentally, along with his sisters Mary
and Diana. They support Jane after she flees Thornfield by providing for her necessities. He
proposes marriage to Jane and allows her to move to India with him as his wife. Jane likes
moving to India and working for needy people, but she cannot agree to marry him for it. He
pressurises Jane. Hence, it acts as a counterpoint to the hero, Rochester. Rochester was
emotionally invested in Jane, whereas St. John wanted to marry her for the sake of marrying.
Mrs. Reed is Jane’s aunt. She cruelly treats Jane at Gateshead Hall up until the point
when she is eleven years old. Jane was sent away to school sometime around this time. However,
Jane did initiate her efforts to make amends with her aunt, but the older woman is still angry.
Hence, she never accepted her because her late husband has always valued Jane, this girl, above
his own three children.
Bessie is the one individual who consistently shows kindness to Jane throughout her
adolescence. She was the housekeeper at Gateshead Hall. She used to read books for her and sing
songs. Bessie later marries the coachman, Robert Leaven, at the Reeds and leaves Gateshead.

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 Jane's cousin, Georgiana Reed, is one of Mrs. Reed's two daughters. When they were
young, the lovely Georgiana was unkind to Jane; nevertheless, as they grew older, she became
friends with her cousin and confided in her. Georgiana attempts to flee with Lord Edwin Vere,
but Eliza, her sister, informs Mrs. Reed of the agreement and thwarts the scheme. Later, after
Mrs. Reed's death, Georgiana weds a wealthy man.
The Reed family's pharmacist, Mr. Lloyd, is the one who recommends that Jane go to a
boarding school. Mr. Lloyd. He has always been kind to Jane. He used to write letters to Miss
Temple to verify Jane's account and her background. He also used to save Jane from the
accusations of Mrs. Reed, whenever required.
Eliza Reed is one of Mrs. Reed's two daughters and Jane's cousin. Eliza, who is not quite
as stunning as her sister, gives her life to the church with self-righteous devotion. She finally
enters a convent in France and rises through the ranks to become the Mother Superior there.
Mr. Brocklehurst, the mean, cruel, dishonest, and hypocritical headmaster of Lowood
School, unfortunately used to teach the doctrine of privation at the school. On the contrary, he
steals funds from the school to finance and maintain his lavish lifestyle. Brocklehurst is known
as a prominent hypocrite throughout the story. His shady and dishonest activities are brought to
light when a typhus outbreak has swept through Lowood, and as a result, he is disgraced in the
public eye and forced to leave the school.
Bertha Mason, popularly regarded as Rochester's secret wife, was once a stunning and
wealthy Creole woman in her adult life. As the story goes on, she becomes more and more crazy,
violent, and animalistic. Bertha lives her life imprisoned in a hidden room on the third floor of
Thornfield, with Grace Poole as her caretaker. However, Bertha occasionally breaks herself free
when Grace is under the influence of alcohol. Bertha is the one who is ultimately responsible for
the destruction of Thornfield and her death in the subsequent fire.
The Mason family includes Richard as Bertha's brother. He suffers an injury at the hands
of his psychologically sick sister when he is at Thornfield. Mason. The solicitor Briggs shows up
at Rochester's house after Mason has learned that Rochester is about to marry a woman named
Jane. They planned to stop the wedding and expose the truth about Rochester's earlier marriage
with Bertha.
Check your progress
1. Who is the male protagonist of the novel?
_________________________________

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 2. What is the name of Rochester’s first wife?
__________________________________
3. Why did Rochester keep her secretly hidden from the public eye?
____________________________________________________
5.2.6 Conclusion:
The novel has a typical happy conclusion for a Victorian tale. Jane receives rewards from
every figure who treats her well. Adèle become Jane's pleasant companion as soon as she reached
to the school. Diana and Mary Rivers have had loving marriages. Jane is afraid of losing herself
in a relationship with St. John. However, she seems perfectly content to become one with
Rochester in a marriage that appears to be perfect. What distinctions exist between the
partnerships, and how does Jane stay true to Rochester? Primarily as a result of his wounds. Jane
still relies on her spouse as his "vision" and "right hand." So, the chapter is a strange mix of
words that talk about their "perfect concord" and words that show Rochester's dependence, like
when it says that he sees nature and literature through her. Jane gives Rochester partial vision
regeneration after two years of excellent behaviour, but he can still not read or write much.
Check your progress
1. How does the novel end?
____________________
2. How can Charlotte Bronte be remembered in the literary oeuvre of the known British
literary world?
____________________________________________________________________
3. How does the novel become a representative of a typical Victorian world of England?
____________________________________________________________________

5.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should have become familiar with Victorian fiction in general
and novel written by Charlotte Bronte, i.e., Jane Eyre, in particular. You should have gained an
understanding of the nineteenth century British literary works, the prominent literary figures and
their contribution in the development of varied genres, here, the Victorian novel.

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5.4 Glossary

Classical work: Judged over a period of time to be of the highest quality and outstanding of its
kind
Oeuvre: The body of work of an author
Creole woman: A person of mixed French or Spanish descent speaking a dialect of French or
Spanish
Pleasant companion: Someone you spend a lot of time with, i.e., here, Adele and Jane
Self-righteous: Having or characterized by a certainty, especially an unfolded one, that one as
totally correct or superior one

5.5 Sample Questions

5.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. Where was Charlotte Bronte born?
2. What social and economic background did she come from?
3. What was the pseudonym used for publication of Charlotte Bronte’s first novel?
4. When did she publish her first ever written work written in collaboration with her sisters?
5. What was the novel of her posthumously published novel?
6. When was Jane Eyre first publish?
7. What pseudonyms were chosen by Bronte siblings as writers?
8. What was the name of the maid who was assigned the secret duty to cater Rochester’s first
wife?
9. What was the name of Rochester’s daughter?
10. What was the name of Rochester’s first wife?
5.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. Discuss Jane Eyre as an autobiographical novel.
2. ‘Rochester can be considered a typical Victorian man.’ Elaborate the answer with the help of
the novel.
3. Write a detailed note on how the novel represents the cultural and social condition of that era.
4. Write a brief description on Charlotte’s life at the Lowood school.

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5. How has Bronte sisters contributed in normalizing the writing by female authors in the era
when it was not so normal while receiving immediate success upon publication? Discuss the
answer with suitable examples from the text.
5.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. Draw a character sketch of Mr. Rochester as a male protagonist with the help of the details
provided in the chapter.
2. Discuss the novel as a Victorian Prose/Novel following the genre specific characteristics of
the same.
3. Critically comment on the fame and name Charlotte Bronte as a woman writer received in the
Victorian era where women were barely considered eligible to produce serious literature.

5.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Margaret Lane. Introduction to Jane Eyre. Dent/Dutton, 1969.

2. Knies, Earl A. The Art of Charlotte Bronte. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1969.
3. Peters, Margot. Charlotte Bronte: Style in the Novel. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,
1973.
4. Allott, Miriam, ed. The Brontes: The Critical Heritage. Routledge, 1974.
5. Dunn, Richard J., ed. Jane Eyre. Norton, 1971, updated, 1987.

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 Unit - 6: Jane Eyre: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical
Appreciation

Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Jane Eyre
6.2.1 Themes
6.2.2 Narrative Technique
6.2.3 Critical appreciation
6.2.4 Conclusion
6.3 Learning Outcomes
6.4 Glossary
6.5 Sample Questions
6.6 Suggested Learning Resources

6.0 Introduction

In the last Unit, you were introduced to the novel Jane Eyre which was published in the
year 1847 by Charlotte Bronte. In the last Unit, you studied how it narrates the life story of the
protagonist named Jane. Through the story, she is portrayed as a courageous young woman who
juggles the challenges life throws at her personally and professionally. The chain of unending
struggle began when she was taken in by the Reeds, her uncle, and her aunt. She was sent away
to the boarding school named Lowood School owing to certain unfortunate circumstances.
However, misfortune kept chasing her. She falls in love with a handsome gentleman and her
employee Mr. Rochester. The truth was brought to the fore that he was married, and he accepted
it, too. The story takes an unexpected turn in the sudden circumstances, but Jane does not give up.
She was a survivor. Her tenacity, razor-sharp wit, and bravery finally help her overcome all the
challenges. Rochester and Jane, the love birds, get married and have a child towards the end. It
is believed that the story closely resembles the life of the author, Charlotte Bronte.

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6.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 familiarize you with the Victorian novel
 make you critically appreciate the British novel in general and other works written by the
Bronte sisters in particular
 enable you to have a deeper understanding of the themes, narrative technique, and to
attempt a critical appreciation of the text
 facilitate a comparative study of the novel

6.2 Jane Eyre

Before we discuss the themes and the narrative technique in Jane Eyre, let us quickly
recapitulate the last Unit and the summarize the novel. Jane is a young girl, about 10 years old.
She is the main protagonist of the story. She loses her parents to typhus and becomes an orphan.
She then moves to her uncle's and aunt’s house. This extended family shuns Jane aside and
leaves her in the care of the nursemaid. However, Jane's young life hit a "low" point when she
was taken to the austere Lowood Institution, a residential charity school. Her extended family
almost outcasted her at school for years and never looked back. She grew up there. The school
played a significant role in shaping her personality over the years; as a young woman, she and
the other girls residing there were highly tormented over the years. Nevertheless, her struggles
filled her with the courage and strength to be an independent woman.
Jane, a courageous survivor, has been making decisions for herself. She initially chose to
work in the Lowood school, her almamater. After a few years, she decided to leave the place and
began a job hunt as a governess. Fortunately, she receives a confirmed job opportunity as a house
governess from a wealthy man named Edward Rochester, who owns the estate at Thornfield Hall.
Jane was hired to teach and look after a beautiful young French kid, Adèle. She was born to a
French dancer, one of Rochester's lovers. She also makes friends with the kind and generous
housekeeper, Mrs. Alice Fairfax.
Jane begins to get attracted to Rochester, her employer. However, her one-sided love
seemed like an ending when she gathered that he might marry a snooty and well-to-do young
woman named Blanche Ingram. Eventually, the turn of events takes such a shape that Rochester

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and Jane confess their love to each other and proceed to the marriage. On their wedding day,
however, Jane learns that Rochester cannot legally marry her as he is married to a lady named
Bertha Mason. She was psychologically challenged for a long time. Therefore, despite staying in
the same mason, she is locked away on the third floor in the same house due to her violent
behaviour.
Jane could immediately relate and realize that her presence accounts for the strange
noises she heard inside the mansion. Bertha's existence legally prevents Rochester from marrying
Jane though he feels justified in continuing to date Jane because he was believed to be duped into
marrying Bertha. He begs Jane to move to France with him, where they can live together as
husband and wife. Nevertheless, Jane refuses the proposal on moral grounds and, in a
heartbroken and shattered condition, immediately leaves Thornfield without any plan.
She had no other place to go to after Thornfield. Hence, she began encountering varied
issues with her accommodation, job, safety and security. During one such struggling day, some
strangers shelter Jane, whom she later learns to be her cousin, whom she was separated from in
childhood. St. John, one of her cousins, became a devout priest. He shares his plan of moving to
India as a missionary with Jane. He also offered her the opportunity to join him if she would like
to. However, before Jane could decide, he proposed marriage to her. At first, Jane consents to
join him in India, but the prospect of wedding him doesn’t seem acceptable because she is still in
love with Rochester.
Nevertheless, St. John did not accept her rejection. On the other hand, he began to
emotionally pressurise her into marrying him. Considering minimal or no options other than
marrying him, she hesitantly changes her mind. However, he began to push her repeatedly to
reconsider the marriage proposal. Finally, Jane requests Heaven for guidance. At midnight, she
suddenly hears a mesmerizing call from Rochester seeking her help in her dream. Jane
understands where her destiny wants her to go. She instantaneously returns to Thornfield and
discovers that the estate has been destroyed by the fire, which Rochester's wife Bertha started
before jumping to her death. Jane jumps into the fire to save Rochester. Regrettably, Rochester
was blinded by the fire. However, towards the end, Jane and Rochester reunite and get married.
Before the conclusion, the readers are informed that Rochester partially regains his vision, and
the couple has a son.
Check your progress
1. Who is the narrator in the story?

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 _________________________
2. Who is Rochester?
______________
3. Name any three characters in the novel.
_________________________________

6.2.1 Themes:
The novel deals with varied themes throughout the storyline. A few key themes are
discussed at length here,
Independence vs. Love
The exploration of the desire for love is a prominent thematic element in Charlotte
Brontë's novel Jane Eyre. Jane seeks to establish a sense of self-value, social integration, and
romantic attachment. Throughout the narrative, the protagonist, Jane, embarks on a journey of
self-discovery, whereby she grapples with the challenge of attaining love while maintaining her
integrity and well-being. The protagonist rejects Rochester's offer of matrimony due to
apprehensions regarding the potential erosion of her autonomy. Jane believes that entering into a
marital union with Rochester. At the same time, he remains legally bound to Bertha, which will
result in her assuming the role of his mistress, abandoning her moral principles in favour of her
emotions. Nevertheless, her experiences at Moor House present her with a contrasting set of
challenges. The individual in question engages in philanthropic endeavours within
socioeconomically disadvantaged communities, thereby enjoying financial autonomy. However,
she lacks adequate emotional sustenance to carry out her charitable pursuits effectively. Jane
knows St. John's marriage proposition lacks love for her. Nevertheless, Jane's events at Moor
House serve as crucial trials of her autonomy. The protagonist's ability to enter into matrimony
with Rochester and relinquish her asymmetrical dependence on him as her "master" is contingent
upon her successful demonstration of personal autonomy. It is feasible for a union to exist
between individuals of equal standing.
Religion
Jane attempts to balance her spiritual duties and worldly indulgences harmoniously. She
encounters three notable religious figures, including Mr. Brocklehurst, Helen Burns, and St. John
Rivers. Each represents a distinct spiritual framework that Jane finally discards as she refines her
convictions regarding faith, morality, and the practical ramifications of these notions. Charlotte

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Bronte detected perils and instances of hypocrisy within the evangelical movement prevalent
during the nineteenth century, and Mr. Brocklehurst manifests these concerns. In asserting his
mission to eradicate pride among his students, Mr. Brocklehurst employs evangelical discourse.
However, his imposition of numerous adversities and humiliations upon them, exemplified by
his instruction to straighten the naturally wavy hair of one of Jane's classmates, is fundamentally
inconsistent with Christian principles. Undoubtedly, adhering to Brocklehurst's regulations
presents a formidable challenge. Bronte's scepticism towards the evangelical movement is seen
in his insincere endorsement of his affluent family and their social standing, which comes at the
expense of Lowood School and its student body. However, Jane deeply respects and admires
Helen, her friend. She finds embracing Helen's gentle and forgiving interpretation of Christianity
challenging due to its perceived passivity.
In subsequent chapters, St. John Rivers is an additional illustration of Christian behaviour.
This manifestation of Christianity is characterised by a strong drive for success, a desire for
recognition and admiration, and a notable sense of self-importance. St. John presents Jane with a
lifestyle requiring her to compromise her integrity, encouraging her to suppress her emotional
inclinations to fulfil her moral responsibilities. Despite Jane's rejection of all three forms of
religion, she remains steadfast in upholding her moral ideals, engaging in spiritual practises, and
maintaining her belief in God. In Chapter 26, the protagonist seeks solace from a higher power,
praying to God for consolation after her ruined wedding. In Chapter 28, the protagonist entrusts
her survival to a higher power as she traverses the desolate heath, enduring severe hunger and
extreme poverty. The user expresses strong disapproval towards Rochester's engagement in
sexual immorality. The individual is unwilling to contemplate cohabitation with the subject in
question, contingent upon both ecclesiastical and legal institutions' continued recognition of his
marital status with another lady. However, Jane encounters significant challenges while
attempting to sever ties with the sole romantic relationship she has ever experienced. The
protagonist ascribes her liberation from a potentially unethical existence to a divine being
(Chapter 27).
Jane ultimately reaches a comfortable compromise. The individual's conception of
spirituality contrasts with Brocklehurst's regarding its lack of severity and unpleasantness.
Furthermore, it does not advocate for disengagement from the external realm, as with Helen's
and St. John's religious beliefs. According to Jane, religion has the potential to regulate and
manage intense emotions while also serving as a source of inspiration for individuals to exert

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diligent effort and attain success in their external endeavours. These achievements encompass
complete self-awareness and a steadfast belief in a higher power.
Class Social
Jane Eyre critiques the inflexible social hierarchy prevalent in Victorian England. Bronte
asserts that the novel's most efficacious exploration of this matter lies in her scrutiny of the
arduous societal predicament encountered by governesses. Like the figure of Heathcliff in Emily
Brontë's novel Wuthering Heights, Jane possesses an ambiguous social status and engenders
significant turmoil among those in her vicinity. Jane had aristocratic manners, elegance, and
knowledge because Victorian governesses were required to possess a comprehensive
understanding of noble "culture" and impart to children the principles of a refined lifestyle and
their academic education. Nevertheless, despite their status as remunerated labourers, they were
subjected to servile treatment, rendering Jane in a state of helplessness and poverty during her
tenure at Thornfield. Upon Jane's realisation of her affection for Rochester, a double standard
becomes evident, whereby she is perceived as his intellectual counterpart yet lacks the same
social standing. Jane is reluctant to enter into matrimony with Rochester due to her indebtedness
towards him for his perceived condescension in proposing to her, even before the revelation of
the Bertha Mason situation. In Chapter 17, Bronte presents "The Grief of Jane" as a critical
examination of Victorian class ideologies.
Jane consistently expresses her opposition to the practice of class discrimination. In
Chapter 23, the protagonist reprimands Rochester, exemplifying her disapproval by stating, "Is it
your belief that my diminutive stature, impoverished circumstances, lack of prominence,
unattractive appearance, and ugliness render me devoid of both a soul and a heart?" Your
understanding is incorrect. I possess a soul and a heart of comparable magnitude to yours. If a
divine entity had granted me a certain level of physical attractiveness and significant wealth, it
would have been my responsibility to create circumstances that would make it equally
challenging for you to part ways with me, just as it is currently arduous for me to do so. It is
imperative to remember that Jane Eyre consistently adheres to societal norms without deviation.
Ultimately, Jane's capacity to marry Rochester on equal terms is solely facilitated by the lucky
monetary acquisition of her inheritance from her uncle, which can be perceived as possessing an
almost otherworldly quality.

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 Gender
Jane continuously champions the cause of equality and works to end all forms of
oppression. The primary character faces the difficult task of opposing patriarchal dominance,
which includes those who support the oppression of women and promote the subjugation of other
species, in addition to the existing social hierarchy based on social class. Edward Rochester,
Brocklehurst, and St. John Rivers are three notable male characters threatening Jane's pursuit of
equality and moral rectitude. All three demonstrate aspects of misogyny to some degree. Both
parties are committed to maintaining Jane's subordinate status, which will prevent her from
articulating her thoughts and emotions. To achieve independence and embark on a journey of
self-discovery, Jane must depart from Brocklehurst, decline St. John's invitation, and proceed to
Rochester solely after she has secured an equal-opinion marriage. Jane fulfils the ultimate
criterion when she demonstrates the capacity to operate effectively within a familial and
communal framework throughout her time at Moor House. The development of the female
protagonist's financial independence diminishes her dependence on Rochester to satisfy her
romantic longings. Furthermore, Rochester is revealed to be visually impaired and reliant on
Jane as his "mentor and support" after the novel. Chapter 12 illustrates a notion regarded as
exceedingly progressive from a feminist standpoint at the time. The author contends that, like
men, women need a space to direct their efforts and develop their skills. In the same way that
males would be impacted, women are subject to excessive restrictions and a total absence of
advancement. Advocating for restricting others' activities to decorative needlework, culinary arts,
textile craftsmanship, or musical performance may suggest that those with more significant
advantages have a limited perspective. It is an intellectually unsound practice to pass judgment
or ridicule on individuals who aspire to pursue or investigate activities or disciplines that
transcend the traditional expectations associated with their gender.
Residence and Belonging
A location to which Jane feels a sense of belonging characterizes her residence; she
assists with the book. Jane asserts that Gateshead is not her residence due to her lack of legal
authorization to be there, in response to the Reeds' apothecary Mr. Lloyd's inquiry about whether
she is content to do so. Jane characterises herself as "useless" and "a discord" towards Gateshead
due to her lack of the Reeds' temperament. She is ultimately unable to contribute to the
contentment of the family due to her incompatibility. These are the assertions made by Jane in
the initial chapter. At Gateshead, Jane feels even more alone because no one adores her and she

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has no one to return the affection. Jane seeks alternative employment following Miss Temple's
departure from Lowood, primarily because she holds Miss Temple accountable for the ambience
that embraced Lowood. Jane can no longer justify making Lowood her home because of the
absence of the person she cherishes the most. After developing an intense emotional connection
with Rochester at Thornfield, to the extent that Jane refers to him as her "only home," she
ultimately decides to separate from him because continuing to reside with him would promote
his immorality and detrimentally affect his soul. Her unease in his presence stems from the
information she has acquired regarding Bertha Mason. As Jane eventually returns to Rochester,
he can utilise her once more, as his eyesight has improved. Jane's motivation for making
decisions throughout the novel is her longing to be accepted and esteemed by others.
Uncertainty and Fear
Bronte uses terrifying Gothic imagery, particularly when discussing the paranormal, to
underscore the unease and ambiguity surrounding Jane's role in the world. The horrifying
crimson room serves as the reader's introduction to the Gothic and supernatural. Although Uncle
Reed may not haunt the room, Jane is haunted by his connection to it because it is a constant
reminder of the unfulfilled promise that she would have a home at Gateshead and that he cannot
guarantee her the affection she deserves. Later, the storm that splits the chestnut tree where
Rochester and Jane have a passionate kiss casts a foreboding aura as though nature were against
their union. This incident reminds Jane that, despite appearances, her happiness with Rochester is
unsteady. Furthermore, many academics believe Bertha to be Jane's Gothic twin or a physical
representation of the ferocious feelings and rage that Jane experienced in her youth. The
relationship between Bertha and Jane highlights Jane's concerns about becoming Rochester's
wife. Jane believes Rochester will grow weary of her even without knowing about Bertha, and
their union will upset the rigid Victorian social order by having a governess marry her master.
This is how Bertha's intimidating presence conveys Jane's anxiety about their upcoming nuptials
and the uncertainties of her social standing.
Check your progress
1. Define the term theme.
__________________
2. What are the key themes in the novel?
______________________________
3. Explain the theme of ‘uncertainty and fear’ in brief.

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6.2.2 Narrative Technique:
Jane Eyre is entirely written from the protagonist, Jane’s point of view. By narrating the
story ten years after the novel's culmination, Jane can establish a connection with and
contemplate her former self. The author employs the present tense in specific passages of Jane
Eyre to describe events as she observes them. Jane writes, "At this moment, the coach is a mile
away; I find myself alone," to provide an example. This occurred immediately after her flight
from Thornfield. The abrupt transition to the present tense effectively conveys Jane's tormented
mental state, creating a striking impression. The reader can also interpret Jane's remembrance of
traumatic events as an illustration of how they have altered her. She recalls vividly the emotions
she experienced upon her escape from Rochester. In subsequent chapters, Jane employs the
device of distance to narrate with the benefit of retrospect, drawing the reader's attention to the
passage of time. Jane's unwavering convictions influence the reader's perception of the story's
occurrences and the other individuals involved. When describing Blanche Ingram, for instance,
Jane instructs the reader to observe her arrogant and assured countenance. Blanche's subsequent
actions clarify her position for the reader, thereby corroborating Jane's assessment.
The initial publication of Jane Eyre: An Autobiography comprised three volumes. It was
stated that "Currer Bell" authored these volumes. There is a common misconception that
Charlotte Bronte's personal life inspired the Lowood section of the book. Her academic
background is believed to include the same as that of the protagonist of her story, Jane. Anti-
Catholic criticism notwithstanding, the piece became an instant success. The strong sense of
immediacy that Jane Eyre exhibited through her frequent first-person addresses and first-person
perspective contributed to its overall appeal. Additionally, Jane is a singular icon because she is a
courageous, self-reliant woman who confronts issues without regard for the opinions of others.
Moreover, the novel was notable for its fusion of multiple genres. Moral realism is consistent
with Jane's choice to prioritize her desire over her moral obligation. However, Bertha's fiery
demise and her narrow escape from a bigamy marriage were consistent with the Gothic tradition.
Jane Eyre is situated in Moor House, Gateshead Hall, Lowood School, Thornfield Hall,
and Ferndean, among other locations. Every specific place is associated with a unique era in
Jane's life. Jane spends her formative years in Gateshead, where the Reed family resides, and she
develops in this terrible crimson room. At this juncture, Jane encounters her initial truly
terrifying situation—an alleged encounter with the spirit of her uncle Reed. After observing

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Jane's profound transformation after this incident, Mrs. Reed enrolled her in Lowood School, an
institution renowned for its severe academic standards. The arduous atmosphere of the English
school attended by Bronte and her sisters was described in Lowood School. As described in the
book, the students contracted typhus and consumption. According to the analysis of several
scholars, Mr. Brocklehurst's theory of forfeiture resembles the prevalent evangelical beliefs of
nineteenth-century England. Some frequently construe this passage as a critique of the Protestant
sect in Christianity. Jane follows Lowood to Thornfield Hall in Rochester, where an enigmatic
and ominous presence lurks during the night. Like supernatural descriptions, Bronte adds
numerous elements that contribute to the Gothic ambience and enhance the setting's complexity.
Like how sexual apprehensions are examined in multiple Gothic novels, Jane and Rochester in
Thornfield contemplate romantic love. Despite their relatively modest physical significance,
Moor House and Ferndean possess noteworthy appellations. "Moor" denotes a mooring or a
designated area where an object is secured. Upon receiving her inheritance at Moor House, Jane
attains her first-ever sense of stability. Jane affirms that she has been Rochester's wife and equal
for the past decade and that the "fern" in Ferndean symbolizes the new beginning she and
Rochester will embark upon in that location.
Jane Eyre contains formal and comprehensive writing. Long lines containing semicolons,
colons, and intricate word selections are typical of Charlotte Bronte's work. For example, Jane
characterizes her initial encounter with Mr. Rochester: "The incident had transpired; it was an
incident devoid of consequence, romance, or interest; however, it signified a transformation from
a mundane existence." Despite the frequent use of formal language and complex syntax in
Victorian literature, Jane's writing style demonstrates her intellectual acumen and reflective
nature. Jane's descriptions are disorganized, giving the impression that she meticulously
considers each aspect. When Jane declares that she will "ever more bone of his bone and flesh of
his flesh" after her matrimonial union with Rochester, Bronte frequently alludes to the Bible.
This is an explicit allusion to the description of Adam and Eve in Genesis. The book receives a
significant moral and ethical enhancement through biblical allusions, which underscore Jane's
moral duty to depart from Rochester upon discovering his marital union with Bertha Mason.
The events in the novel are permeated by a tone that fluctuates between confessional and
philosophical, as well as one that is sad and enigmatic. Jane frequently addresses the reader
directly. She often pauses to philosophize as she explains herself and her actions while
meditating on the motivations behind the behaviour of others. These asides suggest that Jane

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may be experiencing apprehension regarding the response of her audience. The reader may also
interpret these explicit assertions through a feminist lens. Despite using a male pseudonym to
publish Jane Eyre, Bronte's determination to give Jane a strong voice in opposition to the
Victorian ideal of the submissive woman demonstrates the sophistication and vitality of women's
voices. During heightened emotional intensity, such as when Jane is incarcerated in the red
chamber, when she first encounters Rochester, or when Bertha wanders at night, the Gothic,
sombre elements that resemble supernatural occurrences come to the forefront. The existing
tension and drama intensify the sense of foreboding and direct focus towards Jane's inner turmoil.
Throughout the novel, Jane's melancholy outlook on her place in the world stems from her lack
of financial resources and familial connections; the disconcerting tone of these sections’
manifests Jane's insecurity.
Jane Eyre resembles a bildungsroman the most in terms of its structure. Written in
German and meaning "novel of education," the Bildungsroman is a literary genre that chronicles
the maturation and intellectual development of its wise and philosophical main character. Jane
Eyre demonstrates not only Jane's intellectual and emotional development but also her physical
transformation. Jane establishes that her life has been profoundly affected by her conflict with
those in positions of greater authority right from the outset. Throughout the novel, Jane struggles
with adherence to ethics and her desire to pursue her passions. By coming to terms with the
inherent contradictions in her life, Jane has the potential to attain liberation by the conclusion of
the literary work. As is customary for the bildungsroman subgenre, this approval signifies Jane's
development into an adult.
The novel has been incorporated into numerous entertainment genres. Many television,
film, and stage adaptations of Jane Eyre were produced, including the 1943 film starring Joan
Fontaine as Jane and Orson Welles as Rochester. Furthermore, the 1966 publication Wide
Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys provides intricate particulars regarding Rochester's initial union with
Bertha.
Check your progress
1. Who is the narrator in the novel?
__________________________
2. Was Jane Eyre adopted into entertainment genres?
________________________________________
3. In which year was the novel produced as a film?

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6.2.3 Critical Appreciation:
The author of the book, Jane Eyre, used the personal pronoun "I" to write the book in the
style of an autobiography. Many personal parts of Charlotte Bronte's personal traumatic
experiences found their way into Jane's description of her life; nonetheless, the author shouldn't
view the book as a covert autobiography. Thus, the book is reminiscent of David Copperfield by
Charles Dickens, which includes parts of the author's real-life experiences.
Overall, this book is dreary, sad, and bleak. The trials and tribulations of the protagonist,
Jane Eyre, are the focus of this book. She almost immediately strikes the reader as tragic, and she
stays that way until the very end when she finally fulfils her deepest desire by marrying Mr
Rochester, the man she has loved for a long time. The novel is generally highly touching and
heart-breaking, and Jane has very few happy encounters.
Jane Eyre has a really intriguing and nearly compelling storyline. Apart from other
factors, the novel is worth reading just for the plot appeal. We read the story nearly in one breath
and cannot put the book down until we have concluded. There are various distinct stages to the
narrative. The initial part of the narrative is on Jane's adventures at Gateshead-hall, where she
falls prey to her aunt Mrs. Reed's callousness and that of her three children.
The following phase involves Jane's time at Lowood School, where she studied there for
six years and then taught there for two years. Her connection with Helen Burns, a disguised
representation of Charlotte Bronte's sister Maria, who had passed away at a young age from
tuberculosis, is one of her most memorable memories in this instance. The next phase of Jane's
life offers her employment as Adele's governess at Thornfield Hall. This stage is the most
significant in the narrative because it depicts the most apparent, romantic, and traumatic events
in Jane's life. Here, she develops feelings for Mr. Rochester, a married man with a psychotic wife
who lives in the same home as him.
Following her departure from Thornfield Hall, Jane finds herself desperate. Tired and
hungry, she cannot obtain food or shelter until she reaches the home of a minister and missionary
named St. John Rivers. She briefly finds relief from her sadness here and is very at ease until St.
John's suggestion that she marry him starts to press hard and border on harassing her. Her life
ends when she travels to Ferndean and marries Mr. Rochester, who is now blind and whose wife
died at Thornfield Hall during a fire she had created. All these alterations in Jane Eyre's life make
a tale of great interest.

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 Some critics have accused Jane Eyre of having a very sloppy plot structure. However, the
accusation is unfounded and unsupportable. An autobiography is invariably a lengthy story that
encapsulates all or a significant portion of the subject character's life, in this case, Jane. An
autobiography can not be expected to have a compact or tightly-knit construction because it
covers the various periods of the hero's or heroine's life or both. The adjective "loose" might be
used to describe the novel's structure, but not in a negative way. In addition to detailing the
protagonist's different experiences, an autobiography must have a sizable cast of characters
because the protagonist would unavoidably and naturally interact with a wide range of people
throughout their life.
There are numerous characters in Charles Dickens' novel David Copperfield and many
characters in Jane Eyre. The central focus of an autobiographical novel is the narrator, even
though other characters may catch our attention and pique our interest at different points in the
narrative. This is what gives an autobiographical novel its sense of coherence. The supporting
cast in Jane Eyre primarily adds to the story's fascination, but Jane remains the book's star, and
Mr. Rochester comes very near to matching her in terms of the complexity of his portrayal.
Without question, Jane Eyre is a romantic novel. It contrasts significantly with Jane
Austen's writings in this regard, which can be classified as entirely realistic with just sporadic
romantic intrusions. Although Jane is also notably practical, "romantic" fits it better.
The intense love connection between Jane and Mr. Rochester serves as this book's
primary source of romance. Mr. Rochester is an attractive man. Jane Eyre is a lovely girl.
Additionally, there is a significant age difference between Mr. Rochester, who is approaching
forty, and Jane Eyre, who is only twenty. Because of this, it could seem unromantic for a plain-
looking young lady to be in love with an older man who is virtually and physically unappealing.
But it is a very romantic relationship because of the enthusiasm and intensity of passion on both
sides, the persistence of love on both sides and the almost obsessive quality of this love. Despite
having a realistic core, Jane Eyre, like many of Shakespeare's plays, features a lot of absurdities
and improbabilities that need to be revised to improve the overall merit of the piece. The simple
idea that Mr. Rochester's insane wife is in the same home as him and has been sequestered in a
room on the top floor without anyone, not even the housekeeper Mrs. Fairfax, being aware of her
presence, is the height of folly. Mr. Rochester had explicitly ordered Mr. Mason to wait until the
next day to meet Bertha. Thus, his visit to Thornfield Hall and his decision to meet her in the
room where she is sequestered represent another folly.

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 The mysterious Mr. Rochester rarely visits Thornfield Hall and stays there for more than
a few days at a time. He spends most of his time elsewhere. Even the housekeeper, Mrs. Fairfax,
who is connected to Mr. Rochester, finds Mr. Rochester a mystery. Another absurdity is that Mr.
Rochester is taking on the duty of raising Adele, with whom he has absolutely no relationship.
The attempt by Mr. Rochester to save his insane wife, who had herself set the home on fire, is a
very improbable gesture of selflessness. He acted insanely, risking his life to save a crazy woman
who had consistently caused him pain. So, it is a blatant impossibility for St. John and his two
sisters to be Jane's cousins. It is a coincidence that lacks credibility in our eyes.
The central theme of Jane Eyre is realism. The way the issue of childhood is handled in
this book is arguably its most remarkable example of realism. The book's initial chapters are
truly unique in how well the struggles and private thoughts of ten-year-old Jane are conveyed.
Again, the description of the circumstances in which the orphan girls reside and attend the
charity school known as Lowood School is remarkable due to its realism. The portrayal of the
people, though, is the most realistic aspect of this book. Realistic character rendering is Charlotte
Bronte's forte. Of course, Jane herself and Mr. Rochester receive the best renditions. Charlotte
Bronte shows Jane in the most realistic way possible, and Mr. Rochester, a strange and confusing
personality, convinces us of the reality of his portrayal, mainly when he tells Jane Eyre about his
previous promiscuous life. The supporting characters, such as Mrs. Reed, Mr. Brocklehurst, Miss
Temple, Mrs. Fairfax, and, last but not least, Blanche Ingram, are also shown very realistically.
Additionally, the Rivers family members have all been accurately portrayed, with St. John as the
most prominent person.
6.2.4 Conclusion:
When Jane Eyre was first published, there was a great deal of disagreement among 19th-
century critics about the characters, how religion and authority were portrayed, the writing style,
scene choices, and the author's gender. Still, they all agreed that the novel was exceptional and
enthralling because of Jane's freedom of expression and Bronte's narrative power, both
unconventional at the time. Bronte's answer to her detractors was to urge readers to question
contemporary norms and re-examine morality and religion rather than continue to live in
injustice (Bronte 1848). Overall, Jane Eyre's narrative strength, distinctively strong feminist
heroine, and defiance of social norms caused a wide range of passionate reactions.
Check your progress
1. When did Charlotte die?

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 ____________________
2. How can she be remembered in the literary oeuvre of the British literary world?
_______________________________________________________________
3. How did Charlotte gain acclaim in her era?
__________________________________

6.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should have gained knowledge about the themes and
narrative technique in the novel. You should have also attempted a critical appreciation of Jane
Eyre.

6.4 Glossary

Genre: Type/kind/sort of literary work

Autobiographical: A work that deals with the writer’s own life
Governess: A woman employed to teach children at home in specific households
Orphan: A child whose parents are dead, here, main protagonist Jane Eyre
Lowood School: A residential school for girls where Jane was sent to study

6.5 Sample Questions

6.5.1 Objective Questions:

1 What are the names of the Bronte sisters?
2. What was the name of Lowood School’s principal?
3. Write the name of Charlotte’s first novel.
4. When did she publish her first creative work in collaboration with her siblings?
5. What was the genre of that work?
6. Where did Mr. Rochester live?
7. Name the caretaker maid who looked after Bartha secretly.
8. What was the name of Bartha Mason’s brother?

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9. Where did Jane meet her cousins?
10. Where did Rochester meet his first wife?
6.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. Discuss Jane Eyre as a Victorian novel/prose.
2. Explain the plot of the novel.
3. Write a detailed note on various themes of the novel.
4. Prepare a critical analysis of the main characters of the novel.
5. How did the Bronte sisters contribute to creating a mindful creative space for their female
creative descendants in the Victorian era and later?
6.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. Examine in detail the themes in Jane Eyre.
2. Trace the characteristics of a bildungsroman in the novel Jane Eyre.
3. Discuss the narrative technique employed by Charlotte Brontë in Jane Eyre.

6.6 Suggested Learning Resources

Brontë, Charlotte. 1848. Jane Eyre: an autobiography / by Currer Bell. 2nd ed ed.
London: London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1848.

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 Unit - 7: Wide Sargasso Sea: Background, Plot & Characters

Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Wide Sargasso Sea: Background, Plot, Characters
7.2.1 Background
7.2.2 Plot Analysis
7.2.3 Sense of Conflict
7.2.4 Advent of Complication
7.2.5 Climax of the Plot
7.2.6 Elements of Suspense
7.2.7 Conclusion
7.2.8 First Person Narrator
7.2.9 Characters in Wide Sargasso Sea
7.2.10 Let Us Sum Up
7.3 Learning Outcomes
7.4 Glossary
7.5 Sample Questions
7.6 Suggested Learning Resources

7.0 Introduction

Wide Sargasso Sea, is a post-colonial novel written by Jean Rhys in English. It is set
during the 1940s and 1960s in England and was published in 1966. It is about the lives of
Caribbean people under the colonial effects of the English regime, and hence the novelist has
criticized the colonial approach of England there. She has provided ample space in the novel to
describe the state of slaves and the deprived class of Caribbean people . The beauty of the
Caribbean landscape is also well-delineated in the novel. As the novelist herself is of Caribbean
origin, her style and narrative techniques are very much in the same lines as are followed by
Caribbean writers. The tone she has used in Wide Sargasso Sea is sensational, mysterious and
passionate on one hand and has an aesthetic touch on the other hand, mainly through the liking
and affiliation of Antoinette towards aesthetic life and landscapes of the Caribbean and Jamaican
region.

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 The setting and background of Wide Sargasso Sea can be traced back to 1840 and this
novel is a change in the mode and tone when compared to the novelist's earlier works which
were in European style and conventions. The novel is highly symbolic and there is a diversity of
thematic values. Political, social and racial issues are frequent ideas that hit readers again and
again in the novel. As the novel is depicted in two different cultures, that is West Indian and
European culture, so there is a clash between two different ideologies as is depicted in Wide
Sargasso Sea. The novel also centers around diverse and hybrid layers of identities, i.e., social,
cultural, sexual, economic and racial. The concept of marriage in the novel is suggestive of the
fact that financial needs and support are prime behind every marriage and not feelings or love, as
seen in the case of Antoinette, Annette and even behind the marriage of Rochester and the result
is a collapse.
Check your progress
1. Wide Sargasso Sea, is a post-colonial novel written by _________.
2. The setting and background of Wide Sargasso Sea can be traced back to _________.

7.1 Objectives

This Unit is meant to give the background and the setting in which the novel Wide
Sargasso Sea is written, how the plot is constructed and how characters are portrayed.
Specifically, the objectives of this Unit are to:
 make the readers familiar with the Caribbean culture and how it was affected by the
colonial regime
 bring to light the conflict and clash that existed between two opposite cultures and
ideologies i.e. colonial and colonized.
 make the readers know about different narratives and plot techniques which are implied
in Wide Sargasso Sea.
 give background knowledge and the setting in which the novel is written in order to fully
comprehend the novel.
 give insights in to exploring the diverse traits that the major characters in Wide Sargasso
Sea posses.
 enable readers to get to know the different layers of identity crisis going on in the lives of
Caribbean people.

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7.2 Wide Sargasso Sea: Background, Plot, Characters

7.2.1 Background:
Wide Sargasso Sea is a novel that is set in Jamaica in the Caribbean region when it was a
part of England's colonial regime. The year in which it is set is never mentioned in the novel, but
we can get the idea when Jean Rhys mentions that she enters Covent in 1839, that the novel is set
in the 1840s. It was a time of great social, cultural, racial and political upheaval in the Caribbean
region under the imperial regime of English. The novel begins to mark it beginning after
sometime soon after the British passed the Emancipation Act in 1833 in which slaveholders were
promised that they would be compensated but they never received it and hence were ruined,
financially, including the father of Antoinette. Slaves were freed but their lives were as bad as
during slavery because of the four-year apprenticeship with their former owners. Dominica, the
place where the novel is set, was entangled between French and British imperial pursuits. And
the novel ends in England at Thornfield Hall, which was the house of Rochester, the husband of
Antoinette.
The title of the novel is suggestive of the Sargasso Sea of northern Atlantic Ocean, a vast
area which is deemed to be home of seaweed sargassum. In addition, the Sargasso Sea is thought
to be a mysterious sea because of an oceanic black hole where ships drift in a hopeless situation
when winds cease to blow. The title is indicative of the fact how the characters of the novel are
trapped in their own Sargasso Sea. The ending of the novel is also mysterious as readers are not
revealed about what happens when Antoinette has a dream to set the house on fire. Even the last
lines of the novel: “Now at last I know why I was brought here and what I have to do. There must
have been a draught for the flame flickered and I thought it was out. But I shielded it with my
hand and it burned up again to light me along the dark passage” are ambiguous. The word
“passage” is also significant as Antoinette passes through many personal, financial, political and
racial passages prior to her last dark passage. The ending of the novel has invited endless
interpretations of what happens next as nothing is revealed.
Wide Sargasso Sea reflects two distinct traits. One is to present the sensibilities that are
held by West Indian writers and the other is to project the European concept of modernism. Jean
Rhys was born in 1890 in Dominica, which was an island in the Caribbean region. She was the
daughter of a Welsh doctor and a white Creole mother. She grew up at a time when the English
colonial period was dying. She grew up between two different cultures based on two different

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ideological patterns. However, she was influenced by her black nurse or servant who raised her.
She was the one who introduced her to the language, customs and culture of Caribbean people.
Religious norms were also made known to Rhys through her black servant. And when she was
16, she left her home in Dominica and shifted to England. This act left her with a perpetual
feeling of displacement and she was never able to feel associated with her ancestral home again.
In the 1920s, she began to travel in Europe and was impressed by the artists and artistic skills of
modern and innovative writers as well as artists.
Being marginalized in a conventional society, she began to raise questions about
conventional male-dominated society. Surrounded by poverty and illness, she turned towards
wandering and alcoholism. Finally, though reluctantly, she settled down in England for which
she had some kind of fondness. Due to her psychological and physical state, she remained away
from literary horizons until the 1960s. In 1966 came her novel Wide Sargasso Sea, after a gap of
27 years of her previous novel and it was a complete shift of context from an industrial European
context towards 19th century Caribbean life. It turned out to be a masterpiece in the literary world
that depicted and humanized the racially pejorative character of a mad woman of West Indian
origin. The novel was a fresh experiment surrounded by modern aesthetic techniques and an
impactful feminist rewriting. Hence, the novel Wide Sargasso Sea gave voice to a marginalized
class of society and transformed her initial tragic demise into a sort of Victory.
Though, the novel was influenced by Brontë's novel, Jean Rhys tried her best to break the
thematic conventions and make sure that Wide Sargasso Sea stood on its own merit. There is
novelty in style and narrative technique, which were meant to project cultural and racial
hybridism. The novel was profound with symbols and images and it was meant to unearth the
fragmented identities and fears of marginalized classes of the society. The novel was based on a
struggle against dominating traditions and conventions. The novel being a post-colonial piece of
literary skills, questioned the exploited role of England and the sympathies arise for Caribbean
people and the region which was exploited by England as a colony. The novel also aroused
psychoanalytical reading because of her experimental nature towards narrative technique and
exploration of unconsciousness. Jean Rhys incorporated modern and post modern devices such
as fragmentation, super-naturalism, sublimity and passion in her novel Wide Sargasso Sea.
Check your progress
1. When was the Emancipation Act passed?
_________________________________

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 2. After a gap of how many years, was the Wild Sargasso Sea published?
________________________________________________________
7.2.2 Plot Analysis:
Initial Tone
Initial or the introductory part of a novel does not mark its way as far as the initial tone or
situation with regard to plot construction is concerned. Here, readers are mainly informed about
the unstable childhood of Antoinette, which is due to a number of factors. Her father is dead and
her mother's financial condition is very poor. After a struggle with no positive outcome, Annette
decides to marry Mr. Mason to support and secure her family, but tragically it ends up at the cost
of her son, home, sanity and even her life. Annette’s experience has far reaching effects on the
life of Antoinette surrounded by fears and insecurity.
Three Act Plot
Wide Sargasso Sea is written in three acts. After the initial tone or situation of the novel
in which the troublesome childhood and adulthood of Antoinette is described in the first act of
the plot, after a month’s courtship with Rochester, whom she marries. In the second act of the
plot, the initial pleasant married life of Antoinette and Rochester is described, which later
drastically changes when Rochester receives a letter in which Antoinette's infidelity is revealed.
Antoinette is also shown giving drugs to Rochester after that he sleeps with his maid as a
reaction to Antoinette previous act. In the 3rd act of the plot, Rochester sends Antoinette back to
England and locks her in an attic, but she manages to escape a dream in which she sets the entire
house on fire.
7.2.3 Sense of Conflict:
After a turbulent experience, amid fears and insecurity, Antoinette entered into marriage
in order to break the burden of life, to shun her fears and to help herself financially. The marriage
here is not out of love or for mutual matrimonial bliss, rather a sort of financial and social
arrangement which is set by step father and step brother of Antoinette. After a courtship with
Rochester, she gets married to him, but her wealth is taken over by her husband. Thus, she has
lost her economic freedom as well. Her husband, Rochester in the beginning seems to have some
genuine feelings for her but later on all proves otherwise.
7.2.4 Advent of Complication:
Initially the relationship between Rochester and Antoinette is somewhat smooth, but
when Rochester receives a letter, it creates insecurities and doubts in their relationship. Even

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after receiving letter disclosing the relationship between Antoinette and Sandi Cosway, Rochester
remains unmoved because he pretends as something he already knows. But on the other hand, he
does not give Antoinette a single chance to defend her position or situation before him. From
there onwards, their relationship is drastically changed due to the revealing letter Rochester
receives regarding Cosway.
7.2.5 Climax of the Plot:
Surprisingly, the climax of the novel is centered on a sexual climax where union during
sex is not mainly physical union or physical pleasure, rather it acts as casting one’s power and
authority over the other. It is revealed in the climax that Rochester has a physical relationship
with her wife Antoinette, but at the same time, he had developed a physical relationship with his
maid and sleeps with Amélie who mocks Antoinette and calls her a "white cockroach."
Rochester’s infidelity breaks Antoinette and she loses all hopes of happiness and blissful
relationship with Rochester who punished her by sleeping with Amélie.
7.2.6 Elements of Suspense:
The climax is followed by such incidents in the plot which are full of suspense and
surprises. Though those acts are meant by various characters to mend the situation but those
actually worsen the situation. Characters, instead of behaving rationally and talking to each other,
resort to reactions, which leads to worsening of the situation. They feed each other’s emotions,
which results in burning out everything. Antoinette goes to meet Christophine and on her return
she has a quarrel with Rochester. All these events lead both Antoinette and Rochester to a point
where they are no longer able to discern love and hate.
7.2.7 Conclusion:
In the concluding part of the plot, the readers are informed that Rochester, after declaring
Antoinette insane, sends her back to England and locks her up. During her lock up, Antoinette
has a dream in which she has sets her entire house on fire. But when she wakes up, she runs
down towards the dark passage in her attic, which is the culmination of the novel and its plot.
Though, she reveals that she has come to know what actually is to be done, she never reveals the
nature of the task during the concluding part of the plot. The open end of the novel leaves the
readers unaware of the truth about what happens from an impartial point of view.
7.2.8 First Person Narrator:
The novel Wide Sargasso Sea is narrated mostly through a 1st person narrator to the
readers either through Antoinette or through the voice of Rochester. Mostly, both the narrators

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describe the same events but from different prospective and viewpoints. Sometimes one narrator
reveals or tells the events to other narrator or character, as in the case of Antoinette, who reveals
her past to Rochester. In between all the narrators and switching off the narrator, the readers are
never made known to what actually happens about the actual truth from an impartial point of
view.
7.2.9 Characters in Wide Sargasso Sea:
Antoinette
She is the heroine and the part narrator of the novel. She is of European origin and was
born in the Caribbean region. Throughout the novel, her relationships with other characters in the
novel are depicted through the lens of cruelty, exclusion and alienation and that is why she finds
comfort and solace only in the natural beauty of Caribbean landscapes. In the novel, her
childhood and adulthood is depicted amid social crisis and financial crisis. She has witnessed
that her family house had been set on fire by a mob of former slaves. In addition, she sees her
mother who became mad due to family and financial crisis. Later on, she marries an Englishman
for financial benefits, which later turns into a disaster in her life. Though, in the beginning,
everything goes well, the letter her husband Rochester receives about his wife, Antoinette’s
relationship destroys their married life. Rochester locks her up in an attic and the only escape
from there was suicide. The novel ends with her dream of setting her own house on fire.
Mr. Rochester
He is an English man and the husband of Antoinette. Unlike his wife Antoinette, he is
disturbed and dismayed in the natural setting of Jamaica. He was the second son of his father and
did not get anything from the family estate, so he decides to marry Antoinette for financial
prospect. After the marriage, things were going well until Rochester received a letter having an
allegation against his wife. Without probing and giving her a chance to defend herself, he locks
her up in an attic to die. To take revenge on Antoinette, he even sleeps with the maid. His
feelings of love and liking for Antoinette turn into hatred and animosity which lets his wife
Antoinette to die or commit suicide in an attic where she is seen running towards a dark passage.
Annette
She is the mother of the heroine Antoinette and in the initial setting of the novel is shown
as a widow. After the death of her husband, she has been in debt and entangled in a financial
crisis. Her relationship with Antoinette is not very cordial as she mostly attends to her sick son
instead of paying attention to Antoinette. Out of serious financial conditions she decides to

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remarry to settle things. She marries Mr. Mason, a rich man of financial prospect. But instead of
getting any solace, her marriage life adds fuel to the fire and she is declared mad and insane. In
the midst of this crisis, she dies, but her death takes place off stage and the readers do not know
how and in which state she dies. Her death is similar to the death of her daughter Antoinette’s
death at the end of the novel. Like their names, which are similar, their destiny and marriage
lives are also similar. They share the same mental, social, economic and psychological state. The
only difference is that Antoinette does not inherit mental illness from her mother.
Mr. Mason
He is an English man and the second husband of Annette. Like Rochester, he is also
indifferent towards the natural landscapes and Caribbean beauty. He ignores the warning and
dangers posed by the former slaves of a nearby village when he is told by his wife Annette, and
the result is that her family house was burnt to ashes. Unlike other characters in the novel, he
does not marry for money as Annette has nothing. But, like other marriages in the novel, the
feelings of love are son lost and he declares his wife insane and mad, which actually leads her to
become mentally and mentally sick. In the wake of this disastrous outcome, she dies in a mad
state, but the actual event takes place off stage and unknown to the readers.
Christophine
She is the servant of Annette and the nurse of her daughter Antoinette. Her role in the life
of Antoinette is very significant as being the nurse she used to act as a substitute mother for
Antoinette in the absence of Annette due to her attending her sick son or due to the madness and
mental illness she undergoes during the course of events in Wide Sargasso Sea. Again, when
Rochester behaves harsh towards Antoinette after her marriage, she provides solace and
inspiration in these words "A man don't treat you good, pick up your skirt and walk out" and
"Have spunks and do battle for yourself." Lastly, she again comes for Antoinette’s rescue to
supply her drugs to give to Rochester when he is enraged after the letter revealing her secret
relationship.
Daniel Cosway
He is yet another character who plays a key role in destroying the matrimonial
relationship between Antoinette and Rochester. It is also revealed that he himself is the
illegitimate son of Mr. Cosway and also among one of his slaves. He sends a letter apparently to
destroy the married life of Antoinette on one hand and to blackmail Rochester on the other hand
to keep the scandal secret. He seems very educated and intellectual, but he debases himself

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through some evil act. That is why he is termed as intellectually inferior by Rochester mainly
because of his race and generally because of his nature. His role, in Wide Sargasso Sea is mainly
negative and evil.
Minor Characters
Apart from the major characters that are briefly presented in this Unit, there are other
characters as well in the Wide Sargasso Sea who make the plot and story complete. Pierre is the
sick brother of Antoinette and does not play much role in the novel. Tia, another minor character,
is a friend of Antoinette. Amélie is the maid of Antoinette. Aunt Cora, Godfrey, Grace Poole,
Hilda, Marie Augustine and Myra are some of other minor characters in the novel Wide Sargasso
Sea.
Check your progress
1. Into how many Acts is the novel divided?
_________________________________
2. Name any two characters in the novel.
_______________________________
7.2.10 Let Us Sum Up:
Wide Sargasso Sea a post-colonial novel written in 1966 and it sheds light on the lives of
the Caribbean people under the colonialism of England's rule. The novel is set in Jamaica in the
Caribbean region when it was a part of England's colonial regime. The novel is set in a time of
great social, cultural, racial and political upheaval in the Caribbean region under the imperial
regime of English. It begins sometime soon after the British passed the Emancipation Act in
1833, when slaveholders were promised that they would be compensated. Dominica is the place
where the novel is set and it is entangled between French and British imperial pursuits. And the
novel ends in England at Thornfield Hall with Antoinette is shown running towards "dark
passage" during her lock up in the attic by her husband Rochester. Antoinette, Mr. Mason,
Rochester, Annette, Sidney Cosway, Daniel Cosway and Christophine are the major characters
that take part during the events of the plot. The plot is divided into three acts. There are conflicts
prior to the climax of the plot. The element of suspense is also there in the novel. The novelist
has utilized 1st person narrator or narrative technique to narrate the plot of the novel.

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7.3 Learning Outcomes

After going through the Unit, you should be able to understand the Caribbean culture and
how it was affected by the colonial regime. You should have an idea about the conflict and clash
that existed between two opposite cultures and ideologies i.e. colonial and colonized. You
should be aware of narrative technique and plot construction in Wide Sargasso Sea.

7.4 Glossary

Sargasso: The Sargasso Sea is a region of the Atlantic Ocean

Emancipation: Liberation

7.5 Sample Questions

7.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. Wide Sargasso Sea was published in ________.
(a) 1960
(b) 1962
(c) 1964
(d) 1966
2. Wide Sargasso Sea belongs to the period that is generally known as _________.
(a) Romantics
(b) Renaissance
(c) Colonial
(d) Post-Colonial
3. The setting and background of Wide Sargasso Sea can be traced back to ______.
(a) 1820
(b) 1840
(c) 1860
(d) 1880

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4. The Emancipation Act which brought out a financial change in the Caribbean region was
introduced in _______.
(a) 1819
(b) 1829
(c) 1833
(d) 1900
5. Jean Rhys was born in 1890 in Dominica which was an island in the ________.
(a) Caribbean region
(b) Atlantic region
(c) Northern regions
(d) None of these
6. Jean Rhys wrote Wide Sargasso Sea after a gap of _________.
(a) 25 yeas
(b) 27 years
(c) 15 years
(d) 19 years
7. The novel ends in England at Thornfield Hall which was the house of ________.
(a) Rochester, the husband of Antoinette
(b) Antoinette, the wife of Rochester
(c) Annette, the wife of Mr. Mason
(d) Mr. Mason, the husband of Annette
8. Wide Sargasso Sea wasinfluenced by _________.
(a) Jane Austin's novel
(b) Hemingway's novel
(c) Brontë's novel
(d) All of these
9. Which narrative form has been used by Jean Rhys in Wide Sargasso Sea?
(a) 1st person
(b) 2nd person
(c) 3rd person
(d) Unknown

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 10. Who was the servant of Annette as well as the nurse of her daughter Antoinette?
(a) Christophine
(b) Daniel Cosway
(c) Sandi Cosway
(d) Mr. Mason
7.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. Antoinette is entangled between two cultures and two different ideologies. How? Explain
from your reading of Wide Sargasso Sea.
2. What sorts of identity crisis are depicted in the novel Wide Sargasso Sea?
3. How has the Emancipation Act changed the financial life patterns of slaves and slave
masters as depicted in Wide Sargasso Sea?
4. What is the major reason behind the marriages in Wide Sargasso Sea and why do they
collapse?
5. Draw a character sketch of the main character Antoinette especially with respect to her
movement towards “dark passage.”
7.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. What are the chief features of major characters in Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys?
2. Discuss the plot construction in Wide Sargasso Sea? Explain its various stages.
3. Attempt a critical appreciation of the novel Wide Sargasso Sea.

7.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Rhys, Jean. Wide Sargasso Sea. Penguin Classics: Penguin Student Editions, 2001.
2. Ramchand, Kenneth. The West Indian Novel and Its Background. London: Faber and
Faber,1970.
3. Nayar, P.K. Postcolonial Studies: An Anthology. New Jersey. John Wiley & Sons, 2015.
4. Frickey, P. M. Critical Perspectives on Jean Rhys. Three Continents Press, (1990).
5. Şenel, N. “A postcolonial reading of Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys.” Journal of Language
andLiterature Education, 11, 38-45. 2014.

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 Unit - 8: Wide Sargasso Sea: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical
Appreciation

Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Wide Sargasso Sea: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical Appreciation
8.2.1 Themes
8.2.1.1 Slavery
8.2.1.2 End of Imperialism
8.2.1.3 Identity Crisis
8.2.1.4 Woman Enslavement and Madness
8.2.2 Narrative Technique
8.2.2.1 First Person Narration
8.2.2.2 Non-Linear Autobiography
8.2.2.3 Diversity in Narration
8.2.2.4 Diverse Tone of Narration
8.2.2.5 Similarities among Narrators
8.2.2.6 Shift between Past and Present
8.2.2.7 Dreams as Narrative Technique
8.2.3 Critical Appreciation
8.2.3.1 Tension and Tussle
8.2.3.2 Economic Instability Affects Relationships
8.2.3.3 Madness and Violence
8.2.3.4 Unhealthy Relationship
8.2.3.5 Symbolic Significance of Coco
8.2.3.6 Recurrent Motifs
8.2.4 Let Us Sum Up
8.3 Learning Outcomes
8.4 Glossary
8.5 Sample Questions
8.6 Suggested Learning Resources

8.0 Introduction

The novel Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys is depicted and narrated in two different
cultures. Hence, there are two ideologies that are presented in the novel, seemingly opposite to

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each other. It is noticed that the nature, culture, ideology and background of both the narrators
are opposite. Throughout the novel, it is found that there is persistence and ever growing tension
prevailing among different segments of society. In the novel, not only the economic downfall of
white slave owners takes place, but also there are relationships that collapse. In the novel it is
seen that there is no smooth and healthy relationship among characters, either in their personal or
social life.
Apart from the issue of slavery of blacks by whites, the women in the Caribbean region
were also enslaved by their men. Women were slaves to their white masters and were exploited
to fulfill their lust. This double enslavement of the women made them lose their mental balance
and become insane. This is what is seen in the case of Antoinette and her mother Annette in the
Wide Sargasso Sea. This drives them towards anger, frustration and violence, which is seen in
the case of Antoinette, who bites the arm of her husband and stabs her step brother. Her dream of
setting the house on fire is the culmination of that frustration and violent nature.
Check your progress
1. Who wrote the Wild Sargasso Sea?
_____________________________
2. In which region is the novel set?
_____________________________

8.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 make you familiar with the concept of multiple narrators in the novel
 bring to light the conflict and clashes that existed between two opposite cultures and
ideologies
 explore the diverse and recurrent themes
 enable you to understand the link between madness and slavery.
 help you appreciate the novel

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8.2 Wide Sargasso Sea: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical
Appreciation

8.2.1 Themes:
8.2.1.1 Slavery:
The concept of slavery is one of the key ideas and the most recurrent theme in the novel.
Slaves are presented as sugar plantation workers with well to do and resourceful slave owners.
Such practices were very frequent in the West Indian region in the first half of the 19th century.
Later on, these practices were given up but no compensation as was promised was given to black
slaves who were the victims of that slavery. This resulted in anger and hostile attitude of black
slaves towards their owners. This conflict between a black slave and his white master is not only
the significant theme of enslavement in the novel but in all the major works of Jeans Rhys.
Antoinette and Annette's enslavement and depending on their husband is also yet another type of
enslavement presented in the novel. It is represented by the fact that women are enslaved to their
husbands. The husbands could do whatever they liked and no one asked them about their cruel
behavior. That is what is seen in the case of these two women who were put to an end by their
respective husbands.
8.2.1.2 End of Imperialism:
Another key idea and theme of the novel is the end of the British Empire in the Caribbean
region. It is shown on the verge of collapse. British people tried to maintain it one way or the
other, but it was all in vain. Eventually, it led to the end of slavery in the region. Not only do
whites lose their power and status, but they become victims of the same state in which once
Black Slaves were in. In the novel, it is seen that Rochester, being the representative of the white
and British regime, tries his best to manage and control his wife, who is representative of the
Caribbean region, but he is unable to manage and control her. Similarly, even after losing power,
the British tried to keep an economic and social check on the Caribbean, whom they deemed as
their legitimate slaves, but now the situation has changed to such a degree that it is not possible.
8.2.1.3 Identity Crisis:
There is identity crisis at different levels as depicted in the novel. One such crisis is
between whites who were born and grew up in England, and blacks, who were native inhabitants
of the Caribbean region who grew up as slaves to whites. This is the cultural and racial conflict
in terms of identity as both hold different ideological patterns. Social fabric is completely

123
changed by the former slaves who now pursue their social, cultural and economic identity in
their own homes. Women of black race who were also slaves were raped by whites. The
illegitimate children thus born drifted to two backgrounds and remained under constant conflict
in terms of their identity. As a result of this, the worst part is the antagonistic discourse among
slaves which later takes the form of violence as is seen in case of burning the house of Cosway
by black slaves.
8.2.1.4 Women Enslavement and Madness:
Women in the Caribbean region were also enslaved by their men. They had to seek social
and economic security from their men who treated them badly. It is also noticed that such
enslavement of the women leads them to become mad and insane. So, there is a close link that is
found between madness and enslavement. Anger, frustration and violence on the part of women
are also seen as a result of the enslavement they go through at the hands of men. In Wide
Sargasso Sea it is seen that after the death of her husband, Annette is seeking to marry to secure
herself, but it resulted in her demise. In the same way, her daughter Antoinette marries Rochester
with the same objective and with the same outcome. Men are shown marrying to attain more
power and money instead of for love and matrimonial bliss.
Check your progress
1. Which colonial power asserted control over the Carribean region?
____________________________________________________
2. Who is Antoinette married to?
________________________
8.2.2 Narrative Technique:
8.2.2.1 First Person Narration:
The first thing that is worth mentioning about the narrative technique in Wide Sargasso
Sea is the use of the first person narrator. The plot is been narrated through 1st person. However,
it is important to note that the narration is not limited to any one narrator, rather it is narrated by
several narrators and speakers. The main narration of the novel is done by Antoinette and
Rochester. The narration shifts through past and present time and tense. Time and tense are used
to suit the narrator as well as the events and place where different sections of the novel are set.
8.2.2.2 Non-Linear Autobiography:
Though the novel is influenced by Jane Eyre, unlike it, Jean Rhys, in Wide Sargasso Sea
does not allow a linear autobiographical pattern of narration. Rather the plot is narrated by two

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narrators or speakers. The first and the third part of the novel are narrated by Antoinette who is
also the heroine and main character of the novel. The second part of the novel is narrated by
Rochester, who is the husband of Antoinette in the novel. It served two purposes at the same time.
One, it makes the plot or narration well versed and second, allow the characters to project their
inner self in more elaborate manner. That is why it is often noticed in the narration that the same
event has been narrated by both the narrators, but their perspective is different, which adds
richness to the narration of the events..
8.2.2.3 Diversity in Narration:
Through multiple narrative techniques, it has been made easier to unearth the cultures and
ideologies from the mouth of different narrators. It allows richness, diversity and authenticity of
inner self from each culture more widely. In addition, through two narrators, the novelist Jean
Rhys is able to present different perspectives and points of view in the novel more easily and in a
natural way. Both the narrators have given diverse and multifarious points of view as their nature
and background is different. Their exposure and experiences are also different, which have great
influence on the narrative technique.
8.2.2.4 Diverse Tone of Narration:
It is noticed that the narration of the first and third part which is done by Antoinette, is
simple, easy and straightforward, which is also indicative of her nature and self. But the narration
in the second part, which is done by Rochester, is more refined, deliberate and impartial as
compared to Antoinette, whose narration is somewhat personal, childish and hence partial. It is
imperative to note that not merely the tone and approach of both the narrators are different, but
they are the representative of opposite and contrasting realities. It is seen that the protagonist
Antoinette tries her best efforts to cancel her past events and life and start afresh, while
Rochester is in search of pursuing the more in-depth understanding of the place where he is in
the novel. Hence, it can be concluded that culture is set against culture.
8.2.2.5 Similarities among Narrators:
Though the nature, point of view and art of narration is different among both the narrators,
there are few similarities among them which have deep influence in reshaping their narrative
technique as well as point of view. Their role, status and position in their respective set up is
identical. Both are deemed as foreigners or outsiders in their societies. There is a compelling
agent that has forced Antoinette twice to go to Jamaica as well as England. She has no choice
and can not control what is going on in her life and even her ultimate end towards “dark

125
passage.” Both these narrators have been rejected by their respective parents and their brothers
have been given preference over them. However, there is a contrast as Antoinette is rejected by
her mother Annette while Rochester faces the same fate at the hands of his father. The effects of
these social and personal setbacks have deep impacts on shaping of their characters and, hence,
on their point of view on life.
Check your progress
1. Name two characters who are also narrators.
___________________________________
2. What novel inspired the Wide Sargasso Sea?
___________________________________
8.2.2.6 Shift between Past and Present:
The events of narration in Wide Sargasso Sea shift between past and present. This shift of
time and tense is associated with the state of madness both the narrators go through. It was their
past which had led them to such a state and even after every possible effort they are unable to
shun their past. So, the present state in novel as well as its narration shifts and moves in the past
tense. Even the ultimate downfall of Antoinette is due to the event that took place in the past, but
that affected her present life as well. So, past events in the narration has reshaped and readjusted
to the present in the novel. Jean Rhys’ attempt to introduce narrative technique through dual
narrative has diversified and enriched the plot and narration as diverse prospective and layers of
point of views are allowed and accessed through this narrative technique. In addition, the
structure also allows the madness to be woven naturally in the events.
8.2.2.7 Dreams as Narrative Technique:
The role of dreams is significant in Wide Sargasso Sea. The protagonist, Antoinette has
numerous dreams in the course of events and each of her dreams has a relevance and significance
to the development of her character as well as to the plot in the novel. The first dream that she
has regarding befriending her friend Tie indicates and relates her innocence before the readers. It
is also indicative of the danger tha lies ahead in life. Fears and apprehensions are also associated
with that dream. Second, the dream that she has is indicative of her marriage with Rochester and
her removal from Caribbean origins which she feels no more associated with mainly because of
the terrible things that happen to her in Jamaica. The third dream that she has during her lock up
in the attic wherein she set her house on fire is indicative of the fact that she has chosen her
course of action. Her running towards the “dark passage” is perhaps the culminating point of the

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dream. Though, readers are unaware of the events take place after it, there is evidence of what
might happen next.
8.2.3 Critical Appreciation:
8.2.3.1 Tension and Tussle:
Tension is accompanied by the tussle that goes on between white slaveholders and their
black slaves side by side. It is increasing with every passing day. Economic fallout has taken
place in the lives of the black slaves through an act that is known as Emancipation Act of 1833.
After this downfall, there is a change in fortune in the lives of black slaves. They are free and no
more slaves, but there is a reversal in fortune among white slave owners as they have become
victims. The economic crisis makes life tough for white slave owners that the first husband of
Annette drinks himself to death as he could no longer bear the hardships of life. Mr. Mason who
was a rich man and after his marriage with Annette faces similar situation as slaves even burn
their house into ashes and they have to flee from their house.
8.2.3.2 Economic Instability Affects Relationships:
Most of the characters in the novel marry merely for attaining social as well as economic
security rather than having any liking or sincere feeling for their partner. The marriage of Annette
with Mr. Mason and Antoinette marriage with Rochester are typical examples of this sort of
marriage arrangement but the result is failures and collapses of marriage. As far as the economic
demise and deterioration is worsening in their life, their relational situation also gets worsen.
Doubts, fears, distrusts and discomfort run through the novel as well as in the marriage lives of
the above mentioned characters as well. Enslavement which was a key issue before the Act of
1833, takes place in the form of enslavement of wives through Mr. Mason who enslaves Annette
and Antoinette is enslaved by their husbands by declaring them mad. Their worsen situation and
demise in the lock up take place off stage so readers are not sure about the actual state in which
their final demise takes place.
8.2.3.3 Madness and Violence:
These two aspects of human activity are found in abundance in Wide Sargasso Sea.
Events of violence are closely associated with the state of madness and insane. Antoinette not
only bite the arm of her husband due to anger, frustration and madness that she goes through
especially after the revealing letter that is received to her husband Rochester. The episode of
burning the house of Annette into ashes by the slaves is an example of reaction that is based on
race and slavery. Similarly, the readers notice at the end of the novel that Antoinette holds a

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candle in her hand with the intent to burn the house into ashes as she has seen in her dream. It is
a reaction to her madness that she goes through after being locked up in an attic by her husband.
So, madness results in violence and anger is a recurrent idea in the novel Wide Sargasso Sea.
8.2.3.4 Unhealthy Relationship:
Slaves and slave owners are shown at daggers drawn throughout the novel which is a
typical example of unhealthy social relations among people. People are shown treated on the
basis of class, race, and status and even based on gender which has disturbed the fabric of social
relation among people. Economic pursuits are also imperative behind the unhealthy relations
among characters in Wide Sargasso Sea. People marry for economic purpose, such as in the case
of Annette with Mr. Mason and the result is frustration and collapse of marriage. She does so to
bring stability in her life but it resulted in ending her life. Similarly, her daughter Antoinette
marries Rochester with similar situation and consequences. So, it is concluded that for marriage
and human relations money or economic pursuits are not vital. However, servants are being
projected as someone who bring console and solace in the lives of their masters. Antoinette finds
comfort with her friend Tie in her childhood and she is served by Grace Poole during her lock up
time in attic when she was bitterly treated by her mother and husband respectively.
8.2.3.5 Symbolic Significance of Coco:
Coco is the name of Antoinette’s bird which has a symbolic relevance and significance in
the novel Wide Sargasso Sea. Her step father Mr. Mason cuts off its wings and prevents it from
its flight, similar fate is faced by Antoinette throughout her life especially after her marriage with
Rochester who cuts her flights and imagination. It reaches at its climax when she is locked up in
an attic on the part of Rochester by declaring her mad, insane and disloyal. Coco wants to have
flight in the horizons while Antoinette wants to bloom in her life, but both are unable to do so.
Coco wings are cut, Antoinette faces a bitter and severe childhood and tries to come out of it. But
her marriage with Rochester spoils all her dreams especially after the letter that her husband
received from Daniel Cosway. It is culminated in their lock up drive towards the “dark passage.”
8.2.3.6 Recurrent Motifs:
Demise, decline, death, madness, anger and frustration are the most recurrent motifs
found in the novel Wide Sargasso Sea. Antoinette and Annette go mad and insane during the
events of the novel after passing through numerous traumas in their social, personal as well as
emotional lives. Madness either on the part of Antoinette, Annette or on the part of slaves results
in anger and violent acts in the end with far reaching consequences. So the nexus of madness,

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anger and violence are interconnected in Wide Sargasso Sea. Violence is seen through the acts of
black slaves burning the house of Annette into fire, Antoinette is bitterly treated and neglected by
her mother, and Antoinette stabs her step brother and bite the arms of her husband Rochester.
Antoinette even goes on to burn her house down at the end of the novel. All these events of
violence are the results of frustration, the characters go through after being mad and insane.
Check your progress
1. Who is the protagonist?
____________________________
2. Does madness play an important role?
______________________________
8.2.4 Let Us Sum Up:
Wide Sargasso Sea is a master class novel written by Jean Rhys. It is written in the 1st
person narrative form. However, there is a diversity of narrators. The first and third part is
narrated by Antoinette while the second part is narrated by Rochester. The tone of both the
narrators is different. Antoinette’s tone is simple, easy and childish while that of Rochester is
mature, liberal and impartial. The narration of the events is depicted both in the present as well as
the past. Dreams have been utilized by the novelist as a narrative technique. A critical study of
the novel shows a conflict and tension among different segments of society i.e. white and black
men and women. The conflict between cultures and ideologies is also there in the novel. There is
a link between economic and relationship demise. Economy plays a key role in the marriages
taken place in the novel. The collapse and unhealthy relations lead to madness and violence.
Coco which is Antoinette’s bird is a symbolic representation of Antoinette as the wings of both
are cut and prevent them from flight. Demise, conflict, madness, frustration and death have been
utilized by the novelist as recurrent motifs in the novel. On thematic level, the theme of slavery
has been extensively designed in Wide Sargasso Sea. The blacks and women are projected as
slaves. Side by side, the decline of the British imperial regime is shown in Wide Sargasso Sea.
There is an identity crisis that has several layers i.e. racial, social, and economic and gender.
Women are facing double enslavement.

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8.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to have insight into the theme, plot
construction and narrative technique, apart from being able to attempt a critical appreciation of
the novel. Specifically, you should be familiar with the concept of multiple narrators in Wide
Sargasso Sea understand the conflict and clash between two opposite cultures and ideologies in
the novel, and the link between madness and slavery.

8.4 Glossary

Persistence: Perseverance
Segment: Section, part
Antagonistic: Hostile
Discourse: Conversation, discussion
Multifarious: Diverse
Deliberate: Conscious
Shun: Avoid
Attic: Upper floor

8.5 Sample Questions

8.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. The narrative technique adopted in the novel Wide Sargasso Sea is _________.
(a) Third person narrator
(b) Second person narrator
(c) 1st person narrator
(d) None of these
2. The narration of the first and third part in Wide Sargasso Sea which is done by Antoinette is
____________.
(a) Simple narration
(b) Easy narration
(c) Childish narration

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 (d) All of these
3. The main narration of the novel Wide Sargasso Sea is done through __________.
(a) Annette
(b) Mr. Mason
(c) Antoinette
(d) Antoinette and Rochester
4. The narration in the second part of the novel Wide Sargasso Sea which is done by Rochester
is more ____________.
(a) Refined
(b) Deliberate
(c) Impartial
(d) All of these
5. How many dreams does Antoinette have in the course of events in the Wide Sargasso Sea?
(a) One dream
(b) Two dreams
(c) Three dreams
(d) Multiple dreams
6. The economic downfall took place in the lives of black slaves beacause of _________.
(a) Emancipation Act
(b) Liberation act
(c) Freedom act
(d) All of these acts
7. The events of violence in the Wide Sargasso Sea are closely associated with the state of
___________.
(a) Madness
(b) Violence
(c) Frustration
(d) Madness and insane.
8. Demise, decline, death, madness, anger and frustration in the Wide Sargasso Sea are the
examples of the most recurrent ___________.
(a) Motifs

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 (b) Symbolism
(c) Diversity
(d) All of these
9. Who cuts off its wings and prevents Coco, Antoinette’s bird from its flight?
(a) Rochester
(b) Cosway
(c) Mr. Mason
(d) Annette
10. What is the key behind the unhealthy relations among characters in Wide Sargasso Sea?
(a) Economic pursuits
(b) Social compulsions
(c) Racial discrimination
(d) None of these
8.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. How is the theme of women enslavement and madness interconnected in the novel Wide
Sargasso Sea?
2. Why and how did the British imperial regime decline in the Caribbean region as depicted in
the novel Wide Sargasso Sea?
3. What is the symbolic significance of Antoinette’s bird Coco in the novel Wide Sargasso Sea?
4. How is slavery and identity crisis interlinked by Jean Rhys in her novel Wide Sargasso Sea?
5. How do madness and unhealthy relationships lead to violence as is projected in the novel
Wide Sargasso Sea?
8.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. Discuss in detail the narrative technique employed by Jean Rhys in Wide Sargasso Sea?
2. How are demise, decline, death, madness, anger and frustration projected as recurrent
motifs in the novel Wide Sargasso Sea?
3. How will you critically evaluate Jean Rhys’ novel Wide Sargasso Sea after going through
the Unit?

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8.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Frickey, P. M. Critical Perspectives on Jean Rhys. Three Continents Press, (1990).

2. Nayar, P.K. Postcolonial Studies: An Anthology. New Jersey. John Wiley & Sons, 2015.
3. Ramchand, Kenneth. The West Indian Novel and Its Background. London: Faber and
Faber,1970.
4. Rhys, Jean. Wide Sargasso Sea. Penguin Classics: Penguin Student Editions, 2001.
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GWJ0fUQoe7s
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WyIJvr5Us48

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 Unit - 9: Hamlet: Background, Plot, Characters

Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Hamlet: Background, Plot, Characters
9.2.1 Shakespearean Drama
9.2.2 Features of Shakespeare’s Plays
9.2.3 Hamlet: Background
9.2.4 Hamlet: Plot
9.2.5 Hamlet: Characters
9.3 Learning Outcomes
9.4 Glossary
9.5 Sample Questions
9.6 Suggested Learning Resources

9.0 Introduction

Drama is a literary genre meant to be performed. As Hudson writes, "It is designed for
representation by actors who impersonate the characters of its story, and among whom the
narrative and the dialogue are distributed." The epic and the novel narrate and report the action
and events, whereas drama imitates the action. Therefore, in the classical era, drama was called a
'stage play.' In this Unit, you will study the play Hamlet by William Shakespeare. Shakespeare
was born on April 23rd, 1564, in Stratford on Avon to John Shakespeare and Mary Aden. He was
baptized on April 26th. However, there are various opinions about the date of his birth.
Shakespeare was the eldest surviving son of his parents. Shakespeare's father became a respected
man of Stratford through hard work. However, in about 1578, John Shakespeare's fortune started
declining; thus, he sold some of his property. At the age of seven, Shakespeare was sent to
Stratford Grammar School to get a good education. There, he studied Latin, Greek, and Classical
Studies along with literature. At the age of eighteen, he married Anne Hathaway, who was older
than him. She came from a land-owning family. You have already studied Shakespeare’s life and
works.

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9.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 enable you to read and understand the play Hamlet by William Shakespeare
 appreciate drama
 study the background, plot and characters

9.2 Hamlet: Background, Plot, Characters

In an earlier course, you studied Shakespeare’s play, King Lear. Like King Lear, Hamlet
is also a tragedy. In the following subsections, you will read more about this play. In the next
Unit, you will discuss the themes and techniques employed in the play.
9.2.1 Shakespearean Drama:
You have already studied Shakespeare and his contribution to English drama in an earlier
semester. You have also studied Shakespearean drama. In this Unit, you will read specifically
about his play, Hamlet, one of the four great tragedies by Shakespeare. Shakespeare started his
career as an actor-dramatist. Some of his major plays, Henry VI, Richard III, etc., were written
by the year 1592. In 1594, he joined Lord Chamberlain's Company and remained with it for
around sixteen years. Under the patronage of Queen Elizabeth, Richard Burbage and Cuthbert
built London's first theatre in 1576, where Shakespeare was also a shareholder. As the theatre
prospered, Shakespeare's career as the leading dramatist also progressed by leaps and bounds. He
presented a huge number of plays before Queen Elizabeth. In 1599, Shakespeare formed an
organization to fund and form a new theatre known as the Globe Theatre. This was the time
when drama became the most popular form of entertainment. Shakespeare was not only a
playwright but also an actor, though he could not become famous as an actor. He had appeared in
Johnson's Everyman in His Humour and also in the Sejanus, His Fall. He had acted in his own
plays as well; for example, the role of Adam in As You Like It and the role of Ghost in Hamlet
were performed by Shakespeare himself initially.
Shakespeare went back to his native town in 1611. But his connections with theatre and
London remained active. In 1613, he was present at the anniversary of the King's accession and
also cooperated with Richard Burbage in designing the emblem of the Earl of Rutland's shield.
How Shakespeare disconnected himself from the theatre is exactly not known, but, supposedly,

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his connection with theatre was limited by the burning down of the Globe Theatre in 1613 during
the performance of Henry VIII. Shakespeare was the most famous playwright of his era, whose
style of writing plays was unique as well as impressive.
9.2.2 Features of Shakespeare's Plays:
There are several remarkable qualities of Shakespearean dramas, but only some of the
specific features are discussed here. Shakespeare's plays were either inspired or based on some
older plays, chronicles, or tales; for example, the play King Lear was based on the mythological
Leir of Britain. He had used Holinshed's Chronicles as a base for his plays like, King Lear,
Macbeth, Cymbeline, etc. Therefore, it could be said that he had borrowed the plots of some of
the plays from others. But, in his mature plays, we notice that his inclination shifted from plots to
character development, which itself was the highest achievement of dramatic art. However, his
original plays were much stronger than his earlier plays, where he had woven the plot into the
plot. The technique of subplot made his play strong and unique. An example of his deftness is A
Midsummer Night's Dream, where he presented years of history in just five acts. History
becomes fascinating after being mixed with Shakespeare's imagination.
Shakespeare had a mastery over creating characters. His characters, from King to clown,
have been deftly created and are unrivalled. His characters are complete, rounded, capable and
real. They are not puppets in the hands of dramatists. In his earlier plays, Shakespeare used blank
verse. He had a preference for stopped and rhymed couplets, which sometimes took the form of a
stanza, similar to the pre-Shakespearean comedies.
9.2.3 Hamlet: Background
An unnerving phantom is seen patrolling the battlements of Elsinore Castle in Denmark
on a gloomy winter's evening. The Ghost is first noticed by two sentinels and afterward by the
young Prince Hamlet and his fellow Horatio. The apparition demands that Hamlet take revenge
on the assassin, Claudius, who has since taken up the throne and married Hamlet's mother,
Queen Gertrude.
As Prince Hamlet is contemplative and analytical by nature, he delays taking revenge for
his father's death, going into a profoundly depressing and even seemingly insane state of mind.
Concerned by the prince's unpredictable actions, Claudius and Gertrude look for the reason.
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, two of Hamlet's cronies, were hired to spy on him.
Polonius, the haughty Lord Chamberlain, suspects that Hamlet could be insane due to his
love for Ophelia. Therefore, he asks Claudius to arrange to keep an eye on Hamlet. Though

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Hamlet's behaviour is that of a mad man, he does not seem to be in love with Ophelia because
once he tells her to go into a nunnery and claims that he wishes to declare marriage as a criminal
act.
Hamlet takes advantage of the chance to investigate his uncle's guilt after a troupe of
touring performers visits Elsinore. So, should Claudius be found guilty, he will undoubtedly
respond by asking the performers to recreate a scene resembling the one in which Hamlet's father
might have been killed. When the murderous time finally arrives in the theatre, Claudius bolts
from the room. Both Hamlet and Horatio concur that this establishes his guilt. Claudius is found
praying as Hamlet reaches to kill him. Hamlet thinks that murdering Claudius while he is praying
would not be a suitable form of retaliation since he thinks it would send Claudius's soul to
heaven. Now frightened of Hamlet's madness and concerned about his own security, Claudius
gives the order to send Hamlet to England straight away.
After her father's death, Ophelia drowns in the river due to extreme sadness. Laertes, the
son of Polonius, who was in France at the time of Ophelia's death, furiously returns to Denmark.
He is convinced by Claudius that Hamlet is accountable for the deaths of his sister and father.
Meanwhile, Hamlet's ship is attacked by pirates while going to England. Thus, he sent letters to
Horatio and the King informing him that he had returned to Denmark. Claudius then plans to
exploit Laertes' anger to get Hamlet murdered. Claudius arranges a duel for Laertes and Hamlet
and contaminates Laertes' sword so that Hamlet will die if he draws blood. The King also
poisons a glass as a backup plan, which he will deliver to Hamlet.
Hamlet returns to the Elsinore neighbourhood right before Ophelia's burial. He attacks
Laertes, overawed due to grief; he claims that he has always been in love with Ophelia. He says
to Horatio that he feels everyone should be ready for death because it may come at any time. On
Claudius's orders, an idiotic courtier named Osric shows up to set up the fencing duel between
Laertes and Hamlet. The swordplay starts, and the first hit goes to Hamlet, who turns down the
King's offered tumbler of alcohol. Rather, Gertrude drinks from it, and the poison kills her
instantly. Even though Hamlet is wounded by Laertes, the poison does not instantly kill him.
Laertes is first harmed by the blade of his own sword.
The horrific sight of the entire royal family dead and splayed on the floor astounds
Fortinbras. He makes steps to seize control of the realm. In response to Hamlet's final request,
Horatio recounts the sad tale of Hamlet. Fortinbras gives the command to dispose of Hamlet in a
fashion appropriate for a slain soldier.

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9.2.4 Hamlet: Plot
The term plot refers to the sequence of the events that take place in any play. These
events disclose the main story-line of any literary writing, be it drama, novel, or short story. All
these events are interconnected. Along with revealing the story-line, the plot also talks about the
cause and effect of action in literary writing. Freytag's pyramid is very convenient for
understanding the structure of a plot. It talks about all the essential elements of a plot.
According to the pyramid given by Freytag, the elements of a plot can be discussed as
follows:
1. Exposition- It is the first element or part of the plot. In the beginning, the audience is
provided with the background information of the story, the setting of the play/novel/story
(the setting includes information about the time and place of the events), information
about the characters and also any other relevant detail for example, any historical detail
or any specific idea or information, etc. Basically, exposition ensues in the first act itself.
In the play Hamlet, the appearance of the Ghost and their revelation about his murder sets
the main plot, and this revelation is a part of the exposition.
2. Rising Action- The next part of the plot is 'Rising Action', which can be called the
inciting incident or 'creation of a complication' in the story. This is shown through an
incident in the drama or any other literary work that presents a problem for the characters.
This problem or conflict decides the action and events in the writing. Rising action is
considered to be the most important part of the plot because it affects the climax and the
result of the story. If a play has five acts, rising action takes place either in Act Two or
Act Three.
3. Climax- The third essential of a plot is 'Climax'. It is the central turning point that occurs
after the rising action. The climax happens when the conflict and the tension in a play
reach their peak, and after that, the story moves toward the end. After the climax, no
further twists or actions can be added. Though the climax is the highest point of tension
in the play, it is not necessarily a negative event. Certainly, in a tragedy, the climax
would lead to a sad ending, but in a comedy, the climax indicates a happy ending. It
usually takes place by the end of the third act in a five-act play.
4. Falling Action- While the rising action directs the play towards the climax, the falling
action paves the way for the ending. A series of events following the climax and leading

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 towards a resolution and ending of the play is called falling action. If we have a five-act
play, it usually happens in the fourth act.
5. Denouement- This is the last part of the play, which connects all the loose ends and
reveals the outcome of the story. The denouement is a French word that means
'conclusion' or 'outcome.' Therefore, in the denouement, the writer solves all the
mysteries and answers all the questions about the characters and their destiny. It is the
point in the story where, sometimes, the future of the characters is also revealed after the
resolution. Usually, in a five-act play, denouement happens in the last act.
In Shakespeare's Hamlet, there is one main plot and two subplots. The main plot presents
Hamlet's resolution and his revenge for his father's murder. This plot is called the 'Revenge Plot'.
The other subplots in the play involve Hamlet's romance with Ophelia and the impending war
with Norway.
Hamlet is one of William Shakespeare's most successful and renowned plays. It is a sad
story of a young prince whose father had been killed, and the prince struggles hard to take
revenge upon his father's murderer. This play is an example of moral downgrading, retribution,
and existential reflection. It is a complicated narrative with so many characters highlighting
different concepts of humanity.
The play opens with a ghost roaming around the Danish Palace. The Ghost claims to be
the late King Hamlet, who had died just some time ago. The apparition discloses that his brother
Claudius, who has now inherited the throne and wed Queen Gertrude, had killed him. The
narrative progresses with the revelation of King Hamlet's murder. Prince Hamlet's encounter with
the Ghost of his father exposes the truth about his father's murder and the treachery of his mother
and uncle. The Ghost asks Hamlet to exert revenge upon the culprits. Hamlet vows to kill the
murderer of his father.
As the play moves forward, Hamlet faces internal as well as external conflict and
struggles hard to fulfil his father's wish. One of the major study points in this drama is Hamlet's
inner conflict, which gets revealed in front of the audience through his soliloquies. His tormented
inner self is clearly visible in his soliloquies. He wants to take revenge upon his uncle, but for
various reasons, he has to delay it. The very first time when he gets a chance to kill Claudius, he
holds it off because Claudius is praying at that time. Hamlet's holding off on taking revenge
increases the strain and pressure in the play, which is felt by the audience, too. The effect of this

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tension is felt in the Danish court as well; therefore, King Claudius tries to hide his guilt under
the façade of normalcy.
To reveal the truth, Hamlet acts like an insane person so as to get some time to inspect his
uncle's treason. This is when the themes of deception and treachery get mixed into an atmosphere
full of distrust and suspicion. Hamlet's conversation with other characters further discloses the
plot of the play.
Hamlet's relationship with other characters in this play is a complex one. This complexity
is the highest between him and his mother, Gertrude. After the murder of her husband, she
married Claudius, which resulted in creating a rift between the son and the mother. Hamlet's
relationship with other characters is also vague and ambiguous; one such example is his
relationship with Ophelia, the daughter of Polonius. The ambiguity between them is visible in
addition to the discussion of love, treachery, and the effects of lying.
This play by Shakespeare also focuses on highlighting the deterioration of the state of
Denmark due to corruption. This theme of corruption is represented by the kingdom's
deteriorating status under the rule of Claudius. The current King's immoral act has resulted in the
moral decline of the court. The usurpation of his brother's wife and kingdom is evidence of the
declining and dysfunctional social system.
Another aspect of the narrative depends upon the presentation of the supernatural, which
is shown through the arrival of the Ghost on the stage. The introduction of the Ghost sets the
mood for the impending tragic end of the play. The effect of supernatural elements quite
resembles the gothic style of story-telling, where the actions of the protagonist are directed by
the existence and disclosures of ghosts, spirits, etc. Similarly, in this play, Hamlet's actions are
affected by the revelations made by his father's Ghost.
As the play progresses, Hamlet's efforts to take revenge become stronger and strengthen
the 'plot of revenge.' Next is the subplot of Hamlet and Ophelia's romance. Due to the stress and
dilemma about his father's murder, Hamlet has been going through stress and pressure, which has
affected his behaviour towards others, including Ophelia. His unpredictable behaviour takes
away Polonius' life. These things were quite unbearable for Ophelia, and she suffered a lot. At an
unfortunate hour, she drowns and dies. Here, the subplot of Hamlet and Ophelia's romance is
overshadowed by the main plot of revenge. Laertes, the brother of Ophelia, comes to know about
his family's death and seeks revenge.

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 In Hamlet, the struggle between fate and free will is shown through Hamlet's internal
conflict, his fight with his thoughts, and the impact of circumstances on him. Thus, the clash of
internal as well as external reasons is reflected in the play. Though fate is stronger, the actions
and decisions of humans have the upper hand in changing the course of action of the characters.
Another subplot in the play is about the impending war in Norway. The narrative is
counterbalanced by this plot. The Prince of Norway, Fortinbras, has been attempting to capture
the Danish territory, which his father lost. Here, Shakespeare has highlighted political ambitions
and retaliation. This subplot enhances the overall effect and impression of the drama by adding
some complimentary vantage points like honour, authority, and the consequences of the impetus
behavior.
Towards the culmination of the play, Hamlet's internal conflict becomes more severe. The
curtain closes with a distressing feeling for the audience after witnessing a number of fatalities
on the stage. The play bears many deaths, beginning with the killing of Polonius, the death of
Ophelia, Claudius, Gertrude, Laertes, and Hamlet himself. As the elements of tragedy indicate
that the tragic flaw of the hero leads to a tragic end. Hamlet, a Shakespearean tragedy, follows
the ideals and presents the tragic end of the hero.
Check your progress
1. Define the terms given below:
(a) Exposition
(b) Denouement
2. Discuss the point of climax in the play Hamlet.
_________________________________________
9.2.5 Hamlet: Characters
A person who plays a role in a play is called a character. Every character has some
personal traits depending upon the role that he/she is playing on the stage. Usually, we divide
characters into two broad categories: Flat characters and Round characters. A flat character is one
who does not affect the course of events in a drama and validates no significant depth to the
action of the drama. A flat character is a two-dimensional character. A rounded character, also
known as a three-dimensional character, exhibits more intricate, composite, and ornate features
of his/her personality. They affect the dramatic action as well as get affected by the events in the
drama. Every play has various characters. Here are some of the important characters from the
play Hamlet:

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 Hamlet
He is the protagonist of the play. Hamlet is the son of the late King of Denmark. He is a
serious, considerate, and beloved young prince of the kingdom. Hamlet is a kind-hearted man
who cares for his people and kingdom. Even in the beginning, he cares for Claudius. It is only
after knowing about the brutal murder of his father at the hands of treacherous Claudius that
Hamlet becomes angry. He is a devoted son who dedicates his life to avenging his father's death.
When the ghost of the late king reveals to Hamlet that he was killed by Claudius, Hamlet
becomes depressed. The delay in taking revenge increases his stress and anxiety. This is the
reason behind Hamlet's suicidal thinking and increasing insanity. He becomes obsessed with
revenge, and when he is unable to fulfil his promise of avenging his father, he feels dejected and
behaves like a mad person.
Though his despair and misery have affected his personality a lot, Hamlet remains an
intelligent young man throughout the play. It is his smartness that he fakes his madness so as to
befool Gertrude and Claudius. Although Hamlet has posed a scene of madness to expose the guilt
of Claudius there are occasions when this madness seems very much real. His mental health,
certainly, is in question at times due to his strange behaviour.
All the sadness, desolation, dejection, and tension have converted Hamlet into a
frustrated man who is angry all the time and shouts at people. But this anger is due to the
erroneous acts of other people. He despises his uncle for his wrongdoings; he is unhappy with his
mother because of her disloyalty, and he is frustrated due to his fake friends. His unhappiness
with everything resulted in alienating Ophelia, whom he had once courted. Throughout the play,
he is thoughtful and gloomy. However, Hamlet's anger may well be justified, but it cannot be
denied that this anger resulted in so many deaths in the play.
Claudius
He is the antagonist of the play. Claudius kills his own brother, marries his brother's wife,
and becomes the King of Denmark. He is an unfaithful, treacherous, and selfish man who scolds
Hamlet for grieving his father's death. He has forbidden Hamlet from going back to his
university studies in Wittenberg. Claudius is a conspirator who poisoned his elder brother and
then married his sister-in-law so that she would never be able to go against him. Throughout the
play, he keeps on planning and conniving against Hamlet. When he realizes that Hamlet could be
a threat to his crown, he does not hesitate to scheme to kill Hamlet. However, the outcome of his
bad deeds is his own death at the end of the play. The only good side of his character, shown in

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the play, is his sense of guilt after watching the troupe perform and his desire to arrange a proper
burial for Ophelia. His love and concern for Gertrude can also be called genuine.
Gertrude
She is the queen of Denmark, the wife of the late King, and the mother of Hamlet. After
the death of her husband, she marries Claudius, her former brother-in-law. She is shown as an
affectionate mother, but Hamlet suspects her because of her disloyalty towards her first husband.
Hamlet suspects her of being a part of the conspiracy against his father. She is presented as a
weak woman who depends on Claudius and agrees to whatever he says. She can't face and win
arguments. Hamlet dislikes her for her closeness to Claudius, but her love for him remains strong
and constant. By the end of the play, she drinks the poisoned drink, which was brought for
Hamlet and dies. Her motherly affection is real.
Polonius
Polonius is the King's main advisor and the father of Ophelia and Laertes. Polonius is
also the Lord of Chamberlain. When his son, Laertes, was leaving for France to complete his
studies, Polonius advised him, "to thine own self be true," which means to be true to yourself.
However, Polonius himself could not remain unswerving in his words. He gets killed at the
hands of Hamlet, though unknowingly. When Hamlet goes to his mother's chamber, he thinks it
is Claudius behind the tapestry, but to his surprise, it is Polonius, whom he had attacked with his
sword.
Ophelia
She is Polonius' daughter and Hamlet's beloved; however, Hamlet's changed behavior
confuses her later on. Ophelia is an obedient girl who stops seeing Hamlet at her father's
instruction and also spies for King Claudius. She is in love with Hamlet and thinks that he also
loves her. But Hamlet's unpredictable behaviour and changing courtships confuse her. She is a
loving daughter who is so dejected by the death of her father that she drowns herself in the river
and dies. Throughout the play, Ophelia is presented as a beautiful, wise, and loving girl.
Laertes
He is Ophelia's elder brother and the son of Polonius. He is exactly the opposite to
Hamlet. Unlike Hamlet, Laertes makes decisions fast; he does not waste time overthinking. He is
extremely shocked by the news of his father's death; therefore, he revolts against Claudius. But
Claudius manipulates and convinces him that all the misfortune was brought upon his family by
Hamlet. Though he attempts to kill Hamlet, he is not callous and pitiless. By the end of the play,

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he confesses that he was instigated by Claudius to kill Hamlet. His revelation of the truth clearly
shows the good side of him.
Horatio
He is a close friend and advisor of Hamlet. He is presented in the play as a sensible man
who, from time to time, advises Hamlet regarding different issues in his life. He is a vigilant and
learned man. When Hamlet is dying, Horatio wants to end his own life, but Hamlet persuades
him to live so that he can narrate Hamlet's story to the coming generations.
Fortinbras
Fortinbras is the Prince of Norway whose father was killed by Hamlet's father. Therefore,
he wants to take revenge and kill Hamlet. He comes onto the stage towards the end of the story.
After the death of Hamlet and others, Fortinbras held the reign of Denmark. He is a serious,
confident, and considerate character.
The Ghost
It is the spirit of Hamlet's dead father, who is also called Hamlet. He was the King of
Denmark and was killed by his own brother, Claudius. The Ghost of the Dead King is presented
as one of the key elements of the play, which accelerates action. He informs Hamlet about the
transgressions of Claudius and Gertrude. However, Hamlet's suspicion about the existence of the
Ghost remains an unsolved mystery.
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern
They are acquaintances of Hamlet, and they spy for him on the Prince of Norway,
Fortinbras. Both of them are cowardly but obedient. They are non-rational and not very
trustworthy. When Claudius instructs them to accompany Hamlet to England and behead him
upon reaching there, they agree to him, but fate decides something else, and these two characters
get beheaded. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are not true to Hamlet.
Check your progress
1. Differentiate Flat characters from Rounded characters.
_____________________________________________
2. What is the tragic flaw in the character of Hamlet?
__________________________________________

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9.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to perceive and enjoy the drama as a literary
genre. You should have gained knowledge about Hamlet, its backgrlound, its plot and the
characters in the play.

9.4 Glossary

Genre: Category
Soliloquy: An act of speaking one's thoughts aloud
Narrative: Account of events
Entreated: Treat in a specified manner
Usurp: Take a position illegally
Ratified: Agreement
Mettle: Ability to cope with the problems
Avouch: Affirm
Portentous: Momentous significance
Dirge: A mournful song
Countenance: Appearance

9.5 Sample Questions

9.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. Who had seen the ghost for the first time in the play Hamlet?
(a) Bernardo and Marcellus
(b) Hamlet
(c) Rosencrantz and Guildenstern
(d) Gertrude
2. Who killed Hamlet's father?
(a) Gertrude
(b) Polonius
(c) Claudius

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 (d) Fortinbras
3. Which of these is not a theme of the play Hamlet?
(a) Revenge
(b) Psychological Issues
(c) Treachery
(d) Hope
4. Where does the play take place?
(a) Denmark
(b) Norway
(c) Spain
(d) London
5. What did the Ghost ask Hamlet to do?
(a) To take revenge
(b) To marry Ophelia
(c) To kill Fortinbras
(d) To go to Norway
6. How did Ophelia die?
(a) Due to hanging herself
(b) Due to drowning
(c) Murdered
(d) Suicide
7. Who did Ophelia want to marry?
(a) Hamlet
(b) Fortinbras
(c) Claudius
(d) Horatio
8. Who was Horatio?
(a) Hamlet's friend
(b) Hamlet's brother
(c) Hamlet's soldier
(d) Hamlet's enemy
9. Why did Claudius kill the King?

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 (a) To win the battle
(b) To become the King
(c) To save his own life
(d) To save the kingdom
10. Whom did Hamlet recommend to have the throne of Denmark?
(a) Laertes
(b) Horatio
(c) Fortinbras
(d) Ophelia
9.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. Who is the Ghost, and why does he ask Hamlet to take revenge?
2. What is the reason behind Hamlet's strange behaviour?
3. What is the difference between plot and theme?
4. What is the reason behind Fortinbras' coming to Denmark?
5. Write a note on the stage directions of the play Hamlet.
9.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. Discuss the plot of the play Hamlet in detail.
2. Elucidate upon the play Hamlet as a revenge tragedy.
3. Deliberate upon the character of Hamlet in detail.

9.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Bradley, A. C. (1905). Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear,

Macbeth (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan. Chambers, E. K. (2009).
2. Shakespeare, W. (2000). Hamlet. Ed. Philip Edwards. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press.
3. Showalter, E. (1985). Representing Ophelia: Women, Madness, and the Responsibilities of
Feminist Criticism. In Parker, Patricia; Hartman, Geoffrey (Eds.), Shakespeare and the
Question of Theory. New York and London: Methuen. pp. 77-94. ISBN 0-416-36930-8.

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 Unit - 10: Hamlet: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical
Appreciation

Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Hamlet: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical Appreciation
10.2.1 Themes
10.2.2 Narrative Technique
10.2.3 Critical Appreciation
10.2.4 Summing Up
10.3 Learning Outcomes
10.4 Glossary
10.5 Sample Questions
10.6 Suggested Learning Resources

10.0 Introduction

In literature, literary devices hold a very significant place. They are used to enhance the
beauty of the writing and to add an additional essence to it. A literary technique is a medium
which allows an author to create profounder meaning that goes beyond the words that are written
on the pages of a text. To elevate the beauty of a novel, drama or short story, these literary
techniques are employed alongside the plot and theme. They provide a faster reflection on the
subject matter that is dealt with in that writing.
Hamlet is one such play where we find an apt use of literary techniques like soliloquy,
metaphor, irony etc. These literary techniques not only strengthen the narrative but also assist the
audience to analyze the plot development, the internal conflict of characters and to understand
various themes of the play.

10.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 enable the learners to read and understand the drama Hamlet by William Shakespeare.

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  appreciate and understand the difference between Plot and Theme.
 understand various themes presented by Shakespeare in this play.
 recognize different narrative techniques.
 develop aesthetic sense in the leaner so as to critically appreciate the drama.
 acquaint the learner with various aspects of analyzing a play critically.

10.2 Hamlet: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical Appreciation

10.2.1 Theme:
A theme is an implied stance on the main issue or message of any literary work. An
author employs a theme to present vital concepts and to convey specific messages on different
issues that the characters of the story are dealing with. As J. A. Cuddon writes in the Dictionary
of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, “The Theme of a work is not its subject but rather its
central idea, which may be stated directly or indirectly”. (721)
Themes on the basis of their importance are divided into two categories- major themes
and minor themes. The more imperative and persistent themes are considered major because they
are a significant part of the story. However, minor themes are not so significant and lasting in any
story. They appear for a short period of time and can be replaced with some other minor theme.
Minor themes are limited to one or the other section of the literary writing and do not cover the
complete story whereas a major theme runs throughout the literary writing and plays an
inseparable role there.
Shakespeare’s Hamlet is a revenge tragedy, published as a quarto in 1603 and in a much
fuller version in 1604. Shakespeare’s work is much influenced by Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish
Tragedy, which was a remarkably successful work of the era. The Spanish Tragedy caught the
late Elizabethan palate for a theme of revenge. This model matured fully in the Jacobean theatre
and became famous as the genre of ‘Revenge Tragedy’.
Shakespeare has built his Hamlet on the similar pattern and has presented the well
demanded revenge tragedy. Here the protagonist comes to know about the murder of his father at
the hands of own uncle, who is, now, the king of Denmark. Hamlet is encountered by the ghost
of his father who tells him about the murder and urges him to take a revenge. The obligatory act
of taking up a revenge for any wrongdoing happened to a near and dear one was the conventional
theme of that time. Shakespeare too presents the same conventional obligation cast upon the hero

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of the play. Along with the theme of revenge, Shakespeare presents some other prominent themes
as well, in this play.
Theme of Revenge- It is the major theme of the play Hamlet. Shakespeare has presented
this theme through two characters in the play- Hamlet and Laertes. Hamlet is the protagonist of
the play and is a serious and brave young man. When his father’s ghost reveals the truth behind
his murder, Hamlet becomes troubled as well as perplexed. Initially, he could not believe on this
revelation, therefore, to investigate about the truth he organizes a play so as to check Claudius’
guilt. During the performance of that play, Hamlet notices the changing colours of Claudius’ face
and infers that the King is guilty of killing his own brother. Thus, Hamlet swears to take revenge
upon him. On the other hand, when Laertes comes to know about the death of his father Polonius
at the hands of Hamlet, he decides to kill Hamlet and fulfil his duty as a son. Therefore, it is a
double-revenge-story.
The theme of revenge is presented through two entirely different approaches- in the case
of Laertes, we find an impetus young man who is quick-tempered and does not wait in taking
action, whereas, Hamlet is a philosophical and heedful man who ponders over his decision.
These two approaches run parallel, throughout the play, casting and creating contrasts. The
theme of revenge also has an impact of religious-component as Hamlet delays his revenge while
Claudius is praying and he contemplates his decision of killing someone. Also, Hamlet is in a
state of dilemma about fulfilling his duty as a son by avenging his father’s murder and Christian
aversion to killing someone. Alternatively, Laertes does not have any such thoughts, he only
considers his duty to avenge his father’s death. Thus, the theme of revenge is the most important
theme in this play which is presented tactfully by the playwright.
Theme of Death- Death looms large throughout the play. It pervades right from the
opening scene of the play when the ghost of the dead king apprises Hamlet about his killing and
asks him to avenge. The death of the former king indicates anarchy and social disruption, which
also is one of the minor themes of the play, in the country. The unnatural death of the King, has
triggered social disordered and has created an atmosphere of killings and revenges.
There are many deaths in this play, the murder of the previous king of Denmark-Hamlet,
inadvertent killing of Polonius, Ophelia’s suicide etc. throughout the play, Hamlet is full of the
thought of death and keeps of contemplating upon it. One of his famous soliloquies is about
death, “to die: to sleep; No more; and by a sleep to say we end the heart-ache and the thousand
natural shocks…”. Throughout the play, we notice that Hamlet is rivetted by death. Since, he has

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pledged to avenge his father’s murder, his behaviour ahs changed. Most of the time, he is
engrossed in the thoughts of death and revenge. This obsession with death is a result of his
extreme angst and ache.
Next, we see Polonius dying at the hands of Hamlet who assumes that it is Claudius
hiding in Gertrude’s room and attacks him. his hard-blow kills the man who turns out to be
Polonius. The death of Polonius, is also used to accentuate the theme of death in the play.
Ophelia dies due to dejection and heartbreak. Her death is the most tragic death in the play which
is not shown on the stage. She dies offstage by drowning in the river. Her death is considered to
be a suicide and is a subject of debate for scholars. We find that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern
also die off stage. This theme of death permeates from the opening scene till the end of the play
when Laertes and Hamlet also die.
Theme of Corruption and Social Distrust- Another theme of the play is corruption and
social distrust. Corruption is presented through the mediums of anarchy, treachery, death, decay,
revenge, poison etc. Shakespeare discloses the theme of social unrest and corruption in the very
opening scene when Marcus says, “something is rotten in the state of Denmark”. In that same
scene, the ghost tells Hamlet Claudius’ treason and Gertrude’s disloyalty. Another example of the
bad state of Denmark is the attack of the Prince of Norway.
The stability and proper functioning of any kingdom is in the hands of the ruler and it is
an established fact that a nation’s health depends upon its legitimate king. Shakespeare presents
that the ruling king is a murder and usurper. Thus, the rule of an unlawful king has resulted in
lawlessness, unrest, social destruction and turbulence. Hamlet as a prince is worried about the
condition of his kingdom and is troubled by the increasing corruption and rot. It is not only the
deterioration of the physical appearance of the kingdom but also the inner institutions of the
society, like court, are also dying slowly. An example of Hamlet’s concern could be felt through
one of his speeches where he talks about social decay and putrefaction, “an unweeded garden
that grows to seed, things rank and gross posses it”. When Hamlet hides Polonius’ body in a
place where it would decay fast and stink the whole palace, it symbolically presents the rotting
and stinking social system which is increasing secretly and would soon pollute the entire
kingdom.
Theme of Religion- Religion also plays a very prominent role in this play and is one of
the themes. When Hamlet finds Claudius praying, he delays his revenge because of his religious
belief that being killed during prayer, Claudius would go to heaven. Another example can be

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seen through his soliloquies, where he contemplates on the subject of suicide. Hamlet’s belief in
destiny is another example of the impact of religion on him. the other important aspect of the
paly is the presentation of the Christian idea of sacrifice. In the last scene, the death of Hamlet is
symbolic of Christ’s sacrifice for humanity. All the deaths by the end of the play, symbolize an
image of purifying the court from all the corruption and represent a new beginning with good
hopes.
Theme of Appearance, Deception and Reality- There is a gap between appearance and
reality as presented by the playwright. The appearance of Claudius is simple, innocent and
considerate but in reality, he is full of deceit and conspiracy. He is called a ‘smiling villain’.
Similarly, Gertrude also holds different appearances and realities. Shakespeare has shown that
deception is the true reality of some of the characters but that is not clearly visible to others.
Hamlet pretends to be mad so as to find out the reality behind the actions of Claudius and
Gertrude. As the play develops, the theme of appearance and reality narrows down and the
characters are unmasked. At the end of the play, their true identities come to the fore.
Theme of Women- There are two important female characters in the play- Gertrude and
Ophelia. The condition of Hamlet is very much impacted and affected by these two women.
whenever he talks to either of the two, he feels agitated. Both the women are important for him
yet he does not trust either. First, the presence of Gertrude reminds him of his father’s death and
her disloyalty. About Ophelia he thinks that she is involved in the ‘palace-politics’ against him.
Both the female characters play prominent roles in the play but they die one by one.
Theme of Politics- Shakespeare’s Hamlet is a political drama. Claudius murders King
Hamlet (Hamlet’s father is also referred to as Hamlet in this play), marries his widow, Gertrude
and becomes the new king. This way he has seized Hamlet’s right of succession. He even plans
to kill Hamlet so as to safeguard his position as the king because Hamlet’s existence is a threat to
his throne. Another example of palatial politics is Polonius conspiring against Hamlet to get
closer to Claudius. Along with this, we find that some characters, including Gertrude, spy on
each other in order to remain in power and prove their supremacy.
Check your progress
1. What is a theme and how is it different from a plot?
_________________________________
2. Mention any two themes in this play.
__________________________________

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10.2.2 Narrative Technique:
A play has dramatic techniques that are also called the elements of a drama which include
plot, theme, characters, dialogue etc. While talking about the use of narrative technique in a
drama, a special focus in upon the presentation of the use of some specific literary techniques.
Shakespeare’s plays are very rich play in terms of the use of literary techniques and Hamlet is no
exception to it. Some of those literary techniques are discussed here.
Narrative Tension- The story of the play Hamlet is introduced and presented through the
inner dimensions of the characters. Shakespeare not only focus on the presentation of action on
the stage but also concentrates on revealing the thought process of the characters. He presents
how the conflicted emotions of the characters impact their decisions and actions. Hamlet is in a
state of narrative tension. A state where a character attempts at resolving an issue but do not
succeed. The stress that gets build up due to his/her unsuccessful efforts, is referred to as
narrative tension. It also refers to how audience react to any specific and crucial element in the
play. In this play, Hamlet’s desperate desire to take revenge of his father’s death, is the central
conceit. But at the same time, he keeps on pondering over and delays his action which build
narrative tension in the play. Other characters also play a role in building up narrative tension
through a display of significant and serious feelings. We have Ophelia whose psychosis echoes in
a social-system where many people fear revealing their true feelings. Such feelings are clearly
relatable and allow the audience to understand those conflicted feelings and accept their
unresolving, as presented on the stage.
Soliloquy- When on the stage, a character thinks loudly or talks to oneself, either silently
or loudly, it is called ‘Soliloquy’. Basically, a dramatist uses this device to inform the audience
about the motives and thoughts of the character. Sometimes, in order to guide the judgements
and responses of the audience, a playwright employs the technique of soliloquy wherein he/she
allows a character, on the stage, to think aloud or speak his mind, loudly. At this time, there may
be other characters present on the stage or this character may also perform alone. If other
characters are there on the stage, they are presented as if they are not listening to the soliloquy of
the other character, while the audience is able to listen to it.
Hamlet’s most famous speech which begins with “To be or not to be”, is also the most
famous soliloquy of the play. This play is remarkably significant for the use of soliloquies. There
are seven soliloquies in this play, which enable the audience to understand the quandary and
misery of Hamlet. Shakespeare has used these soliloquies to serve an important purpose of

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revealing the theme of the play. These soliloquies also add to the depth of the play and explore
inner-selves of the character.
Whenever Hamlet speaks his soliloquies, he opens a window for the audience to look
inside his mind and know about his thoughts and conflicts. Audience, after listening to these
soliloquies, understand Hamlet’s psyche and actions. Another purpose of using soliloquies is to
reveal the theme of the play. When Shakespeare employs different soliloquies in different scenes
and acts, he talks about life, death, revenge and the question of existence. All these come forward
to reveal various themes of the play. All the philosophical questions, posed by Hamlet, add to the
action of the play and cast a profound effect on the minds of the audience and the readers.
Soliloquies also play an important role in developing the plot. Hamlet’s intentions, struggles,
dilemmas and plans get revealed through his soliloquies and this revelation helps moving the
events around the main plot. All the troubles and confusions, he encounters while planning and
executing his revenge upon his uncle, are reflected through his soliloquies. Along with these, a
dramatist can very aptly device a soliloquy to engage the audience for a longer period of time
and also more effectively. For example, let’s see one of Hamlet’s soliloquies-
To be, or not to be, that is the question:
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles
And by opposing end them.

This soliloquy still forces audience/readers to contemplate on the questions of life and
death. Still, after centuries of the presentation and publication of this play, this speech of Hamlet
remains relevant and resonates in the minds of the audience. Another important factor of the
soliloquy is that it contributes to the overall dramatic tension of the play. The internal conflict
and dilemma of Hamlet, his emotional trauma and delay in action, create an everlasting impact
on the audience. These soliloquies enable the audience to get an idea of Hamlet’s future actions.
Dramatic Irony- The presentation of dramatic irony in a tragedy is commonly used
technique, which a playwright employs to reveal the hidden connotation and inference of any
situation. Dramatic Irony refers to a technique “where the audience understands the implication
and meaning of a situation on stage, or what is being said, but characters do not” (Cuddon,216).
Shakespeare has used this literary device very aptly and there are several examples of its
usage in many of his plays. Here we find that Claudius lies about the death of Hamlet’s father,
that the king died due to snake bite and everyone believes him. But the revelation of the truth by

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the ghost changes the scenario. In Hamlet, dramatic irony is built when the ghost reveals the
truth about his murder. Only Hamlet and the audience are aware of the fact and other characters
do not know it. another example of dramatic irony is linked with Hamlet’s pretence of madness.
He fakes his madness to be confirm about Claudius’ guilt. The truth behind his madness is
known by him and the audience only.
Shakespeare uses dramatic irony to induce strong emotions in audience. He makes
audience sympathize with Hamlet as well as question his delay in action. At the same time,
dramatic irony produces a feeling of suspense and binds the attention of the audience.
Symbols- As the Dictionary of Literary Theory and Literary Terms states, the term
symbol has been taken from the Greek word ‘symbellein’ which means ‘to throw together’. The
Noun for the same term is “Symbolon’ meaning emblem, token or sign. Therefore, a symbol
refers to an object (animate or inanimate) that represents or stands for something else and a
literary symbol combines an image with a concept.
The inner mayhem of the characters is represented through symbols. Hamlet is a play full
of inner thoughts and gloom and the use of symbols makes it easier to understand these. Some of
the examples of symbols are ghost that symbolizes victory of the evil, flowers symbolize lure
and lust, the un-weeded garden represents decay and darkness and the constant change of
Hamlet’s clothing/wardrobe symbolizes his internal turmoil and transformation.
Metaphor- There is a notable use of metaphors in the play Hamlet. Most of these are
about the natural world, for example an unweeded garden represents unsolved problems. Laertes
calls Hamlet’s love for Ophelia, ‘as violet in the youth of primy nature’ which implies the
fleeting status of love. Shakespeare has provided an in-depth understanding of the scene and
characters through the use of metaphors.
Foreshadowing- It is one of the dominant literary techniques used in Hamlet.
Foreshadowing is a technique where certain events or any specific information, in a narrative, are
arranged in such a style that they shadow some later events. This technique helps in suggesting at
outcomes of some events through the use of some symbols. In this play, Hamlet’s encounter with
the ghost of his father foreshadows his ultimate vengeance against his uncle, Claudius.
Check your progress
1. Define- Soliloquy, Metaphor and Foreshadowing.
_______________________________________
2. Is irony used in the play Hamlet?

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 ___________________________
3. “To be, or not to be, that is the question, whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer”, Who
says these lines?
____________________________________________________________________
10.2.3 Critical Appreciation:
Shakespeare’s Hamlet is a timeless classic, tragic play which has been well received by
the audience. The play became popular because of its intricate characters, multifaceted plot and a
presentation of the psychological human conditions. Most importantly, it is known for its
unfathomable hero ‘Hamlet’ and his dilemma of avenging his father’s death. The play also
represents religious values that stop a person from committing a sin. Here religion is used as one
of the themes that put Hamlet in a state of confusion when he is about to kill Claudius, while
later was praying. His internal conflict make audience empathize with him throughout the play.
Hamlet is also a notable play for the use of various literary devices like foreshadowing,
irony and soliloquies. Shakespeare has used soliloquies for revealing Hamlet’s inner conflict. He
also presents allusions in this play and incorporates certain mythological and biblical references
that enhance the beauty of the play. One such example of allusion is in Act 4, Scene 3 when
Hamlet compares his father to Hyperion. Along with this the play is rich in the use of rhetorical
devices and stylistic effects of language.
It is also remarkable for its exhibition of themes like revenge, neurosis, corruption,
behavioural changes and mortality etc. Shakespeare has used these themes to showcase
intricacies of human behaviour and thoughts. Another important detail about the play is the use
of dramatic irony and elaborated word-play which makes narrative, reflective and engaging.
Through the use of irony, Shakespeare has attached multiple interpretations to the text. Here,
readers/audience feel the pain of Hamlet, dislike Claudius’ actions and deduce the impending
doom through the irony and symbolic references. Shakespeare has set the plot through the arrival
of the ghost who adds an element of supernatural to the text and discloses the theme of mystery.
The play leaves an everlasting impression on literature and theatre lovers. It is the
keystone of world literature and has been adapted in so many works, discussions and films, since
then. Hamlet, truly, is one of the most celebrated works by Shakespeare.
10.2.4 Summing Up:
Shakespeare’s works require deeper engagement with the text, so as to comprehend them.
Hamlet, a masterpiece of all ages, allows an in-depth knowledge of studying literary devices and

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offers a ground to build and sharpen critical thinking and exploratory skills. After reading this
play, students would be able to develop critical thinking to understand, appreciate and analyze
complex themes and plot progression. The works of art need patience and empathetic attitude
towards interpreting them. A reading of Hamlet would enhance students’ capability to appreciate
a work of art.
The play, Hamlet is also remarkable for its language and its study improves an ability to
enjoy metaphors, images, symbols, and the writing style. It enables the students to discover the
exquisite gradation of Shakespearean language. The play also provides a glimpse into the
cultural and historical scene of that era. It enables students to reconnoiter social, cultural and
political machinations of the time. Analyzing various dramatic devices allows students to
improve their vocabulary and improve their communication skills. They learn to present their
ideas more effectively and persuasively. Reading literature always brings out the hidden creative
thinking of readers and provides them a keen observant skill. They can also apply the knowledge
and understanding of literature on their own writings and improve them.

10.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should have learned about Shakespeare’s play Hamlet. You
should have gained an understanding about the themes and narrative technique apart from
learning to critivcally appreciate the play.

10.4 Glossary

Apoplex’d: Unconscious or Paralyzed

Bodkin: A Dagger or Stiletto
Cozenage: Deception or Treachery
Dane: King of Denmark
Eisel: Vinegar
Harbingers: Indications
Herod: King of Judea (foe of Jesus)
Hyperion: God of Light
Mirth: Joy

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Mourn: Lament
Scullion: A Servant who is assigned the most menial work in the kitchen

10.5 Sample Questions

10.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. Who arranges for a fencing match between Hamlet and Laertes?
(a) Laertes
(b) Ophelia
(c) Gertrude
(d) Claudius
2. Who speaks the given line, “Something is rotten in the state of Denmark”?
(a) Gertrude
(b) Claudius
(c) Hamlet
(d) Ghost
3. Who brings the news of Ophelia’s death?
(a) Laertes
(b) Polonius
(c) Ghost
(d) Horatio
4. Who tells Hamlet about the poisoning of swords in the Act V?
(a) Gertrude
(b) Claudius
(c) Rosencrantz
(d) Laertes
5. Whom did Hamlet compare his father with?
(a) Hyperion
(b) Herod
(c) Zeus
(d) Titan

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6. Which soliloquy appear in Act III, scene I of the play, Hamlet?
(a) To be or not to be
(b) Friends, Romans, Countrymen,
(c) Out, out, brief candle
(d) Is this a dagger
7. Who says the given words for Hamlet- “as violet in the youth of primy nature”.
(a) Laertes
(b) Ophelia
(c) Claudius
(d) Polonius
8. Why does Hamlet want to kill Claudius?
(a) To revenge his father’s death
(b) To become a king
(c) To marry Ophelia
(d) To kill Polonius
9. When was the play Hamlet published?
(a) 1609
(b) 1603
(c) 1700
(d) 1701
10. The play Hamlet ends with the line:
(a) The rest is silence
(b) This is the end
(c) All is well that end is well
(d) All of them are dead
10.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. What do you understand by the term, ‘literary techniques’ ?
2. What is foreshadowing and how is it used in the play Hamlet?
3. Write a short note on the theme of corruption as presented in the play Hamlet?
4. How did Ophelia die?
5. Why did Claudius poison the cup of drink and the swords?

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10.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. “Hamlet is a revenge tragedy.” Discuss in detail.
2. What is a soliloquy? Deliberate upon the use of soliloquies in the play Hamlet.
3. Attempt a critical appreciation of the play Hamlet.

10.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Bradley, A. C. (1905). Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear,

Macbeth (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan. Chambers, E. K. (2009). The Elizabethan Stage.
Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956748-5.
2. Shakespeare, W. (2000). Hamlet. Ed. Philip Edwards. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press.
3. Showalter, E. (1985). Representing Ophelia: Women, Madness, and the Responsibilities of
Feminist Criticism. In Parker, Patricia; Hartman, Geoffrey (Eds.), Shakespeare and the
Question of Theory. New York and London: Methuen. pp. 77-94. ISBN 0-416-36930-8.

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 Unit - 11: The Seagull: Background, Plot, Characters

Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 The Seagull: Background, Plot, Characters
11.2.1 Background
11.2.2 Plot
11.2.3 Characters
11.3 Learning Outcomes
11.4 Glossary
11.5 Sample Questions
11.6 Suggested Learning Resources

11.0 Introduction

The Seagull is one of the major plays by the Russian dramatist Anton Chekhov. The play
was written in 1895 and staged in 1896. The play deals with the romantic and artistic conflict
between four characters in the play. They are Boris Trigorin, Nina, Irina Arkadina and Konstantin
Treplev. Among these characters, Trigorin is considered one of the greatest male characters ever
created by Anton Chekhov in his plays. The play was a revolt against the melodrama of the 19th
century. It was Konstantin Stanislavski, the Russian theatre practitioner, who made the play a
world-popular one through his direction of the play in 1898 at the Moscow Art Theatre. The play
is about a play that Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev is premiering for his family. His lover, Nina
Mikhailovna Zarechnaya, is the star of the play. However, his mother, Irina Nikolayevna
Arkadina, ridicules him and mocks the play. The dejected Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev shuts
the play down. The play exposes a meta-theatrical experience of the nature of art and the artist.
There are 4 acts in the play and each act has 2 parts. The play reveals the theme of the unfulfilled
life of the artist. The major symbols of the play are the seagull and the lake. The Seagull is a
study of the human state of affairs and artistic tendencies. The symbol of the seagull has an
important role in the play. Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev has killed a seagull and brought it as a
gift to Nina Mikhailovna Zarechnaya. However, Nina is disgusted by the actions of Konstantin

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Gavrilovich Treplev. In turn, Nina breaks up with Konstantin. Later, she joined Trigorin to act
with him. This action made Konstantin feel intense jealousy and hatred towards Trigorin.

11.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 familiarize you with the background, plot, and characters of the play The Seagull
 help you know the kind of social and artistic life that existed in the 19th century Russia.
 make a comparative study of the play with other texts
 Understand the different characters and their psychological and social behavior in a
particular context

11.2 The Seagull: Background, Plot, Characters

11.2.1 Background:
Anton Chekhov wrote four major plays: Ivanov, The Seagull, Three Sisters, and The
Cherry Orchard. The Seagull was first performed in 1896 in Petersburg. The first performance of
the play was a grand failure. The audience outright rejected the play. However, the later
performance of the play was a grand success. Very soon the play became popular throughout the
Russian provinces. The Seagull is powerful with its new form of subtext and also its presentation
of colloquialism and realism. The genre, realism, received new acclaim with the staging of The
Seagull. It became a grand success with its realistic presentation of ordinary life. It rejected the
classical tendencies of the grand performance of the heroes and heroines. There are some
autobiographical elements in the play. The amateur playwright in the play The Seagull is
Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev. Anton Chekhov too experimented with new forms and
techniques in his plays. He gives maximum attention and care to ordinary people’s language in
his plays.
11.2.2 Plot:
A plot is a sequence of events within a play that tells a story. A plot is the main essence of
the story of a performance. Five components make a plot. They are exposition, rising action,
climax, falling action, and resolution. The main plot of the play The Seagull is the clash between
generations. The main characters in the play are artists. They are guests on a country estate.

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They are Irina Nikolayevna Arkadina, a middle-aged actress; her lover, Boris Alexeyevich
Trigorin, a successful writer; her son, Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev, a writer, and Nina
Mikhailovna Zarechnaya, a young aspiring actress whom Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev loves.
When the sun goes down, a stage is quickly set up outside on Sorin’s farm in rural Russia. The
stage overlooks a peaceful lake, making for a natural backdrop for the upcoming drama.
Medvedenko, a humble teacher, complains about his money troubles. He thinks that
having money would make him a more attractive partner for Masha, who is the daughter of the
estate manager Shamrayev. However, Masha is focused on her unreturned love for Treplev and
doesn’t reciprocate Medvedenko’s feelings, even though she knows he likes her.
Meanwhile, Treplev nervously gets ready for the first performance of his play. He talks to
Sorin about Arkadina not liking his work. He picks flower petals and wonders about her feelings
for him. It becomes clear that he longs for approval from the Russian artistic community,
separate from the fame of his parents.
Nina comes and shares her wish to get away from her parents’ concerns and join in the
artistic lifestyle at Sorin’s farm. She symbolically compares herself to a seagull drawn to the lake.
However, her romantic moment with Treplev is interrupted by workers and guests.
Among the group, Paulina’s one-sided love for Dorn is revealed, and Arkadina proudly
recites lines from Shakespeare’s Hamlet with Treplev responding similarly to reflect her
relationship with Trigorin. As Treplev’s play begins, Arkadina’s disruptive behavior leads to the
play ending early, making Treplev upset and causing him to leave the stage.
Check your progress
1. What is a plot?
_________________________________________
2. Who are the main characters in the play The Seagull?
__________________________________________
11.2.3 Characters:
The major characters in the play The Seagull are Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev, Irina
Nikolayevna Arkadina, Nina Mikhailovna Zarechnaya, Boris Alexeyevich Trigorin, Sorin,
Yevgeny Sergeyevich Dorn, Masha, Ilya Afanasyevich Shamrayev, Semyon Semyonovich
Medvedenko and Paulina Andryevna. Let us discuss the characters in detail.

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Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev
Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev is one of the four major characters in the play. He is the
son of Irina Nikolayevna Arkadina. She is an actress. He is a writer and he is trying to emerge as
a successful writer. He tries to bring some kind of revolutionary changes in his dramatic form to
get approval and affection from his mother. However, his mother Irina Nikolayevna Arkadina
spends her major time outside. So, there was a wide gap in the relationship between the son and
the mother. The son is now attempting to bring his mother’s attention to him by writing popular
plays. However, Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev chooses some daring and out-of-the-box ideas
in his stories of the play. Moreover, he selects Nina Mikhailovna Zarechnaya, his neighbor, as the
main protagonist of the play. Nina was a young and beautiful girl. In the initial stages, he felt
some kind of alienation due to the ideological wedge that he created between himself and the
group of intelligentsia his mother included. Moreover, his passionate love for Nina also brought
him depression. He wants both popularity and love. He wants to gain popularity in the world of
art and artists and seek Nina’s love. His character is complex. We can find some kind of
Shakespearean elements of character traits in the character of Treplev. The character of
Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev is similar to the character of junior Hamlet in Shakespeare's
Hamlet. The relationship between his mother and Boris Alexeyevich Trigorin, the writer, is just
like the relationship between Gertrude and Claudius. He is in a situation in which he is trying to
identify himself before the pompous personality of his mother and other Russian intelligentsia.
Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev has killed a seagull and brought it as a gift to Nina Mikhailovna
Zarechnaya. However, Nina is disgusted by the actions of Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev. In
turn, Nina breaks her relationship with him. Later, she joined with Trigorin to act with him. This
action made Konstantin feel intense jealousy and hatred towards Trigorin. Even his success as a
reputed writer fails to bring him a happy life. He lives without the love of Nina. This void
prompts him to take his life in his own hands.
Irina Nikolayevna Arkadina
Irina Nikolayevna Arkadina is one of the four major characters of the play The Seagull.
She is a beautiful middle-aged woman. However, her beauty has passed its prime. She is one of
the strong members of the Russian intelligentsia group. Her first marriage was with a man who
was inferior in status to her. That man was the father of her son Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev.
She considered herself superior to her son. This kind of social hierarchy is exhibited in the
character of Arkadina. She is selfish, hypocritical, and self-serving. She pays little attention to

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her son due to the inferior social status that he possessed from his father. She is a successful
stage actress and she is now in love relationship with Trigorin, the popular writer. Her character
exposes the kind of social segregation that existed in Russia during that time. The two social
groups are the common masses and the elite intelligentsia. People like Konstantin Gavrilovich
Treplev must prove their potential to the artistic elite group. She always ridiculed the artistic
attempts of her son. She always demeaned his plays. We can trace the elements of social
superiority in her. She did not even read the stories of her son when he became an acclaimed
writer. However, in the case of her lover Trigorin, she was attentive and meticulous. Arkadina is
such a character who seeks love and reputation from others. She is a pompous woman. She is a
typical representative of the Russian artistic intelligentsia group, a group without content and
core ideals. Chekhov describes this play as a comedy. She exhibits compassion when she cares
for her son’s wound injury and when she encourages Nina to be an actress. Irina Nikolayevna
Arkadina’s character in which Chekhov exhibits the dilemma of Russian society during the
emergence of aristocracy and elitism. She is brought up elite with her companionship with her
lover. Her rejection of her first husband and her son is a typical form of new emergent supremacy
and elitism. Her overwhelming beauty made her included in such a position and identity form.
She acquired superiority and popularity not because of her family lineage but because of her
looks and social grouping.
Nina Mikhailovna Zarechnaya
Nina Mikhailovna Zarechnaya is one of the important characters in the play The Seagull.
It was Nina who first mentioned a seagull in the play. She compares herself to a seagull which is
drawn towards a lake. Her dream in life was to become a professional actress. She was the lover
of Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev. Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev has killed a seagull and
brought it as a gift to Nina Mikhailovna Zarechnaya. However, Nina is disgusted by the actions
of Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev. In turn, Nina breaks her relationship with Konstantin. Later,
she joined with Trigorin to act with him. She always says, “I am the Seagull.” This state of
affairs of Nina reveals her mental condition in a Russian society where social status is based on
the kind of achievement that a person has attained in his/her personal life. Nina is dare enough to
continue her personal life through all her pain and disappointment. She is a nineteen-year-old girl
and she is the neighbor of Sorin’s estate. In the early life of her life itself, she confronted various
financial difficulties. Her mother died when she was young. Her mother left her fortune to her
husband. Her father remarried and put all the wealth in her stepmother's name. This was a great

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insecurity for Nina. She was in love with Treplev with the hope that Treplev could bring her to
the companionship of Treplev’s mother, Irina, a popular actress. She was such a brilliant
character to take all risks in her personal life. Her companionship with Trigorin shows her
overambitious nature. She wants to achieve her dream by whatever means. This is the typical
nature of the Russian social circle during the days that a person’s achievement can only be taken
for her/his acceptance in the intelligentsia circle. Nina is trying to achieve her dream by burying
all her integrity.
Check your progress
1. Name the characters in the play The Seagull.
_______________________________________________
2. Who compares herself to a seagull in the play The Seagull?
_______________________________________________
3. Who killed the seagull in the play The Seagull? What was its after-effect?
___________________________________________________________
Boris Alexeyevich Trigorin
Boris Alexeyevich Trigorin is one of the four major characters in the play The Seagull.
He is a popular writer. He is one of the members of the Russian intelligentsia and artistic
community. He is the lover of Arkadina. However, he is tempted by the beauty of the young Nina.
He is such a reclusive writer. He always selected the estate as the place of his writing. He
disliked the overcrowded company and their gossiping. According to him, the overcrowded
company and gossiping are a kind of hindrance to his writing. His writing career took away his
youth and romantic experiences. To escape from that tiresome work, he had a love affair with
Nina. Nina was a young beautiful girl. He was an opponent of Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev in
two ways: 1) as the lover of Treplev’s mother and 2) as the artistic opponent.
Boris Alexeyevich Trigorin is a versatile writer and he has already made his reputation as
a well-known writer in society. However, he never supported and encouraged Konstantin
Gavrilovich Treplev to become a successful writer. Both he and his lady love Irina Nikolayevna
Arkadina always sidelined Treplev. He has a clear understanding of his writing career. According
to him, people would never say a good word about him. He knew that the appraisal of his art
would fetch him happiness. But the reality is quite contrary. The conversation between Nina and
Trigorin shows this aspect:

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 Nina: But don’t your inspiration and the act of creation give you moments of lofty
happiness
Trigorin: Yes. Writing is a pleasure to me, and so is reading the proofs, but no
sooner does a book leave the press than it becomes odious to me; it is not what I meant it
to be; I made a mistake to write it all; I am provoked and discouraged. Then the public
reads it and says: “Yes, it is clever and pretty, but not nearly as good as Tolstoi,” or “It is
a lovely thing, but not as good as Turgenieff’s ‘Father and Sons,’” and so it will always
be. To my dying day I shall hear people say: “clever and pretty,” and nothing more, those
that knew me will say as they pass my grave: “Here lies Trigorin, a clever writer, but he
was not as good as Turgenieff.”

His writing career has been turbulent with various pains and difficulties. It was not easy
to make a popular image in the field of writing. Boris Alexeyevich Trigorin is a passionate writer
who has accurate awareness about the kind of life that he is now leading and its connection with
art.
Sorin
Sorin is the landowner of the estate where the play takes place. Formerly, he was a
government servant and after his retirement, he spends his time at his country farm. He is the
brother of Arkadina and the uncle to Treplev. He encourages both his sister Arkadina and his
nephew in their profession. He is a man of failure in his love and his ambition. His ambition was
to become a writer. However, he could not attain either. He admits it:

Sorin: Do you know, my boy, I like literary men. I once passionately desired two
things: to marry, and to become an author. I have succeeded in neither. It must be pleasant
to be even an insignificant author.

Sorin’s dejected condition in life is directly related to his continuous service at the
Department of Justice. He considers himself a total failure in life. His attitude is created by the
kind of experiences that he has attained from his twenty-eight years of service at the Department
of Justice.

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Yevgeny Sergeyevich Dorn
Yevgeny Sergeyevich Dorn is a local doctor. In his youth, he was very charming and
popular among women. Dorn is one of the representatives of the meta theatre of this play. He
plays the role of a member of the audience. He witnesses all the events on the stage. He has an
awareness of the characters of Arkdina, Sorin, and the rest of the characters in the play. He has
an affection for Paulina. But that affection was not in the form of a love affair. He always
motivates and inspires the talents of Treplev. He gives soothing words to Treplev whenever
Arkadina pours her anger and frustration on him. He has quite a positive approach to artists. He
holds the view:

It is only right that artists should be made much of by society and treated
differently from, let us say, merchants. It is a kind of idealism.

He has a strong ideal approach to art and literature. Art without a definite objective will
ruin the persona of the artist itself. He states:

[E]very work of art should have a definite object in view. You should know why
you are writing, for if you follow the road of art without a goal before your eyes, you will
lose yourself, and your genius will be your ruin.

As a doctor, he holds some philosophical arguments on the process behind death.

According to him fear of death must be overcome. He says:

The fear of death is an animal passion which must be overcome. Only those who
believe in a future life and tremble for sins committed can logically fear death.
Check your progress
1. Who was the lover of Arkadina in the play The Seagull?
______________________________________________
2. Who served in the Department of Justice?
__________________________________
3. Who is the local doctor in the play The Seagull?

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 ______________________________________
Masha
Masha is the daughter of Paulina and Shamrayev, the managers of Sorin’s farm. She
always wears black as a kind of protest against her life's failure. She is a drug addict and also a
heavy drinker. She has a strong feeling for Treplev. However, it was not returned from Treplev.
She married the mediocre Medvedenko, the poor school teacher. However, still, her strong love
for Treplev existed. Mash was such a strong character that she believed that one day her
problems would perish. She says about her life:

I feel as if I had been in the world a thousand years, and I trail my life behind me
like an endless scarf. Often I have no desire to live at all. Of course that is foolish. One
ought to pull oneself together and shake off such nonsense.

Her bidding farewell to Trigorin is tear-jerking. Her words echo her deep love for
Trigorin. Masha is a practical character. When she realized that she could not attain the love of
Trigorin, she bid goodbye to him. Masha is one of the typical Chekhovian characters who holds
strong faith in herself when all the life difficulties burden her. She tries to accept her problems as
it is. Instead of making some hard decisions, she bears the problems positively. She was ready
enough to exchange her love for Medvedenko in the place of Treplev.
Ilya Afanasyevich Shamrayev
Ilya Afanasyevich Shamrayev is the father of Masha and the husband of Paulina. He is
the manager of Sorin’s farm. He has a close connection with Russian artists. He attentively
listens to the words of Arkadina. However, he is an authoritarian in his profession of farm
running and the subject of horses. He never accepted his son-in-law Medvedenko. He was cruel
towards him. It was Ilya Afanasyevich Shamrayev who made the stuffed seagull for Trigorin. It
was the same moment when Shamrayev gave the stuffed seagull to Trigorin, that the whole stage
heard a loud shot sound. It was the sound of Constantine shooting himself. Constantine’s
relationship with Nina broke when he presented her with a carcass of the seagull. One of the
major symbols in this play is the seagull which signifies both freedom and destruction. The
stuffed seagull and the carcass of the seagull presented by both Shamrayev and Treplev
respectively signify the represented form of freedom and destruction.

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Semyon Semyonovich Medvedenko
Semyon Semyonovich Medvedenko is a poor local school teacher. He talks too much
about his poverty and difficulties in life. He married Masha. His father-in-law never liked him
much. The play starts with the conversation between Masha and Medvedenko:

Medvedenko: Why do you always wear mourning

Masha: I dress in black to match my life. I am unhappy.
Medvedenko: Why should you be unhappy [Thinking it over] I don’t understand it. You
are healthy, and though your father is not rich, he has a good competency. My life is far
harder than yours. I only have twenty three roubles a month to live on, but I don’t wear
mourning. [They sit down]
Paulina Andryevna
Paulina is the mother of Masha and the wife of Ilya Afanasyevich Shamrayev. She is
unhappy in her loveless marriage. She sees her life condition in the life of her daughter Masha.
She loves Dorn. However, her fate was to marry Shamrayev. In the same manner, her daughter
loves Treplev, but she later married Medvedenko, the local school teacher.
Other Minor characters
Yakov; a hired workman, the Cook, the Maid, and the Watchman are the minor characters
in this play.

11.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should have an idea about the background, plot, and
characters of the play The Seagull by Anton Chekhov. You should be able to know the definition
of the term plot. You should have also become familiar with different characters in the play and
their characteristic traits.

11.4 Glossary

Plot: A plot is a sequence of events within a play that tells a story. A plot is the main essence of
the story of a performance

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Realism: Presenting the world as it is instead of presenting the world as it appears to the state of
mind of the writers.
Character traits: The individual qualities or attributes of a person that make his/her overall
character.
Carcass: The dead body of an animal.
Genre: A category of art, music, or literature.
Intelligentsia: Group of highly educated people who have a strong influence in politics.

11.5 Sample Questions

11.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. Anton Chekhov is a writer from.........................................
2. Anton Chekhov’s The Seagull is written in........................
3. Identify the speaker:
“Do you know, my boy, I like literary men. I once passionately desired two things: to
marry, and to become an author. I have succeeded in neither. It must be pleasant to be even an
insignificant author.”
4. Who was the poor school teacher in the play The Seagull?
5. Who were the four major characters in the play The Seagull?
6. Who was the amateur playwright in the play The Seagull?
7. How many acts are there in the play The Seagull?
(a) 5 (b) 6
(c) 4 (d) 3
8. Who committed suicide in the play The Seagull?
(a) Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev
(b) BorisAlexeyevich Trigorin
(c) Yevgeny Sergeyevich Dorn
(d) Sorin
9. Who presented a carcass of seagull to Nina Mikhailovna Zarechnaya?
(a) Ilya Afanasyevich Shamrayev
(b) Semyon Semyonovich Medvedenko
(c) Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev

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 (d) Paulina Andryevna
10. Who always says “I am the Seagull” in the play The Seagull?
(a) Irina Nikolayevna Arkadina
(b) Nina Mikhailovna Zarechnaya
(c) Masha
(d) Boris Alexeyevich Trigorin
11.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. Write a short note on the background of the play The Seagull.
2. explain in brief the significance of the seagull in The Seagull?
3. Discuss in brief the theme of love in the play The Seagull.
4. Who are the four major characters in the play The Seagull? Write a short note on their
character traits.
5. Write a short note on the meta-theatrical elements in the play The Seagull.
11.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. Write an essay on the character portrayal in the play The Seagull.
2. Examine in detail the background and plot of the play The Seagull.
3. Write an essay on Russian middle-class society which is presented in the play The Seagull.

11.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Chekhov, A. P. Selected Works in Two Volumes. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 2002. Print
2. Whyman, R. Anton Chekhov, London & New York: Routledge Publisher, 2011. Print

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 Unit - 12: The Seagull: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical
Appreciation

Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 The Seagull: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical Appreciation
12.2.1 Themes
12.2.2 Narrative Technique
12.2.3 Critical Appreciation
12.3 Learning Outcomes
12.4 Glossary
12.5 Sample Questions
12.6 Suggested Learning Resources

12.0 Introduction

The Seagull, authored by the Russian dramatist Anton Chekhov, is considered one of his
major plays. Originally written in 1895 and staged in 1896, the play is known to be a romantic
and artistic conflict between four main characters: Boris Trigorin, Nina, Irina Arkadina, and
Konstantin Treplev. Among these characters, Trigorin is considered one of the greatest male
characters ever created by Anton Chekhov in his plays. The play was a revolt against the
melodrama concept of the 19th century and gained immense popularity after Konstantin
Stanislavski, the Russian Theatre practitioner, directed it in 1898 at the Moscow Art Theatre.
The play revolves around Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev, who is premiering a play for
his family. His lover Nina Mikhailovna Zarechnaya is the star of the play. However, his mother
Irina Nikolayevna Arkadina ridicules and mocks the play, leading to Konstantin shutting it down.
The play exposes a meta-theatrical experience of the nature of art and the artist, with each act
comprising two parts. It reveals the theme of the unfulfilled life of the artist.
The seagull and the lake are the major symbols of the play. The Seagull is a study of the
human state of affairs about their artistic tendencies. Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev has killed a
seagull and brought it as a gift to Nina Mikhailovna Zarechnaya. However, Nina is disgusted by
the actions of Konstantin Gavrilovich Treplev. In turn, Nina broke her relationship with

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Konstantin and joined with Trigorin to act with him, which made Konstantin intensely jealous
and hateful towards Trigorin.

12.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 provide you with a comprehensive understanding of the themes, narrative techniques, and
critical appreciation of the play The Seagull
 gain insights into the social and artistic life that prevailed in 19th century Russia

12.2 The Seagull: Themes, Narrative Technique, Critical Appreciation

12.2.1 Themes:
Anton Chekhov's play, The Seagull is an undisputed masterpiece that explores various
themes like the role of an artist, self-evaluation, the meaning of life, unrequited love, and identity
crisis. Upon delving deeper into the play, you will find that it exposes the theme of art and artist
and their social and artistic life in a competitive world with utmost confidence and clarity.
The social and artistic life of artists
Anton Chekhov's The Seagull explores the interplay between social and artistic life in
19th-century Russian society. The play features four major characters who represent the middle-
class social system of that era. It is a highly competitive society where artists like Arkadina,
Trigorin, Treplev, and Nina strive to achieve success and social status. Trigorin, a popular writer,
holds significant influence over the Russian Intelligentsia and the artistic community. The play
highlights how culture and art played a critical role in shaping the community standards of that
time.
Treplev, another aspiring artist, tries hard to make a name for himself but receives
constant rejection from his artistic circle, including his mother, Arkadina. She, in turn, holds a
condescending attitude towards her son, largely due to her former husband's social inferiority in
status. Arkadina is romantically involved with Trigorin, who is not only a popular writer but also
a man of social status, unlike Treplev's father. Meanwhile, Treplev is in love with Nina, who later
realizes that her success as an actress depends on her association with Trigorin, an influential
writer in the group of Intelligentsia.

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 In the 19th century Russian society, social status was a crucial determinant of an artist's
success. All the characters in The Seagull are in a constant state of competition, using their
artistic abilities as a tool to gain social belonging and status. The play illustrates how the artistic
and social lives of Trigorin, Treplev, Arkadina, and Nina are intertwined. Anton Chekhov
successfully portrays how social and artistic life are not separate entities but are deeply
interconnected. The character Yevgeny Sergeyevich Dorn states: “It is only right that artists
should be made much of by society and treated differently from, let us say, merchants. It is a kind
of idealism.” He has a strong ideal approach toward art and literature.
Self-Evaluation
It is worth noting that self-evaluation is an important theme in The Seagull. The
characters in the play are all focused on evaluating themselves and their own character. Treplev,
for instance, is a character with a strong desire to become a successful writer, but he experiences
failure due to a lack of inspiration and support. However, he remains self-aware of his strengths
and weaknesses and continues to work towards his goals. Similarly, Sorin, the landowner of the
estate, has faced failure in both his love and ambition to become a writer. Despite this, he
acknowledges his shortcomings and strives to improve himself. Overall, the play portrays a
positive message about personal growth and the importance of self-reflection.
Sorin knows that his life failure starts from his continuous service at the Department of
Justice. He says that he is a total failure in life. He states:

It is easy for you to condemn smoking and drinking; you have known what
life is, but what about me. I have served in the Department of Justice for
twenty eight years, but I have never lived, I have never had any experiences.
You are satiated with life, and that is why you have an inclination for
philosophy, but I want to live, and that is why I drink my wine for dinner and
smoke cigars, and all.

In the play, there is a character named Masha who is very self-aware. Despite facing
numerous challenges, she remains a strong character and holds onto the hope that her problems
will eventually come to an end. In fact, she has a positive outlook on life and is determined to
overcome any obstacles that come her way.

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 Semyon Semyonovich Medvedenko is a dedicated local school teacher who focuses on
the positive aspects of life. Though he may mention his financial struggles, he does not let them
define him. In his conversation with Masha, he demonstrates a deep understanding of his own
worth and the value he brings to the world.

Medvedenko: Why do you always wear mourning?

Masha: I dress in black to match my life. I am unhappy.
Medvedenko: Why should you be unhappy [Thinking it over] I don’t understand it. You
are healthy, and though your father is not rich, he has a good competency. My life is far
harder than yours. I only have twenty three roubles a month to live on, but I don’t wear
mourning. [They sit down]

Meaning of life
In the play, all the characters are on a journey to discover the true meaning of their
existence. They relentlessly search for purpose and significance in their lives. Treplev and Nina
attempt to find meaning through their creative pursuits of writing and acting, but they find the
process to be challenging. Both of them aspire to achieve fame and recognition in their
respective fields, believing that success will grant them a greater sense of fulfilment. However,
the play highlights the fact that while success is important, it is the unyielding determination of
humans that truly defines the meaning of life. Sorin, another character in the play, views a life
without accomplishing goals as empty and meaningless. His aspiration was to become a prolific
writer, but he failed to achieve his dream. Masha is also a character who strives to find purpose
in life. She acknowledges that her journey is difficult, but she remains committed to discovering
the true meaning of her existence.
Masha displays a strong sense of acceptance towards her problems, choosing to face them
head-on instead of shying away from making tough decisions. Her optimistic outlook towards
life enables her to handle her issues with a positive attitude. She even displays a willingness to
make sacrifices for the sake of the people she loves, as evidenced by her readiness to exchange
her affection for Medvedenko in place of Treplev.
Check your progress
1. Who is considered the greatest male character Anton Chekhov ever created?
____________________________________________________________

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 2. What are the major themes that are explored in the play The Seagull?
_______________________________________________________
3. Who is the character that aspires to become a popular actress in the play The Seagull?
_______________________________________________________________
Unrequited Love
The Seagull also captures the theme of unrequited love through its complex web of
characters and their intertwined relationships. Each character's love represents different stages of
life and love, but none of them seem to find true satisfaction. While some of them, like Masha,
may have adjusted to their unrequited love, others, such as Treplev, cannot bear the weight of
their unfulfilled desires. This leads to a dramatic conclusion where Treplev, due to his love and
professional failure, ultimately takes his own life.
Medvedenko loves Masha, but Masha loves Treplev. Treplev does not love Masha, he
loves Nina. Nina also loves Treplev. But later, for her professional success she falls in love with
Trigorin. Arkadina loves Trigorin who loved the young actress Nina. Paulina loves Dorn. But she
later married Shamrayev.
Chekhov's play offers a profound insight into the existential status of human beings on
this earth, where love and other aspects of human tenderness are often unreciprocated, and life
goes on in a different direction. The characters' struggles to find happiness in love, and their
ultimate failure to do so, serve as a reminder that human life is fragile and fleeting. Despite the
sadness that permeates the play, it is a testament to Chekhov's mastery of the human condition
and his ability to capture the complexities of love and life in all their forms
Existentialism
Existentialism is a powerful philosophical inquiry that delves into the very essence of
human existence. It seeks to explore and answer the most fundamental questions regarding the
meaning, purpose, and value of human life. The Seagull, a prominent play in the world of
literature, is known for its strong existentialist themes. Throughout the play, we see a number of
characters grappling with the existential crisis of their lives. One notable character is Masha, who
struggles to find meaning in her life through a romantic relationship with Treplev. Unfortunately,
Treplev does not reciprocate her feelings. Masha believes that without love, life is meaningless
and futile. Masha later changes her mind and marries Medvedenko, though she was still in love
with Treplev. Masha ultimately chose to marry Medvedenko despite initially being in love with
Treplev. Sorin, on the other hand, is a character who failed to achieve both his love and ambition.

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He aspired to become a writer, but unfortunately, his love life and ambition didn't align, and he
had to admit his failure in both aspects. He is a man of failure in his love and his ambition. His
ambition was to become a writer. However, he could not attain both his love and ambition. Sorin
may feel that his continuous service at the Department of Justice has hindered his success, but he
has undoubtedly gained valuable experience and skills that will serve him well in any future
endeavours. Sorin’s dejected condition in life is directly related to his continuous service at the
Department of Justice. He says that he is a total failure in life.
One of the characters, Dorn, is a doctor who has a philosophical view on death. He
believes that one must overcome the fear of death, and shares his arguments on the process of
dying: “The fear of death is an animal passion which must be overcome. Only those who believe
in a future life and tremble for sins committed can logically fear death.” The characters of Nina
and Treplev in the play symbolize the theme of existentialism. Both of them aspire to be
successful artists: Treplev as a writer and Nina as an actress. However, they struggle to find
meaning in their lives. Treplev's failures in love, art, and life ultimately lead him to take his own
life. The play The Seagull explores the theme of existentialism in great depth.
Check your progress
1. What is existentialism?
_____________________________________
2. Who is the doctor in the play The Seagull?
_____________________________________
3. Who is the character in the black dress in the play The Seagull?
____________________________________
12.2.2 Narrative Technique:
Anton Chekhov used a naturalistic style in the presentation of the play. Metaphor is one
of the narrative techniques in the play. A metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or
phrase denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or
analogy between them. The title of the play The Seagull itself is a metaphor. Treplev was in love
with Nina, the young actress. However, Nina rejected him. Treplev presented her with a dead
seagull. This signifies that her rejection of his love will end his life. Treplev, towards the end of
the play, committed suicide. The like is another metaphor of the play. The lake represents both
Treplev and Chekhov's desire to move to a more naturalistic theatre not limited by three walls.

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The lake means several different things to the play's characters. The lake is a place of reflection,
respite, and escape.
12.2.3 Critical Appreciation:
Anton Chekhov’s play The Seagull is widely acclaimed as a masterpiece. The play delves
into the themes of human uncertainty, fate, unrequited love, and the struggle for success. All the
characters in the play are striving to achieve success but their efforts ultimately prove to be in
vain. Treplev aspires to be a famous writer while Nina dreams of becoming a renowned actress.
Despite their best efforts, they fail to achieve their goals. To make matters worse, Treplev, who
was once in love with Nina, is left heartbroken when she ends their relationship and begins a
romantic liaison with Trigorin, a successful writer. In that competition, there is no relevance for
human relationships. Treplev, due to his professional and love failure committed suicide. The
suicide was a blow to the Russian Intelligentsia. Treplev’s father was a common ordinary man.
But his mother was the popular actress Arkadina. Arkadina is now in a love relationship with
Trigorin. Arkadina is not supporting and inspiring her son in the profession of writing. She is
always ridiculing her son. She holds contempt and anger towards Treplev mainly because of his
father's, her own former husband, social status. Arkadina and Trigorin belong to the Intelligentsia
group, but they lack the intelligence and moral strength to accept other socially disadvantaged
members of society.
The play, The Seagull is a powerful depiction of the social tug-of-war that existed in 19th
century Russian middle-class society. In that competitive world, certain characters would thrive
while others would perish. For instance, Masha, with her daring confidence, managed to survive
despite facing total failure in both her love and professional life. However, characters like
Treplev could not make it in the stiffly competitive world.
According to Whyman “The Seagull is not simply a play that reveals the complexities of
idealistic love and longing.” The play examines the realistic part of human life. The fictional
characters and their existence in the play examines this reality in core. The play delves into the
essence of real life by deviating from the typical plot structure of a clear beginning, middle, and
end. Chekhov skilfully portrays real life through the depiction of each character in the play,
intentionally eschewing the traditional hero and heroine archetypes. Instead, the play reflects the
subjective nature of heroism and femininity, mimicking real-life complexities.
The play achieved great success by seamlessly blending elements of tragedy and comedy,
making it a prime example of tragi-comedy. Through its portrayal of middle-class characters, the

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play meticulously dissects the significance of money in defining social identity. Characters such
as Lady Arkadina exemplify the elite societal class, favoring opulence and extravagance, while
others struggle to afford basic necessities. Chekhov’s masterful depiction captures the intricacies
of modern life, delving into the complexities of materialism, fame, and the emerging industrial
era.
Furthermore, the play embodies Chekhov’s insight into the human psyche, particularly its
entanglement with monetary wealth and celebrity status. Characters like Tripolov, Trigorin, and
Dr. Dorn serve as conduits for Chekhov’s philosophical musings, offering perspectives akin to
the author’s own outlook on life. Desires feature prominently within the play, with characters
such as Arkadina and Masha fervently pursuing their aspirations, ultimately encountering
disillusionment, echoing the inevitability of unattainable desires in real life.
The play effectively incorporates elements of expressionism, wherein the writer presents
the world as perceived through their state of mind, rather than as it exists. Anton Chekhov’s work
focuses on portraying the inner feelings and emotional states of the characters, rather than solely
depicting the external world. The play powerfully presents the characters’ inner struggles and
desires. For instance, Tripolov’s efforts to establish himself as a writer, Nina’s aspiration to
become a great actress, and Trigorin’s desire to emulate Tolstoy all reflect the inner complexities
of the characters. The relationships and interactions, such as Arkadina’s connection with Trigorin,
are also portrayed through an expressionistic lens. The play effectively captures the societal
mindset of the time and its impact on the characters, providing a blend of realism and
expressionism. Overall, The Seagull serves as a modern drama that delves into the influences of
material progress on everyday life. Chekhov himself emphasizes in his Letter to Maria Kiselyova:
To a chemist nothing in the world is impure. The writer must be just as objective as the
chemist; he must free himself of everyday subjectivity, and he must know that manure
plays a most respectable role in nature and that evil passions are just as much a part of
life as virtues. (Chekhov, 1887)
Chekhov’s masterful depiction of reality in The Seagull authentically captures the essence
of life. This representation is skillfully transformed into a work of art due to Chekhov’s artistic
genius. He firmly believes that all life experiences can be used as source material for artistic
creations. The Seagull stands as a compelling demonstration of Chekhov’s ability to draw from
real-life occurrences and fashion them into a profound and artistic masterpiece.

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 Check your progress
1. Who is Arkadina's son?
__________________________________
2. Who gives Nina a dead seagull?
_________________________________
3. The play, The Seagull is a powerful depiction of the _______ tug-of-war that existed in
19th century Russian middle-class society.

12.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should have gained a comprehensive understanding of the
themes, narrative techniques, and critical appreciation of Anton Chekhov's play, The Seagull.
You should have also learned about existentialism and Chekov’s contribution to drama.

12.4 Glossary

Existentialism: Existentialism is a philosophical inquiry that explores the meaning, purpose, and
value of human existence.
Metaphor: A figure of speech where a word or phrase is used in a non-literal way to describe
something else.
Narrative Technique: Narrative technique refers to the methods writers use to convey their
story to the reader.
Simile: A figure of speech used to compare things of different kinds for emphasis or vivid
description.

12.5 Sample Questions

12.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. Who is the influential writer in the Intelligentsia group?
2. Can you name the four main characters in the play "The Seagull"?
3. Konstantin Stanislavski is a well-known practitioner of Russian ___________.
4. What are the two significant symbols in the play The Seagull?

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5. Who is Treplev's lover?
6. Among the following which is the major theme of the play The Seagull?
(a) Existentialism (b) War
(c) Animal love (d) Environmental pollution
7. What narrative style does Anton Chekhov employ in his play, The Seagull?
(a) Natural (b) Realistic
(c) Expressionistic (d) Surrealistic
8. Who is the popular actress in the play The Seagull?
(a) Nina (b) Arkadina
(c) Masha (d) Paulina
9. Who is the mother of Treplev?
(a) Arkadina (b) Paulina
(c) Nina (d) Masha
10. Which of the following is one of the themes of the play The Seagull?
(a) Self-evaluation (b) Evaluation
(c) Critical evaluation (d) Observation
12.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. Define the term existentialism.
2. Discuss in brief self-evaluation by some characters in the play.
3. Write a brief note about Anton Chekhov's narrative technique in The Seagull.
4. Examine in brief the theme of unrequited love in the play The Seagull.
5. How is the society depicted in the play?
12.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. Write an essay on the major themes in The Seagull.
2. Attempt a critical appreciation of the play The Seagull.
3. Discuss how the action unfolds through the narrative technique employed in The Seagull.

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12.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Chekhov, A. P. Selected Works in Two Volumes. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 2002. Print
2. Whyman, R. Anton Chekhov, London & New York: Routledge Publisher, 2011. Print
3. Clyman, Toby W. Chekhov’s Great Plays: A Critical Anthology. New York: New York
University Press, 1981. Print
4. Gilman, Richard. Chekhov’s Plays: An Opening into Eternity. London: Yale University Press,
1995. Print.

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 Unit - 13: Arun Kolatkar, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Gurujada Appa Rao

Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Arun Kolatkar, Faiz Ahmed, and Gurujada Appa Rao
13.2.1 Arun Kolatkar
13.2.1.1 “The Turnaround”
13.2.2 Faiz Ahmed Faiz
13.2.2.1 “Subh-e-Azadi”
13.2.3 Gurujada Appa Rao
13.2.3.1 “Love Thy Country”
13.3 Learning Outcomes
13.4 Glossary
13.5 Sample Questions
13.6 Suggested Learning Resources

13.0 Introduction

In the earlier Blocks and Units of this course, you have been introduced to comparative
literature, the different schools of comparative literature, the theory and practice of comparative
literature. You also undertook a study of comparative literature across genres like essay and
novel. In this Unit, you will study comparative poetry with special reference to three Indian poets:
Arun Kolatkar, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, and Gurujada Appa Rao. The three poems prescribed for your
study are “The Turnaround,” “Shub-e- Azadi, and “Love Thy Country” written by Arun Kolatkar,
Faiz Ahmed Faiz, and Gurujada Appa Rao respectively. In the following sections you will learn
in detail about the poets and their works.

13.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 study Arun Kolatkar, Faiz Ahmed Faiz and Gurujada Appa Rao as Indian poets
 understand their contributions to poetry

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  undertake a comparative study of their poetry
 explore the poems, “The Turnaround,” “Subh-e-Azadi,” “Love Thy Country”

13.2 Arun Kolatkar, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, and Gurujada Appa Rao

13.2.1 Arun Kolatkar:

In this section we will learn in detail about Arun Kolatkar and his contributions before we
study his poem, “The Turnaround.”
Introduction to the Poet
Arun Balkrushna Kolatkar, born on November 1st, 1932 in Kolhapur, Maharashtra, hailed
from a traditional Hindu joint family. His early influences stemmed from figures like Rajaram
Mohan Roy, Rajarshri Shahu Maharaj, and Karmveer Bhaurao Patil. After receiving primary and
secondary education in Bombay, Kolatkar pursued his graduation at the J.J. School of Arts in
Bombay in 1974. While residing in Mumbai, he pursued a career as a commercial artist, working
in advertising, graphic design, and art direction.
His personal life was marked by the challenges of a marriage opposed by both families,
leading to subsequent personal struggles and a shift in career focus. Despite initial struggles, he
found his footing in the world of art, earning a diploma in painting from J.J. School of Arts in
1957 and later completed a fine arts degree through distance education. Kolatkar’s transition
from poverty to a focus on Marathi and English poetry marked a significant shift in his career.
He passed away on September 25th, 2000, but his legacy extends beyond his work as a graphic
designer, as he is acknowledged as a versatile and influential poet in both modern Indian writing
in English and Marathi poetry. Influences from the early Marathi folk theatre and Western
literary figures like William Carlos Williams and American Beat Poetry shaped his poetic style.
Kolatkar received numerous accolades for his contributions to English and Marathi
literature. His notable awards include the Commonwealth Writers Prize in 1977 for "Jejuri" and
the Sahitya Akademi Award in 2005 for "Bhijki Vahi." He was recognized by various
organizations, such as the Kag Institute and the Bahinabai Foundation Trust, and held positions
of honor, such as the President of Marathwada Sahitya Parishad, receiving the ‘Kusumgras
Award’ in 1993. In terms of his poetic achievements, Kolatkar stands as a prominent figure
among Indian poets writing in English. His bilingual proficiency in Marathi and English allowed
him to self-translate his works, releasing collections in both the languages. His works, including

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"Jejuri," "Bhijaki Vahi," "Chirimiri," "Kala Ghoda Poems," "Sarpa Satra," and "The Boatride and
Other Poems," showcase his literary taste in both the languages. Kolatkar's literary achievements
have earned him recognition among the foremost Indian writers, solidifying his place in the
literary pantheon.
Modern Indian English Poetry and Kolatkar
Modern Indian English Poetry, emerging from the mid-20th century to the present day,
embodies a rich amalgamation of diverse cultural, social, and linguistic facets within the post-
colonial Indian experience. Pioneers like Nissim Ezekiel, A.K. Ramanujan, Dom Moraes,
Kamala Das, and Arun Kolatkar laid the foundation for this literary movement, incorporating the
complexities of cultural diversity and socio-political issues into their work.
These poets navigated multiple languages, intertwining English with regional languages
such as Marathi, Hindi, and others. They laid the groundwork for a multilingual poetic repertoire,
broadening the canvas for expressive diversity. This movement also saw the emergence of poets
like Jayanta Mahapatra, Eunice de Souza, and Vikram Seth, who further enriched the landscape
of Modern Indian English Poetry.
Their verses are reflective of everyday experiences, human relationships, spiritual
explorations, and the urban landscapes of a rapidly changing society. The poetry often delves
into societal intricacies, addressing themes of identity, urbanization, caste, gender, and the post-
colonial Indian experience. This exploration continues to evolve through the contributions of
contemporary poets such as Meena Kandasamy, Ranjit Hoskote, and Tishani Doshi, among
others, who continue to shape and redefine this literary landscape.
These poets employ vivid imagery, nuanced language, and powerful metaphors deeply
rooted in the Indian context. Their works embrace symbolism and cultural allusions, offering
layers of interpretation and depth. This continuum of poets within the genre epitomizes a broad
spectrum of perspectives, intricately woven into the fabric of modern Indian English poetry.
Arun Kolatkar’s poetry is a pivotal cornerstone in the panorama of Modern Indian
English poetry. His seminal work, "Jejuri," is a brilliant example of his poetic genius. This
collection embodies the convergence of spirituality, cultural explorations, and an astute socio-
political commentary within the framework of a pilgrimage. Kolatkar employs vivid imagery and
keen observations to delve into the complexities of faith, urbanization, and the inherent
paradoxes of modern life.

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 Kolatkar's ability to infuse ordinary moments with extraordinary depth and insight sets
him apart. Take, for instance, the poem "The Turnaround," a vivid portrayal of a wanderer
navigating through various towns, reflecting the struggles and ironies of existence. His use of
personification and subtle satire in attributing agency to cities or towns is a hallmark of his style.
In discussing Kolatkar alongside other stalwarts of modern Indian English poetry, one cannot
overlook the contributions of poets like Nissim Ezekiel, A.K. Ramanujan, and Kamala Das.
Ezekiel’s works, renowned for their urban sensibilities and astute observations of society, delve
into the complexities of a changing India. Ramanujan, celebrated for his scholarly and reflective
approach, explores linguistic and cultural intersections with profound depth. Kamala Das, on the
other hand, infuses raw emotion and personal experiences, particularly exploring themes of love,
gender, and societal norms.
However, what sets Kolatkar apart is his unique ability to straddle linguistic boundaries,
seamlessly working in both Marathi and English. This bilingual prowess allowed him to capture
a broader spectrum of Indian experiences and bridge cultural divides through his translations and
original works. Kolatkar’s "Jejuri" delves into the spiritual and cultural tapestry of India,
Ezekiel’s "The Unfinished Man" reflects urban existentialism, Ramanujan’s translations of
classical Indian poetry showcase a scholarly exploration of cultural heritage, and Kamala Das’s
"The Old Playhouse" delves into deeply personal and emotional landscapes.
13.2.1.1 “The Turnaround”:
In this section, we will introduce you to the poem “The Turnaround.” We will also
discuss the themes, the style, and the significance of the poem. We will also examine the use of
symbols and imagery in the poem.
“The Turnaround”: Introduction
"The Boatride and Other Poems," published posthumously in 2009, serves as a
comprehensive anthology of Arun Kolatkar's scattered and previously uncollected poems,
meticulously compiled by A.K. Mehrotra, Ashok Shahane, and Arvind Krishna Mehrotra. The
collection brings together works previously dispersed across various publications and magazines,
offering readers a comprehensive view of Kolatkar's poetic journey.
This anthology is thoughtfully organized into five distinct sections. The sections
encompass a range of poetic expressions: "Poems in English," "Poems in Marathi," "Words for
Music," comprising translations of revered religious songs from Maharashtra's Bhakti poets, and

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finally, "the Boatride." The poems within this volume traverse the enigmatic and scattered path
of Kolatkar's life, offering readers a glimpse into the poet's evolving artistic landscape.
The publication not only presents Kolatkar's scattered works but also provides a sense of
coherence and completion to his diverse poetic expressions. Despite the varied thematic
explorations, Kolatkar's signature naturalistic precision and emotional detachment remain
consistent throughout his poetic endeavors.
Arun Kolatkar's "The Turnaround" is from “The Boatride and Other Poems” that
encapsulates a poignant journey through the poet's experiences, chronicling his
encounters while navigating various locales. The narrative unfolds through vivid imagery and
raw, unembellished language, painting a stark picture of a relentless and tumultuous sojourn. The
poem delineates the hardships faced in different places, depicting a sequence of events that
gradually erode the protagonist's circumstances. Each stop represents a new challenge, from
being reduced to begging in Bombay, the acquisition of meager sustenance in Kalyan, to the
uncomfortable experiences in Nasik and the tribulations encountered along the journey.
The poet's descriptions are visceral and unvarnished, detailing the arduousness of the
journey, including encounters with unsympathetic locals, degrading experiences, and an
unrelenting quest for basic necessities. Throughout, there's a pervasive sense of degradation and
the struggle for survival. Despite the trials and tribulations, the poem takes a pivotal turn toward
the end. The encounter with an old man and a young woman in a humble abode brings a moment
of respite. The simple act of receiving water and the unanticipated provision of food depict a rare
instance of generosity and contentment, standing out amidst the harsh landscape of the
protagonist's journey.
Thus, the poem encapsulates a profound exploration of resilience, humility, and the
transformative power of human connections within the harsh and unyielding landscape of the
protagonist's journey. The poem unfolds a narrative of a wanderer traversing through various
cities in western Maharashtra—Kalyan, Nashik, Rotegaon, and Kopargaon. This trek through the
landscape mirrors Kolatkar's own trials during his impoverished but eventful years in
Mumbai.The protagonist's journey becomes a reflection of personal hardships, where the cities
encountered serve as symbolic landmarks in his narrative. "Bombay made me a beggar"
personifies the city, attributing a transformative effect to the urban environment on the narrator's
life. Each city visit unfolds a distinct episode—Kalyan providing a meager sustenance of jaggery
and also where he sold his blanket to survive. In Nashik, the protagonist parts with a possession

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(Tukaram) for basic sustenance, and his subsequent encounters indicate a struggle for survival
amid varying reactions from the locales.
The poem navigates through moments of deprivation, where basic needs like food and
water become elusive. The encounters with individuals along the journey, marked by initial
aversion and abuses but culminating in acts of kindness, underscore the complexities of human
interactions amid hardship.
Themes
"The Turnaround" by Arun Kolatkar encapsulates the essence of a journey – both
physical and metaphorical – emblematic of his broader thematic explorations across his poetic
corpus. The poem traces the odyssey of an itinerant wanderer through various towns in
Maharashtra, portraying the hardships and realities faced by the marginalized. This journey
motif is recurrent in Kolatkar's oeuvre, threading through his various works. In "The
Turnaround," the physical trek from Bombay through towns like Kalyan, Nashik, Rotegaon, and
Kopargaon serves as a metaphor for a deeper existential quest. The journey isn’t solely
geographical but delves into the human experience, mirroring the quest for meaning and identity,
a recurring motif in Kolatkar's poetry.
The portrayal of the towns serves as a canvas illustrating the hues of urban life, reflecting
societal indifference, struggle, and a quest for sustenance. Each town embodies a microcosm of
human existence, where the narrator experiences instances of both kindness and harsh realities.
The poem's stark portrayal of the physical journey intertwines seamlessly with the metaphorical
journey – a quest for identity, meaning, and survival. Kolatkar weaves this motif into the broader
themes evident in his oeuvre: the search for spirituality, the individual's struggle in a rapidly
changing urban landscape, and the complexities of societal marginalization. The journey, in its
physical and symbolic manifestations, serves as a powerful lens through which Kolatkar
scrutinizes and critiques societal norms, individual struggles, and existential dilemmas.
Kolatkar’s renowned works, such as "Jejuri" and "Sarpa Satra," explore spiritual quests and the
deeper human journey, but with a more allegorical and mythological underpinning. "Jejuri"
scrutinizes the search for spirituality amidst the physical and metaphysical landscapes, whereas
"Sarpa Satra" explores human nature through myth and contemporary history.However, in
contrast to these more symbolic and allegorical pieces, "The Turnaround" offers a
straightforward narrative of a physical journey, mirroring the societal and existential struggles

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faced by the marginalized. The poem serves as a lens to view Kolatkar’s societal critiques,
reflecting the plight of those on the fringes of society in a direct, unadorned manner.
"The Turnaround" also shines in its stark portrayal of the human journey, emphasizing the
societal critique and the struggles of the marginalized. This distinct narrative approach
elucidates Kolatkar’s versatility, presenting a direct and raw depiction in contrast to the more
layered and allegorical nature of his other celebrated works. "The Turnaround," serves as a
poignant critique of societal norms, capturing the marginalized, the struggles, and the harsh
realities often overlooked by the mainstream narrative. It emphasizes the themes of poverty,
displacement, and the indifference of urban society towards those on the fringes. Each town in
the poem becomes a microcosm reflecting societal challenges, where the narrator encounters
both kindness and harshness, reflecting a broader societal dichotomy.
In "Jejuri," Kolatkar explores the disconnect between traditional spirituality and the
modern world. He critiques the commercialization of spirituality, questioning the essence of faith
in a rapidly changing society. In "Kala Ghoda Poems," Kolatkar satirizes the post-colonial urban
landscape, highlighting the disparity between the privileged and the marginalized
In "The Turnaround," Bombay is personified as a pivotal entity that shapes the narrator's
circumstances, portraying an urban landscape that molds destinies and determines livelihoods.
The poem presents a distinct depiction of the city and its influence on the individual within the
urban milieu. Bombay, portrayed as the initial antagonist, plays a crucial role in the narrator's
transformation into a beggar. This characterization mirrors the harshness and challenges often
associated with urban life, where the city's overwhelming nature can push individuals to the
margins of society. The city serves as a symbol of stark contrast. It's where the disparity between
affluence and destitution is most pronounced. The juxtaposition of Bombay as the catalyst for the
narrator's plight sets the tone for the societal critique within the poem, reflecting the city's
diverse facets—its opulence and its severe disparity.
The portrayal of Bombay like other cities in "The Turnaround" embodies the
quintessential urban landscape, painting a picture of an influential and formidable entity that
dictates the trajectory of individuals' lives within its realm. The city is not just a geographical
location but a force that shapes destinies, often exacerbating the struggles of those on its margins.
Kalyan is described as a smaller town in the poem, it offers the narrator a meager lump of
jaggery to suck, symbolizing a gesture of assistance in the face of adversity. It represents a
contrast to the overwhelming struggle faced in Bombay, portraying a glimpse of humility and

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communal support in a smaller urban setting. The narrator sells his Tukaram, an important
possession, to acquire basic sustenance like bread Nashik. This portrayal showcases the necessity
for survival in the face of poverty. In Rotegaon, the narrator confronts a trial, representing the
challenging and trying aspects of urban life. He dragged a dead dog away, gave up his sleep and
was scolded by a woman pissing in the dark. The ‘year of famine’ and the ‘dead bullock’ adds to
the narrator trial. Like a rag picker, the narrator picks up “beedi” and a “coin” from the road.
The incessant and exhaustive walking in Rotegaon shows the futility of the journey as: “ It was
walk walk and walk all the way”
Kopargaon is depicted as a town where the narrator learns of Stalin's death. It symbolizes
a larger urban area where begging is met with shame, and the narrator has to beg for food after a
long, tedious walk, revealing the societal attitude towards those seeking help. The narrator faces
difficulties in receiving aid, portraying the challenges of seeking support in a town with higher
societal expectations. With the scorching sun “like a hammer” on the head and “itching arse”, the
physical condition of the narrator deteriorates.
Each city in the poem offers a distinctive perspective on the urban landscape. They serve
as stages where the protagonist encounters diverse challenges, highlighting the varying degrees
of assistance, indifference, and struggle present in these different urban settings.
Style, Symbols and Imagery
Arun Kolatkar, in his poem "The Turnaround," skillfully employs vivid imagery and a
colloquial style to convey the raw essence of urban life and the struggles faced by the
marginalized. The use of imagery in the poem is evocative and vivid, painting a stark picture of
the narrator's journey through different cities. Lines such as "Kalyan gave me a lump of jaggery
to suck" conjure up a tangible, sensory experience, reflecting the small acts of kindness in a
harsh environment. The image of "a small village that had a waterfall but no name" creates a
sense of mystery and deprivation, emphasizing the anonymity and neglect faced by certain
locations.
Further, Kolatkar's use of colloquial language, such as "Bombay made me a beggar," I
gave myself a good bath/in a little stream” infuses the poem with an authentic and relatable tone.
This colloquial style allows for an immediate connection with the reader, drawing them into the
gritty reality of the narrator's experiences. The simple, conversational language brings a sense of
intimacy and familiarity, making the hardships faced by the narrator more palpable and relatable

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to the audience. The use of abusive language by the old woman not only shows the unfiltered
spontaneous depiction, embracing the emotional impact, capturing real life.
The combination of vivid imagery like “one of my chappals gave up the ghost” and
colloquial language in "The Turnaround" serves to create a profound and emotionally resonant
portrayal of urban life and the challenges faced by the marginalized. The poem is a testament to
Kolatkar's command over language and his unique approach to articulating the socio-cultural
realities of urban life. The poetic style in "The Turnaround" showcases Kolatkar's ability to
infuse everyday language with profound meaning. His employment of stark, unadorned language
including abusive words mirrors the harsh realities of poverty, displacement, and marginalization.
Kolatkar's stylistic choices with images like “The sun like a hammer on the head./An itching
arse” contribute to the creation of a vivid, almost cinematic representation of the narrator's
journey through different cities, capturing the reader's attention with its poignancy. The poem's
structure and form align with Kolatkar's larger body of work, characterized by brevity and
simplicity. The poem adopts a free verse style, allowing for a natural and unfiltered expression of
the narrator's experiences. Kolatkar's ability to convey a complex range of emotions and societal
issues through simple, concise language is a hallmark of his poetic style.
Kolatkar's diction, style, and thematic concerns in "The Turnaround" not only exemplify
his prowess as a poet but also contribute to a deeper understanding of his larger body of work,
serving as a poignant reflection of urban life and the experiences of the disenfranchised in the
complex societal fabric.
Significance of the Title “TheTurnaround”
The title "The Turnaround" in Arun Kolatkar's poem encapsulates a significant shift or
reversal in the narrator's life journey. It symbolizes a pivotal moment or series of moments that
alters the trajectory of the protagonist's experiences and perspective. The narrator's journey
through various cities, from being shaped by the harshness of Bombay to the small acts of
kindness in places like Kalyan and the struggle for survival in other towns, reflects a
transformative experience. The title symbolizes a critical point where the narrator's
circumstances, emotions, and perceptions undergo a substantial change. The term "turnaround"
also implies a change in direction, both literally and metaphorically. It denotes a shift from a
downward trajectory to a potentially upward or altered path. It signifies a moment of self-
realization, resilience, or adaptation in response to life's challenges. This transformation might
not be overtly positive, but it denotes a shift in the narrator's journey, character, or understanding

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of the world. Further, the title also alludes to a cyclical or repetitive nature of the protagonist's
experiences. The journey through various cities represents a cycle of highs and lows, triumphs
and hardships, which form an integral part of the narrator's existence.
In the context of Arun Kolatkar's body of work, the theme encapsulated in "The
Turnaround" reflects a recurrent motif found in many of his poems. Kolatkar's poetry often
navigates themes of transformation, societal critique, and the human experience in various
settings. In "Jejuri," the journey to the temple town represents a transformative experience,
reflecting a shift in perception or understanding about faith, culture, and tradition. Similarly, in
"Kala Ghoda Poems," the urban landscape becomes a backdrop for transformative moments,
portraying the complexities of modern city life.
Check your progress
1. Describe Arun Kolatkar’s early influences and educational background.
___________________________________________________________
2. What significant shift marked Kolatkar’s career?
________________________________________
3. Discuss the role of urban landscapes in “The Turnaround”.
_________________________________________________
4. How does Kolatkar’s bilingual proficiency contribute to his literary achievements?
____________________________________________________________________
13.2.2 Faiz Ahmad Faiz:
In this section we will discuss Faiz Ahmed Faiz as a poet and his contribution to the
Progressive Movement. Thereafter, we will study the poem “Shub-e-Azadi.”
Introduction to the Poet
Faiz Ahmad Faiz, an iconic figure in Urdu literature and an esteemed poet of the 20th
century, stands as a luminary whose verses resonate with profound insights, social consciousness,
and an unwavering commitment to the ideals of justice and freedom. Born on February 13, 1911,
in British India, Faiz embarked on a literary journey that transcended geographical and cultural
boundaries, leaving an indelible mark on the world of poetry.
Faiz's work reflects the tumultuous times in which he lived, encompassing the struggle
for independence, the partition of India, and the subsequent challenges faced by the newly
formed nations. His poetry serves as a powerful commentary on the sociopolitical landscape,
addressing issues of oppression, inequality, and the human condition. As a prominent member of

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the Progressive Writers' Movement, Faiz utilized his poetic prowess to advocate for social justice,
portraying the collective aspirations and struggles of the masses. His verses, characterized by a
seamless blend of classical Urdu traditions and modernist sensibilities, carry a timeless quality
that continues to captivate readers across generations.
Throughout his prolific career, Faiz authored several collections, including "Nuskha-e-
Ha-e-Wafa," "Dast-e-Saba," and "Zindan Nama." His enduring legacy extends beyond the realm
of literature, making him a symbol of resilience, intellectual prowess, and a beacon for those who
seek to confront societal injustices through the power of words. Faiz's poetic brilliance garnered
widespread recognition, and he received numerous awards and accolades for his contributions to
literature and social causes. In 1962, he was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize, and later, in 1976,
Faiz received the prestigious Nishan-e-Imtiaz, one of Pakistan's highest civilian honors. His
critical acclaim extended beyond national borders, solidifying his reputation as a poet of
international stature.
Faiz's personal life, marked by periods of imprisonment and exile due to his political
activism, reflected his unwavering commitment to the principles of justice and human rights.
Despite facing adversity, he remained steadfast in his pursuit of a just and equitable society. Faiz
Ahmad Faiz's legacy endures not only through his poetry but also through the impact of his ideas
on social and political spheres. His work has been studied, translated, and celebrated globally,
and his influence continues to shape the discourse on literature, politics, and human rights.
Faiz Ahmad Faiz and Progressive Writers’ Movement
Faiz Ahmad Faiz was an influential figure in the Progressive Writers' Movement, an
intellectual and literary initiative that emerged in the 1930s in British India. This movement
aimed to use literature and art as tools for social reform and political awakening. The Progressive
Writers' Movement was a literary and intellectual endeavor characterized by writers and poets
committed to using literature as a medium for social and political activism. This movement,
transcending linguistic and regional boundaries, featured writers from diverse backgrounds,
including Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, and Punjabi. A distinctive feature of the Progressive Writers was
their deep engagement with societal issues, advocating for social change, and promoting a
progressive worldview rooted in socialism, secularism, and anti-imperialism. Their poetry
focused on the struggles of the marginalized, addressing themes of exploitation, poverty, and
social inequality. Emphasizing realism and relevance, the movement sought to connect with the
masses by employing accessible language and direct narratives. The Progressive Writers'

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Movement fostered unity in diversity, bringing together writers of various cultural and religious
backgrounds who shared a common vision for social reform. Their work fused traditional poetic
forms with modernist techniques, creating a dynamic and innovative expression of ideas.
Patriotism and a strong sense of nationalism were evident in their writings, reflecting their active
participation in the freedom struggle. Key figures such as Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Sahir Ludhianvi, and
Ismat Chughtai played pivotal roles, leaving a lasting impact on the literary and cultural
landscape of the subcontinent.
Faiz, along with several other notable writers, played a crucial role in this movement,
using their pens to address social issues and advocate for change. The Progressive Writers'
Movement sought to break away from the literary traditions of the time, focusing on creating
works that highlighted the plight of the masses, critiqued societal norms, and called for social
justice. Faiz's poetry, in particular, became a powerful voice for the oppressed, speaking against
exploitation and advocating for the rights of the common people. Other prominent figures within
this movement included Saadat Hasan Manto, Ismat Chughtai, Ahmed Ali, Sajjad Zaheer, and
Mulk Raj Anand, among others. Each of these writers brought their unique perspectives and
talents to the forefront, collectively contributing to the movement's goals.
13.2.2.1 “Subh-e-Azadi” (“Dawn of Freedom”):
In this section, we will discuss the poem “Subh-e-Azadi” by Faiz Ahmed Faiz. We will
also explore the theme and study the use of symbols and imagery in the poem.
Introduction
The poem "Subh-e-Azadi" by Faiz Ahmad Faiz is a poignant depiction of the momentous
event of the Indian subcontinent's partition into Pakistan and India in August 1947. As a literary
masterpiece, it delves into the multifaceted theme of independence, exploring its nuanced effects,
aspirations, and the stark realities that emerged in the wake of this significant political
transition.In his contemplation of this historical juncture, Faiz captures the essence of
independence beyond the mere delineation of borders. His poetic narrative unfolds as a somber
reflection, unmasking the hidden realities and the idealistic dreams that once fueled the yearning
for a separate state. The poet's vision diverges from the popular narrative of freedom. For Faiz,
independence transcends the physical separation of territories; it embodies an ongoing struggle, a
relentless journey marked by unyielding challenges and enduring resistance.
In contrast to the prevailing optimism associated with newfound sovereignty, Faiz's
perspective harbors a sense of foreboding, forewarning the populace about the imminent

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difficulties and impediments awaiting them in the aftermath of liberation. His poetic rendition
exposes the underbelly of freedom, unveiling the shattered promises that form the foundation of
this newfound dawn. Faiz's verse culminates with a poignant message, urging the continuation of
the struggle. He underscores that the apparent destination of freedom is but an illusion, and the
promised dawn remains a distant aspiration yet to be achieved. The poet's somber tone and
piercing insights stand as a stark departure from the conventional glorification of independence,
unraveling the complexities and challenges inherent in the pursuit of liberty.
Theme
The main theme of "Subh-e-Azadi" by Faiz Ahmad Faiz revolves around the
complexities and nuances of achieving independence, specifically against the backdrop of the
partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. Faiz explores not only the jubilation and optimism
associated with the dawn of freedom but also delves into the unfulfilled promises, struggles, and
harsh realities that persist despite the apparent liberation.
The poem begins with an imagery-rich portrayal of dawn, symbolizing the long-awaited
moment of freedom. The breaking dawn represents a new beginning, fostering a sense of
optimism and hope. Faiz captures the collective aspiration for a brighter future, emphasizing the
positive energy associated with the attainment of independence. Beneath the surface of
celebration, Faiz introduces a poignant undertone by alluding to the unfulfilled promises that
accompanied the struggle for freedom. The poem suggests a sense of disillusionment,
questioning whether the promised dawn has truly arrived or if the anticipated ideals have been
compromised. Faiz employs powerful metaphors such as "Jawan Lahu" (youthful blood) to
symbolize the passionate and fervent nature of the struggle for independence. However, he also
highlights the hurdles and obstacles faced by the populace in achieving their goals. The line
"Chale jo yar to daman pe kitne hath pare" conveys the idea of impediments that thwarted the
realization of the envisioned independence.
Unlike celebratory narratives of independence, Faiz's poem looks beyond the immediate
moment and reflects on the aftermath. The poet contemplates the challenges and difficulties that
persist even after achieving political freedom. The poem suggests that true independence is a
continual process, extending beyond the political boundaries to address economic, social, and
emotional dimensions. In the final four lines, Faiz broadens the scope of the poem by
emphasizing the unity of humanity. He negates the conventional notion of "the moment of our
freedom" and advocates for a collective journey toward peace. The poet imparts a lesson of

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brotherhood and solidarity, suggesting that genuine freedom is attainable only when individuals
come together in harmony.
Thus, "Subh-e-Azadi" captures the multifaceted nature of freedom, addressing not only
the immediate joyous moment but also the enduring struggles, unmet promises, and the ongoing
quest for true and comprehensive independence. The poem invites readers to contemplate the
profound and complex journey toward a liberated existence.
Tone
The tone of "Subh-e-Azadi" by Faiz Ahmad Faiz is complex and multifaceted, reflecting
a range of emotions and perspectives associated with the theme of independence. Faiz employs a
blend of optimism, introspection, and subtle criticism, creating a nuanced tone that resonates
throughout the poem. The poem opens with an optimistic and celebratory tone as Faiz vividly
describes the breaking dawn, symbolizing the long-awaited moment of freedom. The imagery of
dawn is filled with hope and positive energy, capturing the collective sense of joy associated with
achieving independence. The tone gradually becomes reflective and contemplative. Faiz
introduces a layer of introspection, questioning the nature of freedom. The poet prompts readers
to think beyond the immediate joy and contemplate the unfulfilled promises and challenges that
persist in the aftermath of independence. The tone takes on a critical and questioning quality as
Faiz challenges the conventional narrative of independence. The poem suggests a level of
skepticism about whether the promised dawn has truly arrived and whether the anticipated ideals
have been compromised. This critical tone adds depth to the overall message of the poem.
Despite the subtle criticism, the poem maintains a tone of resilience and determination as Faiz
acknowledges the struggles and hurdles faced during the quest for independence but encourages
a continued struggle for the true goals of freedom. The poem's tone carries a sense of
perseverance in the face of challenges. Finally, the tone becomes humanistic and unity-driven.
Faiz emphasizes the importance of brotherhood and solidarity, steering the poem toward a tone
of collective responsibility for achieving genuine freedom. The poet imparts a lesson of peace
and unity, contributing to a tone that transcends individual struggles for a broader societal good.
Thus, the tone of "Subh-e-Azadi" is a rich amalgamation of celebration, introspection,
criticism, resilience, and humanistic ideals. Faiz Ahmad Faiz navigates through these tones to
deliver a layered and nuanced exploration of independence and the ongoing quest for true
freedom.

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 Style
Faiz Ahmad Faiz's poetic style in "Subh-e-Azadi" is characterized by lyrical eloquence,
vivid imagery, and a profound engagement with socio-political themes. The diction employed by
Faiz is both elevated and poetic, evident in phrases like "ravished with freedom," and
"transparent light." The poem unfolds with a seamless flow, facilitated by enjambment, mirroring
the continuous and ongoing nature of the struggle for freedom. Faiz strategically uses repetition,
as seen in phrases like "this is not that Dawn" and "come away from this false light," to
emphasize his urgent message and underscore the stark contrasts between anticipated ideals and
compromised realities.
The symbol of the "night's vagrant wave" conveys the tumultuous and unpredictable
nature of the journey towards independence, emphasizing the challenges faced. The poem also
features mythical allusions, such as the Sirens, adding complexity to the diction and contributing
to its allegorical nature. The overall tone is both forward-looking and inspirational, encapsulated
in the call to action at the poem's conclusion, urging readers to "search for that promised dawn."
The use of alliteration, as in "tarnished rays" and "transparent light," adds a musical quality to
the poem, enhancing its aesthetic appeal. Additionally, Faiz employs paradoxes, such as the
"terrible rampant lie," to convey the disillusionment inherent in the achieved freedom.
Images and Symbols
In "Subh-e-Azadi," Faiz Ahmad Faiz exhibits a masterful command of language and
imagery, employing powerful symbols to craft layers of meaning that resonate deeply. The
central symbol of the "Dawn" represents the collective hope for political independence, and
Faiz's choice of descriptors like "tarnished rays" and "night-smudged light" paints a vivid picture
of the disillusionment that follows the actualization of this freedom. The metaphor of "muslims
of transparent light" encapsulates both fragility and purity, enriching the symbolic representation
of the envisioned dawn. The "night's vagrant wave" becomes a compelling image, symbolizing
the unpredictable and tumultuous nature of the struggle for freedom. Faiz uses the Sirens with
their "beguiling arms" and "bare bodies" as a potent metaphor for distractions that divert
individuals from the pursuit of genuine freedom. The “lantern by the road” becomes a beacon of
guidance, heightening the anticipation and the perpetual quest for the promised dawn. The
repetition of the refrain "this is not that Dawn" reinforces the symbolic contrast between the
envisioned and compromised realities, creating a rhythmic resonance of disappointment. The
powerful image of night weighing down on the people conveys the enduring burden of past

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struggles, solidifying the poem's overarching theme. Faiz's meticulous crafting of these images
and symbols in "Subh-e-Azadi" transforms the poem into a poignant and timeless commentary
on the complexities of India’s independence. The image of "broken promises" serves as a
powerful metaphor, emphasizing the disparities between the anticipated freedom and the
compromised reality. The "apparent destination" and the "promised dawn" become symbols of
illusory achievements, reinforcing Faiz's skepticism about the true nature of political
independence. The metaphorical use of "terrible rampant lie" unveils a harsh critique, suggesting
the pervasive deception surrounding the proclaimed freedom. The image of "hands tugging at our
sleeves" evokes a sense of urgency and external pressures, symbolizing the various forces
attempting to influence the trajectory of the struggle. Additionally, the "search for that promised
Dawn" becomes an enduring image of resilience and determination, showcasing the perpetual
quest for genuine freedom despite setbacks.
Check your progress
1. How did Faiz’s personal life reflect his commitment to his principles?
_________________________________________________________
2. How did Faiz’s poetry contribute to the goals of the Progressive Writers’ Movement?
_____________________________________________________________________
3. What historical event does “Subh-e-Azadi” depict, and what is Faiz’s perspective on it?
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Identify and explain symbols and imagery used in “Subh-e-Azadi”.
________________________________________________________
13.2.3 Gurujada Appa Rao:
In this section, you will be introduced to the poet Gurujada Appa Rao and his
contributions to modernism in Telugu poetry. Later, you will study his poem “Love thy Country.”
Introduction
Gurajada Venkata Apparao, affectionately known as Gurajada, stands as a luminary figure
in the rich tapestry of Telugu literature and cultural reform during the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. Born on either November 30, 1861, or September 21, 1862 (the latter being the
preferred date by his descendants), Gurajada's life journey unfolded against the backdrop of a
changing society, colonial India, and the princely state of Vizianagaram. Hailing from a Telugu
Brahmin family, Gurajada's early life was marked by familial roots in the Kalinga region, and his
father, Venkata Rama Dasu, held significant positions in the Vizianagaram Samsthanam.

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Gurajada's education, which commenced in Cheepurupalli and continued in Vizianagaram, faced
financial challenges following his father's untimely death. Despite the hardships, he emerged as a
scholar, completing his matriculation in 1882 and obtaining an F.A. in 1884. Gurajada's
association with the ruling family of Vizianagaram became a defining aspect of his adult life. His
relationship with Maharajah Pusapati Ananda Gajapati Raju and later, as a trusted advisor to
Maharani Appala Kondamamba, not only shaped his personal trajectory but also influenced his
perspectives on societal issues. In the realm of literature, Gurajada's contributions were
revolutionary. His seminal work, the play Kanyasulkam (1892), challenged societal norms and
critiqued the deplorable condition of widows in traditional Brahmin families. The play,
considered a masterpiece, was the first Telugu drama written in spoken dialect, showcasing
Gurajada's commitment to addressing social inequalities and moral standards.
Beyond the stage, Gurajada made significant strides in poetry and literary activism. His
English poems, including "Sarangadhara," displayed linguistic versatility. However, it was his
transition to Telugu, encouraged by contemporaries like Sambhu Chandra Mukherji and
Gundukurti Venkata Ramanayya, that marked a turning point in his literary career. Gurajada's
tireless efforts extended to social reform and education. His involvement in the Voluntary Service
Corps, membership in debating clubs, and advocacy for curriculum reform in high schools
underscored his commitment to broader societal betterment. The later years of Gurajada's life
saw continued literary output, including the revised edition of Kanyasulkam in 1909, and the
composition of the renowned Telugu patriotic song "Desamunu Preminchumanna" in 1910.
Despite health challenges and financial hardships, Gurajada's legacy persisted through his
literary achievements and commitment to societal upliftment. Gurajada Venkata Apparao's
influence transcended his lifetime. He remains a revered figure in the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh,
with streets, statues, and cultural institutions bearing his name. His enduring impact on Telugu
literature, coupled with his unwavering dedication to social reform, cements Gurajada's place as
a pioneer whose contributions continue to resonate in the cultural and literary heritage of
undivided Andhra Pradesh.
Gurujada Venkata Appa Rao and Modernism in Telugu Literature
Gurujada Venkata Appa Rao, a visionary in the realm of Telugu literature, is widely
recognized as a trailblazer of modernism, particularly for his groundbreaking work in the
development of modern Telugu drama. Born during a time when the British Empire strengthened
its influence in India, Gurujada witnessed the influx of English and Italian dramatic troupes

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touring the subcontinent, presenting works, notably those of Shakespeare, in cities like Bombay
and Madras.The advent of modern drama in India had its roots in the eighteenth century, and
pioneers like Rabindranath Tagore and Sri Aurobindo emerged as the first Indian dramatists in
English. Simultaneously, secular play-writing in regional languages, such as Bengali and Marathi,
gained momentum following the establishment of universities in cities like Bombay, Calcutta,
and Madras in the mid-1850s.
Gurujada Venkata Appa Rao's literary contributions, particularly his stance on the
language and form of Telugu literature, marked a departure from traditional norms. While
acknowledging Telugu as a language of sweetness, culture, and politeness, he advocated for a
departure from Sanskrit elements and archaic grammatical structures that had dominated
medieval Telugu. His critique of the Telugu literary dialect highlighted the need for a more
accessible and contemporary form of expression, free from the constraints of outdated linguistic
conventions.Gurujada was not merely a linguistic innovator but also a social reformer with a
keen understanding of the changing dynamics in Telugu society. His magnum opus,
Kanyasulkam, published in 1897, stands as a landmark in Telugu literature, representing a critical
juncture when society grappled with the clash between tradition and colonial modernity. This
seminal work addressed pressing social issues, notably the system of bride-price and the
exploitative practice of selling young girls as brides to elderly men.The impact of Kanyasulkam
extends beyond its thematic exploration; it played a pivotal role in shaping the modern sensibility
of Telugu literature. Gurujada's work embodies the spirit of the time, marked by a self-reflexive
examination of socio-cultural institutions, a departure from orthodoxy, language reform, a quest
for new literary forms, and the growing significance of prose as a means of disseminating ideas
and ideologies.
13.2.3.1 “Love Thy Country”:
In this section, will study the poem “Love Thy Country” and examine the themes,
symbols, and imagery in the poem.
Themes
In the poem, the themes and style are aligned with a call to action for individuals to
actively contribute to the well-being and progress of their country and the world at large. The
repeated emphasis on love for the country is not merely a sentimental expression but a call to
engage in practical and meaningful actions. The poet discourages idle talk and encourages
thoughtful deeds that contribute to national prosperity.

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 The association between wealth and health suggests a holistic approach to national
development, highlighting the interdependence of economic well-being and the health of the
populace. The poem's advocacy for education as a cornerstone for progress underscores the
importance of knowledge in fostering societal advancement. The poet's directive to move beyond
empty claims of patriotism to tangible acts of welfare reflects a desire for practical, positive
change. The poem employs a straightforward and commanding style, using imperatives and
repetition to drive home the message.
In the final stanza, the poem expands its scope to a global perspective, advocating for
unity among nations and religions for the greater cause of world peace and progress. This
underscores a vision of interconnections and collaboration, suggesting that progress and well-
being are not isolated endeavors but require collective efforts on a global scale.
Overall, the poem serves as a motivational piece urging individuals to translate their love
for their country into concrete actions, contributing not only to national development but also to
the broader goal of global harmony and progress.
Style
The poem exhibits a straightforward and didactic style with clear, concise language. The
diction is simple yet meaningful, urging the people to understand the real meaning of Patriotism.
The poet employs imperative statements such as "Love the country," "Stop the Useless talk," and
"Learn all kinds of Education," creating a sense of direct instruction and encouragement for the
reader to take action. The use of short, active verbal phrases contributes to the motivational tone
of the poem. The repetition of phrases like "Raise the Goodness" and "Build a great National
Wealth" serves to emphasize key concepts, reinforcing the importance of positive actions and
contributions to the nation.
The poet uses vivid imagery, particularly in phrases like "Stride in the way leading to
Wealth and Health of Nation," which creates a visual representation of progress and prosperity.
The style is also characterized by a rhythmic flow, created by the use of parallelism and balanced
structures in the lines. This rhythmic quality enhances the motivational and uplifting nature of
the poem, making it suitable for a motivational speech or a call to action.
In terms of diction and style, the poem strikes a balance between simplicity and impact,
effectively conveying its themes of patriotism, individual responsibility, and global cooperation
in a manner that resonates with a diverse audience.

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 Symbols and Images
The central theme revolves around patriotism, which is not just an abstract love for the
country, but translates into efforts and action towards its progress and development. The use of
phrases like "Love the country" and "Raise the Goodness" suggests a call to action, encouraging
readers to express their love for their nation through positive and constructive deeds. The
imagery of "Stride in the way leading to Wealth and Health of Nation" invokes a sense of
progress and prosperity so that the well-being of individuals to the overall health of the country.
The emphasis on ‘good food’ and a ‘healthy appearance’ further underscores the
importance of individual well-being in contributing to the nation's strength. The phrase "Learn
all kinds of Educations, Build a great National Wealth" suggests that education is seen as a key
element in fostering national prosperity. The poet discourages mere verbal expressions of
patriotism, urging individuals to engage in tangible acts for the welfare of their countrymen. The
phrase "take up a welfare act for your Countrymen and show the world the good results"
emphasizes the need for practical, positive contributions.
The concluding lines about nations and religions walking hand in hand for world peace
and progress evoke a sense of unity and global cooperation. This imagery of nations as
"brothers" implies a shared responsibility for creating a harmonious and progressive world.
To conclude, the poem employs a motivational and instructional tone, using everyday
images and symbols to convey the importance of personal responsibility, education, and practical
actions in contributing to the well-being and progress of both the individual and the nation.
Check your progress
1. Who was Gurujada Venkata Appa Rao, and what is his significance in Telugu literature?
_____________________________________________________________________
2. What themes are emphasized in “Love Thy Country”?
______________________________________________
3. Describe the style and tone of “Love Thy Country”.
___________________________________________
4. How did Gurajada’s views on language and form contribute to modernism in Telugu
literature?
_____________________________________________________________________

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13.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should have an idea about the greatness of Arun Kolatkar,
Faiz Ahmed Faiz, and Gurujada Appa Rao through a comparative study of their poems, “The
Turnaround,” “Shub-e-Azadi,” and “Love Thy Country,” respectively.

13.4 Glossary

Bhakri: A type of unleavened Indian bread, often associated with rural or traditional settings.
Chappal: Indian term for a sandal or slipper, symbolizing wear and tear and the challenges faced
during the journey.
Hands Tugging at Our Sleeves: Symbolizes external pressures and influences on the struggle
for freedom.
Hejira: A migration or journey, often undertaken for religious reasons; in the context of the
poem, it refers to the narrator's journey through various towns.
Kopargaon: A town mentioned in the poem, representing a stage in the narrator's travels and
experiences.
Lantern by the Road: Symbolizes guidance and the perpetual quest for the promised dawn.
Rotegaon: A town mentioned in the poem, symbolizing a specific phase in the narrator's journey.
Sirens: Metaphorical figures representing distractions and temptations diverting from the pursuit
of freedom.
Stream: Represents a natural element in the narrator's journey, offering a cleansing experience
and perhaps a moment of reflection.
Tukaram: Likely a reference to Saint Tukaram, a 17th-century Marathi poet and saint,
symbolizing a valuable possession.
Useless Talk: Refers to meaningless or unproductive discussions, discouraged in the poem in
favor of taking positive actions.
Wealth and Health of Nation: A recurring theme in the poem, symbolizing the overall
prosperity and well-being of a nation.
Stride: A metaphorical term in the poem, suggesting purposeful and determined progress
towards national prosperity.

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13.5 Sample Questions

13.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. What does the city of Bombay symbolize in Kolatkar's poem "The Turnaround"?
(a) Prosperity
(b) Transformation
(c) Poverty
(d) Joy
2. In the poem, what is the significance of the narrator selling his Tukaram in Nashik?
(a) Spiritual enlightenment
(b) Purchase of food
(c) Journey continuation
(d) Loss of identity
3. What does the metaphor "chappal gave up the ghost" suggest in the poem?
(a) The narrator's footwear became a ghost
(b) The worn-out state of the footwear
(c) A supernatural event on the journey
(d) The narrator encountered a ghost.
4. How does the stream in the poem contribute to the narrator's journey?
(a) It symbolizes an obstacle
(b) It represents a physical boundary
(c) It serves as a space for purification and renewal
(d) It marks the end of the journey
5. In the context of the poem, what does the "night's vagrant wave" symbolize?
(a) A peaceful transition to freedom
(b) The unpredictable and tumultuous nature of the struggle
(c) A moment of clarity in the darkness
(d) The inevitable triumph of the oppressed
6. What does the image of "broken promises" signify in Faiz's critique in "Subh-e-Azadi"?
(a) Unfulfilled aspirations of the people
(b) Deceptive nature of political leaders
(c) Failed attempts at reconciliation

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 (d) A narrative of shattered dreams
7. What is the significance of the metaphor "terrible rampant lie" in the poem?
(a) A hopeful declaration for the future
(b) A critique of political deception and propaganda
(c) A symbol of enduring truth
(d) An expression of unwavering optimism in the face of challenges
8. The lines "Like Brothers, the nations and religions should walk hand in hand" advocate for:
(a) Cultural isolation
(b) Global unity and cooperation
(c) Religious intolerance
(d) Nationalistic pride
9. According to the poem, what is the key to the Wealth and Health of the Nation?
(a) Political stability
(b) Technological innovation
(c) Education and a healthy lifestyle
(d) Natural resources
10. In the poem "Love the Country," what central theme is emphasized in the lines "raise the
Goodness"?
(a) National pride
(b) Moral integrity
(c) Economic prosperity
(d) Cultural diversity
13.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. How does the depiction of various towns, including Bombay, Kalyan, and Nashik,
contribute to the overarching themes in "The Turnaround"?
2. Briefly explain the symbolic meaning behind the worn-out chappal in the poem. How
does it represent a significant aspect of the narrator's journey?
3. How does Faiz Ahmad Faiz use the metaphor "terrible rampant lie" to convey his critique
of the post-independence reality in "Subh-e-Azadi"?
4. What is the thematic implications of the lantern by the road as a symbol of guidance in
the poem. How does this image contribute to the overall narrative and tone of "Subh-e-
Azadi"?

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 5. How does the poet emphasize the connection between individual health and the progress
of the country?
13.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. Discuss the socio-cultural aspects highlighted during the narrator's stay in Rotegaon.
How does this episode contribute to the overall societal critique in "The Turnaround"?
2. Discuss the thematic significance of the refrain "this is not that Dawn" in Faiz's poem.
How does this repetition contribute to the poem's structure and emotional impact?
3. Discuss the poet's perspective on patriotism and its manifestation in actions for the
welfare of the country.

13.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Ahmed, Faiz. The Colours of My Heart: Selected Poems. Penguin Random House India, 2017.
2. Dubrow, Jennifer. "The aesthetics of the fragment: Progressivism and literary modernism in
the work of the All-India Progressive Writers’ Association." Journal of Postcolonial
Writing 55.5 (2019): 589-601.
3. Meharotra A.K. 2009, “Introduction,” Boatride and Other Poems. Mumbai: Pras Prakashan,
2009. Print.
4. Nerlekar, Anjali. Bombay Modern: Arun Kolatkar and Bilingual Literary Culture. Vol. 23.
Northwestern University Press, 2016.
5. Suryanarayana, Peri (1 January 1968). The life and greatness of Sri Gurajada Venkata
Apparao. Vignana Sahiti Publications.

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 Unit - 14:
(a) Habba Khatoon: “Lol of the lonely Pine”
(b) Amir Khusrau: “Just by Casting a glance”
(c) Tagore: “Give me Strength”

Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Comparative Poetry
14.2.1 “Give Me Strength”
14.2.1.1 Rabindranath Tagore
14.2.1.2 Appreciation of the poem
14.2.1.3 Significance of the title
14.2.1.4 Poetic devices
14.2.2 “Lol of the Lonely Pine”
14.2.2.1 Habba Khatoon
14.2.2.2 Appreciation of the poem
14.2.2.3 Significance of the title of the poem
14.2.2.4 Poetic devices
14.2.3 “Just by Casting a Glance”
14.2.3.1 Amir Khusro
14.2.3.2 Appreciation of the poem
14.2.3.3 Significance of the title of the poem
14.2.3.4 Poetic devices
14.2.4 Comparative Assessment of the poetic genius of Rabindranath Tagore, Habba
Khatoon, and Amir Khusro
14.2.5 Thematic Comparison of Rabindranath Tagore’s poem “Give Me Strength”,
Habba Khatoon’s “Lol of the Lonely Pine”, and Amir Khusro’s “Just by
Casting a Glance”
14.2.6 Symbolism/Imagery in Rabindranath Tagore’s poem “Give Me Strength”,
Habba Khatoon’s “Lol of the Lonely Pine”, and Amir Khusro’s “Just by
Casting a Glance”
14.3 Learning Outcomes
14.4 Glossary
14.5 Sample Questions
14.6 Suggested Learning Resources

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14.0 Introduction

This Unit attempts to analyze Rabindranath Tagore’s poem Give Me Strength, Habba
Khatoon’s Lol of the Lonely Pine and Amir Khusro’s Just by Casting a Glance. These three
poets are placed in their respective milieu and their poetic genius is evaluated. The above
mentioned poems are critically appreciated. The thematic comparison of these poems is
undertaken. Symbolism and imagery employed in these poems are juxtaposed. The various
poetic devices employed are also taken into consideration.

14.1 Objectives

The Objectives of this Unit are to:

 critically appreciate Rabindranath Tagore’s poem Give Me Strength, Habba Khatoon’s
Lol of the Lonely Pine and Amir Khusro’s Just by Casting a Glance
 evaluate the poetic devices employed in the above mentioned poems
 understand the poetic genius of Rabindranath Tagore, Habba Khatoon and Amir
Khusro and make a comparative assessment
 make a thematic comparison of these poems
 examine the use of imagery in these poems

14.2 Comparative Poetry

14.2.1 “Give Me Strength”:

Let us first read the prescribed poem as given below:

This is my prayer to thee, my lord --- strike,

strike at the root of penury in my heart.

Give me the strength lightly to bear my joys and sorrows.

Give me the strength to make my love fruitful in service.

Give me the strength never to disown the poor or bend

my knees before insolent might.

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 Give me the strength to raise my mind high above daily trifles.

And give me the strength to surrender my strength to thy

will with love.

Rabindranath Tagore

14.2.1.1 Rabindranath Tagore:

Rabindranath Tagore was born in 1861 in a reputed family. His mother passed away when
he was young. His father used to travel a lot. So he was brought up by servants. His family was
involved in the Bengal Renaissance. So he actively participated in the Renaissance movement at
a young age.
Rabindranath Tagore was sent to a school in England for education. But he had no
interest in formal education. He dropped out of school and college and learned Shakespeare's
works on his own. Then he came back to India and got married to Mrinalini Devi.
Tagore composed the National Anthem of India. He was a mystic poet. He was also a
dramatist, novelist and a painter. He gave lectures in Japan and USA. People of Western
countries appreciated his works. He was the first non-European to receive a Nobel Prize in
Literature. His 'Amar Shonar Bangla' became the National Anthem of Bangladesh. One of his
works was taken up as National Anthem of Sri Lanka.
Tagore was inspired by Kalidasa's poetry. His siblings, some of them poets and
philosophers also influenced him. He was taught Literature, History, Arts, Maths etc. by his
siblings. Later, Tagore established an experimental school in Santiniketan in 1901. The school
followed Guru-Shishya model of teaching. Classes were engaged under the trees. He also toured
several countries to popularize his ideology.
Tagore wrote short stories such as Kabuliwala, Kshudita Pashan, Atotju, Haimanti,
Musalmanir, Golpo. He mostly criticized Hindu marriages and customs in his stories. He wrote
novels like Noukadubi, Gora, Chaturanga, Ghare Baire and Jogajog. His novels depict the
dangers of nationalism and other social evils. He wrote many plays. One of his famous play was
Valmiki Pratibha which dealt with the life of the dacoit Valmiki. Gitanjali was one of the famous
poems written by him. Tagore turned to drawing and painting at the age of sixty. Exhibitions in
Europe displayed his paintings due to their uniqueness.

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 Tagore rejected nationalism but desired Indian independence. He criticized colonialism
through his songs. He received Knighthood from Britishers in 1915. But he renounced it because
of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Most of Tagore's works were adopted into films and TV serials.
Tagore was ill for the last four years of his life. He went into coma in 1937 and died on 7
August 1941.

Check your progress

1) Why did Santiniketan became famous?

__________________________________
2) How did Tagore learn literature and art?
__________________________________
3) Why did Tagore renounce Knighthood conferred on him by the Britishers?
______________________________________________________________

14.2.1.2 Appreciation of the poem:

Rabindranath Tagore's Give Me Strength is an inspirational poem. The poem is a prayer to
God. The poet asks God to provide him strength to face the problems in life. The poem is short.
The poet prays to God to strike at the core of his heart and remove ignorance. He requests God to
provide him with strength to sustain the joys and sorrows of life with same spirit. He wants to
become stoic. He intends to serve mankind with sincerity and humility. He wishes to help the
needy and never bow before rude and disrespectful authority. He also wishes that he should rise
above trivial things and surrender himself to the will of God.

Check your progress

1) Why did Tagore ask God to provide him?

____________________________________
2) How does Tagore intend to serve mankind?
____________________________________
3) What does Tagore wish for?
___________________________________

14.2.1.3 Significance of the title:

In the poem Give Me Strength, Tagore aims at spiritual strength. He does not refer to
material poverty. He wishes not to have any spiritual weakness in his heart. So he prays to God

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to remove the spiritual weakness from his heart. There should be no space for it in his life. It will
enable him to serve the poor selflessly.
Human relationship with God is incomplete without selflessness. One should surrender
completely to the will of God. This is a significant requirement to the acceptance of God as a
Supreme Being. So the poet prays to God to elevate him spiritually and give him enough courage
to face this world.

Check your progress

1) What does Tagore aim at?

______________________________
2) How is the title of the poem significant?
___________________________________
3) Why does the poet wish not to have spiritual weakness?
________________________________________________

14.2.1.4 Poetic devices:

Figures of speech are used effectively in the poem. Repetition is used in the poem for
enhancing poetic effect. The word or a phrase is repeated for emphasis. The words 'me', 'my' and
'to' are repeated in the poem to point out the significance of the self. The phrase 'give me the
strength' is repeated in all the lines, except the first two, which indicates that the poem is a prayer
to God. Alliteration is used in the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh line of the poem.
Anaphora is used at the beginning of some consecutive lines. For instance, the word 'give'
is repeated. 'Anadiplosis' is found in two or more consecutive lines. The word ‘strike’ joins the
lines. Oxymoron is used in the third line of the poem. The words ‘joys’ and ‘sorrows’ contrast
each other.
The rhyming scheme of the poem is ab, ab. Trochaic pentameter and rondeau rhyme is
used. The poem is written in tercets and is in free verse.

Check your progress

1. What is the form and structure of the poem?

____________________________________

2. Why is the phrase ‘give me strength’ repeated in all the lines?

________________________________________________

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 3. How does the poet used ‘alliteration’ effectively in the poem?

_________________________________________________

14.2.2 “Lol of the Lonely Pine”:

Let us first read the prescribed poem by Habba Khatoon as given below:
The one who dazzles –have you seen that one?
Upon him look!
A sleepless stream in search of him I run,
A restless brook.
In far off woods, a lonely pine I stood
Till he appeared,
My woodcutter, and came to cut the wood.
His fire I feared,
Yet though he burn my logs, behold I shine,
My ashes wine.
---- Habba Khatoon
14.2.2.1 Habba Khatoon:
Habba Khatoon was a legendary Kashmiri women poet of the 16th century. She was born
in Chandrahar, Pampore in Pulwama. She was very beautiful; hence named Zoon which means
the Moon. She acquired education from a village Moulvi. She was married to a peasant when she
was quite young. Her in-laws could not realize her poetic genius. It led to constant conflicts
which turned abusive and ultimately led to her divorce. Thus she got separated from her husband
and went to her parents’ home. She could not recover from this pain and took to singing. She
used to wander in the fields in the valley and sing songs of love and separation. Her melodious
voice and beauty impressed Prince Yusuf Shah Chak who fell in love with her. Yusuf Shah
married her and she was given the title of Habba Khatoon. Yusuf Khan became the ruler of
Kashmir and lived happily with her for four years. Then Mughal Emperor imprisoned Yusuf
Shah Chak and then he never saw Habba again.
Habba got separated from her husband again. Destiny gave her a severe blow for the
second time. She led her life in pain. Then she composed sad lyrics while wandering in the
different villages.

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 Check your progress
1. Why was Habba Khatoon called ‘Zoon’?
__________________________________
2. Who gave Zoon the title ‘Habba Khatoon’?
__________________________________
3. How was Habba Khatoon separated from Yusuf Shah Chak?
_________________________________
14.2.2.2 Appreciation of the poem:
Lol of the Lonely Pine is a romantic lyric. It deals with Habba Khatoon’s yearning for her
beloved. Habba Khatoon describes her lover as a charming young man. She is in search of him.
She desperately wants to meet him. She expresses that she could not sleep peacefully. His
thoughts torment her and she is restless. She wanders alone in the forests. She hopes to meet her
lover in the forests. Her lover is a woodcutter who appeared in the forest later. She fears that he
will burn the wood. She speaks metaphorically here. The fire that she refers to, is perhaps the
woodcutter’s desire. The ‘logs’ is a reference to her body. She is ready to be burnt. She agrees to
satisfy his desire. She expresses that their communion would in fact make her more beautiful.
The poem reveals Habba Khatoon’s desire to meet her beloved. It reveals that long separation
has caused a burning desire in her.
Check your progress
1. What is the poem about?
________________________________
2. Why could not the lady sleep peacefully?
________________________________
3. Who is the woodcutter?
_______________________________
14.2.2.3 Significance of the title of the poem:
The title of the poem Lol of the Lonely Pine is quite significant. The poem is a lyric of a
lonely lady. The lady is separated from her lover. She is youthful and beautiful but fate has
something else in store for her. She could not enjoy the company of her lover. The pain of sorrow
caused by separation is too much for her. The separation had made her alone. She yearns to meet
her lover. His thoughts trouble her and she finds it difficult to live without him. She could not

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sleep at night. She becomes restless and desires union with her lover. In fact, she wanders in the
forest alone in the hope of meeting his lover. She sings songs of love, pain and separation. Thus,
the title of the poem indicates the lady’s pain at the separation from her lover. It also reveals her
desire for communion.
Check your progress
1. How is the title of the poem relevant to its theme?
_______________________________________
2. Why is the lady restless?
_____________________________________
3. Why does the lady wander alone in the forest?
____________________________________
14.2.2.4 Poetic devices:
Iambic foot is used in the poem. Unstressed syllable is followed by the stressed syllable.
Pentameter is found in each line followed by diameter in the alternate lines. The rhyme scheme
of the poem is ab ab cd cd ee. The last two lines in the poem form a heroic couplet and the final
words of the lines rhyme with each other. The word ‘shine’ rhymes with ‘wine’ ending on an
emotional note. Masculine rhyme is used as the rhyme falls on the final stressed syllable at the
end of the line.
Figures of speech are used by the poet which enhances artistic effect. Repetition is used
in the first line; the word ‘one’ is repeated to emphasize the point that the search was for a
particular person close to that lady. Inversion is used in the second line and the ninth line.
Alliteration is used in the third line. The sound ‘s’ is repeated which creates musical effect.
Alliteration is also used in the seventh and eighth line. Personification is used in the third line.
The stream is ascribed a human quality. It is referred to as being sleepless. Thus, figures of
speech are used to a greater effect in this poem that lends charm to it.
Check your progress
1. What is the rhyme scheme of the poem?
_________________________________
2. Which rhyme is used in the poem?
_________________________________
3. Point out instances of alliteration in the poem.

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 ________________________________
14.2.3 “Just by Casting a Glance”:
Let us first read the prescribed poem by Amir Khusro as given below:
You’ve taken away my looks, my identity, by just a glance.
You’ve taken away my looks, my identity, by just a glance.
By making me drink the wine of love-potion,
You’ve intoxicated me by just a glance;
My fair, delicate wrists with green bangles in them,
Have been held tightly by you with just a glance.
I give my life to you, Oh my cloth-dyer,
You’ve dyed me in yourself, by just a glance.
I give my whole life to you, Oh, Nijam,
You’ve made me your bride, by just a glance.
You’ve taken away my looks, my identity, by just a glance.
--- Amir Khusro
14.2.3.1 Amir Khusro:
Amir Khusro was a prominent personality of medieval India. He was born in Patiyali,
Uttar Pradesh in 1253. His father was Turkish and mother, an Indian. His father died when he
was young. So he lived with his maternal grandparents. His grandfather was an attendance
master of soldiers at the palace of Emperor Ghayasuddin Balban. Khusro used to visit court with
his grandfather and thus became acquainted with famous literary figures. He took interest in
poetry and music. He got training in horse riding and martial arts. Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, a
Sufi saint was his spiritual master.
Amir Khusro is credited with the composition of Khayal of North Indian classical music
called Hindustani. He transformed raga Dhrupad mixing Persian tunes in it. He composed
Qawwali on the lines of Bhajans. He used Bhojpuri and Persian, popularly called Hindvi in his
poetry. Many of his poems are used today by Ghazal singers.
Khusro was a royal poet during the regime of Sultan Alauddin. Alauddin was morally
upright and banned intoxicants. Khusro supported him in this movement. He made all people,
irrespective of caste and class, his disciples. He inspired people to lead a good life devoid of all
evils. He started regular prayers for all and even the rich and those holding positions attended

216
those prayers. People turned towards mysticism and devoutedness. Khusro’s teachings were so
effective that people abstained from evils and focused on spirituality and ethics.
Amir Khusro also contributed to the Hindu-Muslim unity. He wrote in Hindvi language
which appealed to many people. In1310, Khusro became a disciple of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya,
a Sufi saint. Khusro was a prolific poet. He introduced the ghazal, a form of poetry in India. He
was the first to compose paheli. He introduced khayal and tarana styles and was a pioneer in
Hindustani music who combined Persian and Arabic elements. Khusro used eleven metrical
patterns. He wrote Ghazal, Masnavi, Qata, Rubai, Do-Beti and Tarkibhand. He had command
over Turkish, Persian, Arabic, Hindi and Sanskrit. His blend of Persian-Hindi as suggested by his
master Hazrat Nizamuddin was constructed to foster a bond between Hindus and Muslims.
Khusro was a favourite disciple of Sufi saint, Hazrat Nizamuddin. He died six months after the
death of Hazrat Nizamuddin and lies buried next to the grave of his master.
Check your progress
1. How did Amir Khusro get interested in music and arts ?
_____________________________________________
2. What is Amir Khusro’s contribution to Indian music?
_____________________________________________
3. What was the relationship between Amir Khusro and Hazrat Nizamuddin?
___________________________________________________________
14.2.3.2 Appreciation of the poem:
The poem reflects the relationship between the poet and his preceptor. The poet compares
his preceptor to his beloved. The poet says that the beloved has subsumed his looks and even his
identity by just looking at him slightly. The beloved has made him drink the elixir of love. He
has compelled him to drink the magical drink that made him emotionally excited.
The poet tells her that her hands are fair and delicate with green bangles worn. The hand
has been held firmly by the lover. This state has been induced by the lover. The poet refers to his
lover as cloth-dyer who has immersed the poet in his love. The poet is ready to dedicate entire
life to the lover. The poet dedicates some of the lines of the poem to his preceptor, Hazrat
Nizamuddin Auliya. The poet calls his preceptor as a groom whereas he refers to himself as his
bride. It was just a deadly look of his preceptor that the poet was induced into a trance. He fell in
love with his preceptor just as the husband would behave with his wife. He dedicated his entire
life to his preceptor as the wife would dedicate herself completely to her husband. The poet

217
would serve his preceptor just as the dutiful wife would commit to her husband. The power of
the sight of the preceptor was so strong that the poet surrendered himself to him. This is
repeatedly emphasized in the poem.
Check your progress
1. What is the poem about?
__________________________________
2. What has the poet compared his preceptor to?
__________________________________
3. What does the poet call his preceptor?
__________________________________
14.2.3.3 Significance of the title of the poem:
The title of the poem suggests the core theme of the poem. It indicates the magnetic
charm of the groom. The groom implied is the mentor of the poet. The poet mentions that his
preceptor, Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya looked at him and took away his looks as well as his
identity. He has made him immerse in love thoroughly. The love has completely overpowered
him. The poet surrendered himself completely to his preceptor. He has dedicated his entire life to
him. He devoted completely to his preceptor. The charm and spirituality of the preceptor was
irresistible. It made the poet felt extremely attached to him. He was in awe of him and held him
in great reverence. He decided to follow the teachings of his preceptor. He developed a strong
emotional bond with him. The spiritual connection between them was the means to attain the
mode of salvation. The poet served his preceptor with absolute dedication. He submerged his
identity with that of his mentor. Thus, the title of the poem is suggestive of the fact that the poet
has been hypnotized by his teacher. The poet feels that he should enter into a spiritual
communion with his mentor.
Check your progress
1. How is the title of the poem significant?
________________________________
2. Who is the poet’s preceptor/mentor?
_______________________________
3. How has the mentor of the poet attracted him?
______________________________

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14.2.3.4 Poetic devices:
The poem consists of eleven lines. Most of the words in the poem are monosyllabic.
Anapaestic foot is mostly followed in the poem. The first, second and the third line is hexameter
while the rest of the lines are tetrametre. The rhyming scheme of the poem is aaba cada eaa. The
first, second and the last line of the poem is repeated to emphasize that the poet has been
infatuated by his mentor. All the words in the lines are repeated for greater effect. The part of the
line ‘I give my life to you’ is repeated in the seventh and ninth line of the poem where the poet
surrenders himself to his preceptor and refers to him as a ‘cloth-dyer’ and ‘Nijam’. Alliteration is
used in the third line where the sound ‘m’ is repeated. The word ‘my’ is repeated in the seventh
line. Alliteration is also used in the tenth line of the poem. Metaphor is used in the seventh and
ninth line of the poem. The preceptor is referred as ‘cloth-dyer’ and ‘Nijam’ respectively.
Check your progress
1. What is the rhyming scheme of the poem?
_____________________________________
2. Why repetition is used in the poem?
_____________________________________
3. How does the poet use metaphor in the poem?
_____________________________________
14.2.4 Comparative Assessment of the poetic genius of Rabindranath Tagore, Habba
Khatoon, and Amir Khusro:
Rabindranath Tagore was a Bengali poet of the 19th century. Habba Khatoon is a
Kashmiri poet of the 16th century and Amir Khusro was a poet of the 13th century. Tagore and
Khusro are male poets but speak about the condition of women in their times.
Tagore wrote in the common dialects of the local people. He sought to find the sources of
calmness of mind and spirit. Most of the themes of his poems were related to human and divine
love. He even translated most of his Bengali poems into English. W.B. Yeats wrote an
introduction to his collection of poems Gitanjali which was published in 1912. Ezra Pound
praised his poetry and he was awarded Nobel Prize for it. Tagore experimented with poetic forms
but it got lost in translations.
Tagore uses myths, legends and ancient tales in his poetry. But he lends universal
significance to it and conveys ideas of peace, joy, beauty, love and harmony. He was also
influenced by Vaishav poetry. Gitanjali shows its impact as it deals with human desire for union

219
with God. Tagore is referred to as “Shelley” of India as he depicts nature in his poetry. According
to him, human beings and nature are intertwined. He finds inspiration and spirituality in nature.
He personified the objects of nature and the phenomena of nature. He used nature myths in his
poems. Tagore’s poems carry certain messages. It conveys that simplicity and honesty can earn
God’s pleasure. True love and devotion are required to win God’s love.
Tagore used many literary forms, but the major one was the lyric. He used Bengali verse
forms like the payar with blank verse and the sonnet. Thus, it was the merger of Indian and
western forms to create a new poetry. Irregular couplets and free verse are used in his later poetry.
This contrasts with the uniform style and structure of his English versions.
The theme of spirituality pervades Tagore’s poetry. He wrote hymns for Brahmo Samaj.
The principles of the Vedas and the Upanishads can also be found in his poetry. But he
recognizes spirit in nature and human life. The fusion of the natural and the supra- natural is
reflected in his poetry. Many of his poems deal with the theme of love. His own art also forms
the crux of some of his poems. There is a depiction of the political situation in some of his poems.
He criticizes local as well as global issues. Many of his poems also reflect the condition of
women.
Tagore’s philosophical teachings find expression in his poetry. He emphasizes that we can
realize God by achieving oneness with God. This can be done if one overcomes illusion and
ignorance through genuine love of God. He believes that love is more important than knowledge.
God creates human beings to realize the bliss of love. This can be achieved through the union of
the lover and the beloved. Tagore conceptualizes that God created nature to evoke love in human
beings.
Lol was introduced for the first time in Kashmiri poetry by Habba Khatoon. Lol is similar
to the lyric and reveals a brief thought. It is melodious and deals with love. Habba Khatoon’s
poetry is essentially about love-in- separation. She has not written a single poem in praise of
Yusuf Shah, a Kashmiri ruler, though she lived in his company for some time. She chose
separation in love as the theme of her poetry. Her poetry reveals restlessness in love.
Habba Khatoon’s poetry marks a transition from Sufi poetry to romantic poetry. Habba
uses a particular Persian metre in her poetry. It was suggested to her by Syed Mubarak, a poet.
He also convinced her to sing. Her songs are soulful and liked by Kashmiris. Her romantic
poetry is incomparable in Kashmiri literature.

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 Habba’s yearning for Yusuf was romantic. She freely expresses her love for her husband,
quite unlike Medieval Muslim women. She voiced angst of female desire which was in a way
radical in spirit. Yet, the simplicity of her poems does not let us assume their erotic nature.
Habba’s poetry depicts the emotions of the common people. An air of romance pervades her
poetry. The pain of separation from her husband haunts her.
Habba’s poetry is replete with images, similes and metaphors of nature. Her poetry is
abundant in the use of flowers such as Jasmine, wild yellow rose, hinting at the feminine
consciousness. She abstained from using animal imagery which depicts power and domination.
Habba’s poetry shows human beings in the lap of nature and reveals the relationship
between humans and nature. Her misfortune and suffering made her abandon the world and seek
refuge in her natural surroundings. She wandered aimlessly in the forests. Her poetry, which is
somber in tone, is in contrast to the environment, which evinces vitality, freshness and new
beginning. She is desolated, alone, on the verge of decay and death.
The poetry of Habba refers to agrarian activities. Her lyrics are remembered and sung
even today by the Kashmiris. Habba’s poetry bears a lyrical quality. Expressions and thoughts
blend in her poetry and lend a charm to it. Her poetry deals with the routine life of ordinary
people. She depicts the activities of rural people who live close to nature. The life of rural people
is depicted in an effective manner and style.
Habba’s lyrics are musical and easy to memorize. Habba quite freely expresses her pain
of being separated from her beloved. Her lyrics are melancholic and nostalgic. Her poetry
resembles pantheism in which the natural course of events correspond to the underpinnings of
the soul. Habba finds her life devoid of all joy and pleasure in the absence of her love. Habba
Khatoon represents her era. Her poetry has a universal appeal. It is eternal.
Habba Khatoon uses figures of speech, particularly similes and metaphors in her poetry.
Her poetry possesses pastoral elements. Her diction is simple. Her emotions are elevated through
thoughts. She does not consider love as a transcendental emotion. She yearns for sensual love.
She completely surrendered herself before her lover. But his disinterestedness and neglect caused
her immense pain. Her failed marriage and then a love-story shaped her psyche. Her poems are
marked by pain, sorrow, frustration, longing and disillusionment.
Amir Khusro’s poetry reflects the rich cultural tradition of India. His poetry evince Indian
values and reveals socio-political ethos of India. He was a Sufi mystic and a devoted follower
and disciple of Hazrat Nizamuddin. He dedicated many of his works to his spiritual master.

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When Khusro was eight years old, his father took him to Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya. Khushro
remarked that he would choose his spiritual guide and the saint would talk to him from a distance,
if he possesses divine power. It is said that Hazrat Nizamuddin sent him a message and accepted
him as his disciple. The two thus became intertwined. Hazrat Nizamuddin referred to him as
Miftah-al Sama, the key of religious ecstasy. It is also supposed that Hazrat Nizamuddin applied
his saliva on Khusro’s lips that enhanced his poetic genius. He was bestowed with the title of
Tooti-e-Hindustan or the parrot of Hindustan.
Amir Khusro was a versatile poetic genius. He was a musician and composer who was
credited for being a pioneer of Indo-Muslim music. He invented new ragas and six forms of
music as Qaul, Qalbana, Khayal , Tarana, Naqsh and Gul.
Khusro’s perpetual love for his spiritual master, Hazrat Nizamuddin is evident in his
poetry. Khusro is depicted as a bride who has surrendered her heart, personality, and identity to
her groom, Nijaam. Khusro experienced ecstasy and rapture. He was so overcome with grief at
the demise of Hazrat Nizamuddin that he spent six months weeping at the feet of Hazrat’s grave.
Hazrat Nizamuddin wished that Khusro be buried a little away from Hazrat Nizamuddin’s grave.
Being a devout Muslim and disciple of Hazrat Nizamuddin, Amir Khusro believed in
ethics and observance of sharia. His spiritualism embodies his philosophy of love. The
humanism in his poetry is a consequence of his divine love. His works deal with almost varied
facets of life. His humanism knew no caste, colour or creed. He dared to talk about the equality
of men even before the king.
Love is the greatest feature of human nature. Evert soul is attracted towards another soul.
Love beautifies the soul which is inherent in the love for humanity. According to Sufis, love is
higher than religion. The person worships God out of love. Love makes him a slave. The person
who possesses deep insight sees God in everything. Thus, Khusro tries to elevate his relationship
with God through love. Khusro’s poems examined the theme of separation from the beloved, a
metaphor used to refer to God. His poems reflect the Sufi desire to transpose into this state. His
poems transfer the readers to a different state beyond this world.
Khushro’s handling of the theme of love was due to his strong bond with Sufi preacher
Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya which, was beyond all relationships. It was the means to reach the
beloved, that is, God. Khusro believed that his master could transform him into divine qualities
and it would be possible through surrender of the ego. This requires service to the preceptor,
which he demonstrated by working in the kitchen of Hazrat Nizamuddin to prepare food for the

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poor daily. Khusro advocates this kind of spiritual seeking abandoning wordly possessions. He
himself transformed from a poet to a seeker, a Qalandar, a free soul. This characterizes his later
poetic works.
Check your progress
1. Examine Rabindranath Tagore’s philosophical teachings as evident in his poetry.
________________________________________________________________
2. Discuss Habba Khatoon’s contribution to Kashmiri poetry.
_______________________________________________
3. Evaluate Amir Khusro as a spiritual poet.
__________________________________
14.2.5 Thematic Comparison of Rabindranath Tagore’s poem “Give Me Strength”, Habba
Khatoon’s “Lol of the Lonely Pine” and Amir Khusro’s “Just by Casting a Glance”:
Wisdom, spiritual satisfaction, love and service to mankind are the themes of
Rabindranath Tagore’s poem Give Me Strength. The poem encourages people to move out of
darkness. Everyone should pray for enlightenment so that we can remain balanced in happiness
as well as sorrow. One should submit to the will of God in all circumstances.
The poem is a prayer. The poet prays to God to strengthen his heart to enable him to bear
joys and sorrows. He requests God to remove hatred from his heart and fill it with love and
kindness. He urges God to endow him with strength to look after the poor. He should not be
selfish and never fear a cruel ruler. He should serve the poor. He also urges God to dissociate him
from insignificant things of the world. He also wishes to submit completely to the will of God.
The poem depicts the values of love and service.
Thus, the poem is an appeal to God. The phrase ‘hit at the penury’ indicates that the heart
should be filled with love and selflessness. The poet’s intention is to elevate his character to
moral stature.
The theme of Habba Khatoon’s Lol of the Lonely Pine is the beloved’s yearning for her
lover. The beloved regards her lover as a dashing, young man. She is in search of this man. She
cannot sleep for a while. His memories haunt her. She is restless. She searched for him in the
forests. She thought that he would come to the forests as he was a wood cutter. When he arrived,
she was worried that he would then quench his sexual desire as he was away from her for quite a
while. But she was ready for the communion. In fact , she would then become charming and
beautiful. The sexual union would transform her into a youthful, vibrant lady.

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 Thus, the theme of the poem is about the narrator’s love for her lover. Her desperation is
caused by the absence of her lover. She waits for the arrival of her lover. The theme of the poem
suggests her separation from her lover.
The theme of Amir Khusro’s poem Just by Casting a Glance is the master- disciple
relationship. It is suggestive of the poet’s love for his mentor. The poet is enticed by the charm of
his mentor. His magnetic personality attracted the poet. His spirituality was something that the
poet wanted to share. The preceptor made the poet surrender his personality and identity to him.
The concept of love propounded by his preceptor overwhelmed the poet. He immersed himself
completely in the self of the preceptor. He regarded himself as the young bride. He cherished the
company of his preceptor. He dedicated his whole life to him. He followed the ideals of the
preceptor. He submitted himself to the mentor, whom he refers to as a groom. He was very much
infatuated by the spirituality of his preceptor.
Thus, the theme of the poem is absolute love for God. The means to attain closeness to
God is through the preceptor. It is one of the principles of Sufism.
Check your progress
1. What is Tagore’s prayer to God in his poem Give Me Strength?
__________________________________________________
2. Discuss the theme of Habba Khatoon’s Lol of the Lonely Pine.
___________________________________________________
3. Examine the master- disciple relationship in Amir Khusro’s poem Just by Casting a
Glance.
_________________________________________________________________
14.2.6 Symbolism/Imagery in Rabindranath Tagore’s poem “Give Me Strength”, Habba
Khatoon’s “Lol of the Lonely Pine” and Amir Khusro’s “Just by Casting a Glance”:
Imagery is not used much in Rabindranath Tagore’s poem Give Me Strength. The image
of ‘penury’ refers to the state of heart full of malice, hatred and jealousy. The poet prays to God
to remove these feelings from his heart. ‘Bend my knees’ is a phrase used to convey that the poet
should not surrender before the strong and powerful ruler. The phrase ‘to raise my mind high’ is
indicative of the poet’s prayer that he should not think of the insignificant things in life.
Habba Khatoon has used imagery in Lol of the Lonely Pine effectively. The image of
‘stream’ is used to portray the condition of the beloved. She is described as “a sleepless stream”
that flows or moves from one place to another in search of her lover. She is referred to as a

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“restless brook”, a rivulet which continuously flows. The lady is even called a “lonely pine”,
indicating her wait and solitude. The “fire” image refers to sexual passion which the lady thinks
her lover will possess as a result of a long separation from her. The image of “ashes” suggests
that she is ready to be engulfed in the passionate communion which will make her youthful and
vibrant.
Amir Khusro’s Just by Casting a Glance is highly symbolic. The image of “wine”
suggests a drink which made the poet feel out of the world. It transported him into an ecstatic
state. The image of “green bangles” hints at youth, perhaps a recently married bride. The bride
yearns for the love of her husband. The image “cloth-dyer” refers to the magnetic charm of the
preceptor. In fact, the irresistible spirituality of the preceptor made the poet his disciple. The
image of ‘dye’ is used to invoke the feelings of association between the poet and his preceptor.
The poet surrendered himself completely to his preceptor. The image of ‘Nijam’ suggests that the
relationship between the poet and his preceptor resembles that of the husband and wife. Their
love for each other transcends all other worldly considerations.
Check your progress
1. What does ‘penury’ refer to in Rabindranath Tagore’s Give Me Strength?
___________________________________________________________
2. Why does Habba Khatoon use the image of fire in her poem Lol of the Lonely Pine ?
________________________________________________________________
3. Explain the images “cloth-dyer” and “Nizam” used in Amir Khusro’s Just by Casting a
Glance.
____________________________________________________________________

14.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should have understood that Rabindranath Tagore’s poem
Give Me Strength is a prayer to God, Habba Khatoon’s Lol of the Lonely Pine is a lyric, and
Amir Khusro’s Just by Casting a Glance is a love poem. You should have gained an
understanding of each f the three poems. You should have also learned to study them collectively
as comparative poetry.

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14.4 Glossary

Give Me Strength
Strike: Hit forcefully
Penury: Extreme poverty
Fruitful: Producing results
Disown: Refuse, to not own
Insolent: Not very pleasant
Might: Great power
Trifle: Insignificant things
Thee: You
Surrender: To give up

Lol of the Lonely Pine

Pine: A tall evergreen tree; very unhappy as if somebody has gone away
Dazzle: To impress deeply, overpower
Stream: A small river, the continuous movement of a liquid, to move somewhere in a continuous
flow
Brook: A small flow of water, creek, tributary.

Just by Casting a Glance

Glance: To quickly look at somebody, quick look
Love-potion: Magical drink which makes person fall in love
Intoxicated: Loss of physical and mental control, emotionally excited, elated. extreme pleasure.
Cloth-dyer: Person who changes the colour of cloth
Nijam: Groom

14.5 Sample Questions

14.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. Rabindranath Tagore is referred to as _____________ of India.
(a) Yeats (b) Whitman

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 (c) Rumi (d) Shelley
2. Rabindranath Tagore’s Give Me Strength is a ________________.
(a) Elegy (b) Sonnet
(c) A prayer (d) Idyll
3. In Give Me Strength, Tagore aims at _____________ strength.
(a) Physical (b) Mental
(c) Spiritual (d) Political
4. Tagore urges God to endow him with strength to care for the_____________ .
(a) Rich (b) Poor
(c) Women (d) Children
5. _____________ introduced Lol for the first time in Kashmiri poetry.
(a) Lal Ded (b) Habba Khatoon
6. In Lol of the Lonely Pine, Habba Khatoon refers to herself as a ___________ .
(a) Widow (b) Bride
(c) Fire (d) Lonely pine
7. The images of ‘fire’ and ‘ashes’ are used in ____________.
(a) Rabindranath Tagore’s Give Me Strength
(b) Amir Khusro’s Just by Casting a Glance
(c) Habba Khatoon’s Lol of the Lonely Pine
(d) None of these
8. Amir Khusro’s Just by Casting a Glance is about the ____________ relationship.
(a) Parent-child (b) Master-disciple
(c) ruler-ruled (d) None of these
9. Amir Khusro used to revere___________.
(a) Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya
(b) Khwaja Moinuddin Chisty
(c) Hazrat Abdul Qadar Jilani
(d) Bakhtiar Kaki
10. _____________ is referred to as ‘Nijaam’ in Just by Casting a Glance.
(a) Amir Khusro (b) The poet’s preceptor
(c) Sultan (d) The poet’s father

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14.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. What are Tagore’s views on equanimity?
2. Why does Tagore want to raise his mind high above daily trifles?
3. Examine the theme of Habba Khatoon’s Lol of the Lonely Pine.
4. Bring out the element of Sufism in Amir Khusro’s Just by Casting a Glance.
5. Comment on the use of images in Amir Khusro’s Just by Casting a Glance.
14.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. Make a comparative assessment of the poetic genius of Rabindranath Tagore, Habba Khatoon
and Amir Khusro.
2. Bring out the thematic comparison of Rabindranath Tagore’s poem Give Me Strength, Habba
Khatoon’s Lol of the Lonely Pine and Amir Khusro’s Just by Casting a Glance .
3. Examine the use of imagery in Rabindranath Tagore’s Give Me Strength, Habba Khatoon’s
Lol of the Lonely Pine and Amir Khusro’s Just by Casting a Glance.

14.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Mattoo, Neerja. The Mystic and the Lyric: Four Women Poets from Kashmir. Zubaan Books,
2019.
2. Mohammad, Habib. Hazrat Amir Khusrau of Delhi. 1979.
3. Devy, G.N. Indian Literary Criticism: Theory and Interpretation. Orient Longman, 2022.
4. Sadhu, S.L. Habba Khatoon . New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi,1968.
5. Khursheed, Mirza. The Life and Works of Amir Khusrau. Delhi. Idarah-i Adabiyat-i
Delhi,1974.
6. Losensky, Paul E., Sunil Sharma. trans. In the Bazaar of Love: The Selected Poetry of Amir
Khusrau. India. Penguin Books,2011.
7. Roy, Prahlad. “Religious education and Rabindranath Tagore”. Asian Journal of
Multidisciplinary Studies. Vol 3, Issue 6, June 2015.

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 Unit- 15:
(a) Kamala Das - “My Mother at Sixty Six”
(b) Andre Breton - “Five Ways to Kill a Man”
(c) Derek Walcott - “A Far Cry From Africa”

Structure
15.0 Introduction
15.1 Objectives
15.2 Introduction to the Poets
15.2.1 Summary of the poem titled “My Mother at Sixty Six” by Kamala Das
15.2.1.1 Critical analysis of the poem “My Mother at Sixty Six”
15.2.1.2 Themes in the poem “My Mother at Sixty Six”
15.2.2 Summary of the poem titled “Five Ways to Kill a Man” by Andre Breton
15.2.2.1 Critical analysis of the poem “Five Ways to Kill a Man”
15.2.2.2 Themes in the poem “Five Ways to Kill a Man”
15.2.3 Summary of the poem titled “A Far Cry From Africa” by Derek Walcott
15.2.3.1 Critical analysis of the poem “A Far Cry From Africa”
15.2.3.2 Themes in the poem “A Far Cry From Africa”
15.2.4 Let Us Sum Up
15.3 Learning Outcomes
15.4 Glossary
15.5 Sample Questions
15.6 Suggested Learning Resources

15.0 Introduction

Comparative literature consists of masterpieces woven in different languages across the

globe that leave a mark on readers to see parallels and differences in the writings of writers
throughout the world. The chapter is a study of literature from three different nationalities.
Though the poems to be discussed have appealed to the readers in their respective regions but at
the same time these poems echo unparalleled aesthetics when studied together. The writers
reflect upon the issues from a personal perspective. Through the reading of the chapter, the
learner will understand and explore literature from different places with a universal appeal
through the writings of the selected writers who are iconoclastic figures in their own regions.

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This will give learners a deeper understanding of the universality that exists in poems
irrespective of the place.

15.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 introduce Kamala Das, Andre Breton and Derek Walcott
 present the summary, analysis, and explanation of their poems
 Examine their contribution to comparative poetry

15.2 Introduction to the Authors

Kamala Das was born on March 31, 1934 in Punnayurkulam, Kerala. Kamala Das is a
pen name of Kamala Surayya, also called as Madhavikutty, is a famous Indian poetess writing in
English. In addition to writing in English, she secured her place among the prominent Malayalam
writers. She was admired as a writer in Kerala for writing short stories on a range of topics and
her autobiography. Her autobiography in English was published under the pen name of Kamala
Das. In addition, she was a syndicate columnist and expressed her views on various topics rooted
in politics, feminism, sexuality and child care. She is often compared to Anne Sexton and Robert
Lowell in her writing style, and Sylvia Plath and Marguerite Duran for her frankness in her
writings.
Kamala Das was born to V.M. Nair and Nalapat Balamani Amma. Her father was an
executive at the Walford Transport Company that traded in Bentley and Rolls-Royce. In addition,
he was a managing director of the famous Malayalam daily Mathrubhumi, whereas her mother
was an acclaimed Malayali poetess.
Much of her childhood was spent at Nalapat’s ancestral home where her great uncle, a
prominent writer, inspired her to write poetry at an early age. She was married at the age of
fifteen to Madhav Das, a bank officer who encouraged her to write and later her work started
getting published in cult anthologies of that time, that brought her recognition among famous
writers writing in English. During the 1960s, which is considered as a tumultuous decade for art
and literature in Calcutta, she became a reckoned voice among the prominent Indian writers in
English.

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 Das held numerous significant positions during her lifetime. She was vice-chairperson of
Kerala Sahitya Akademi. She held a central position as Chairperson of Kerala Forestry Board.
She played a significant role as the President of the Kerala Children’s Film Society. She held
editorial positions at Poet magazine and illustrated weekly of India respectively. In 1963, she
bagged the Pen Asian Poetry Prize. She was awarded the Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award in 1968
for her work titled Thanuppu, written in Malayalam. In 1984, she was also shortlisted for the
prestigious Nobel Prize. In addition, she was conferred with the Kendra Sahitya Academy Award
in English in 1985, Asian Poetry Prize in 1998 and many other prestigious awards. She founded
the Lok Seva Party to work for underprivileged children. The Times called her “the mother of
modern English poetry” in 2009. A biopic titled Aami was released on Feb 9, 2018. At the age of
65, she converted to Islam and on her death, she was buried at Palayam Juma Masjid at
Thiruvananthapuram with state honour.
She is a confessional poet. She wrote fierce poetry on love and sexuality. She shared her
unapologetic views on female sexuality that turned her into a rebel. Her work centres on personal
experience rather than colonial one that formed the major theme of writings during that period.
She is known for her unfiltered, frank, and candor expressions that shun away timidity against
the patriarchal conventions. She explores the sexual frustration of a female in a patriarchal
society. She writes about the angst and desire of a woman in a married life. Some of her famous
works in Indian English writing are Alphabet of Lust, a novel written by Das in 1976. Her short
story collection, titled A Doll for the Child Prostitute, was published in 1977. In 1992, she
published another collection, Prostitute and Padmavati, the Harlot and Other Stories. She
actively contributed as a poet throughout her life by publishing The Sirens (1964), Summer in
Calcutta (1985). This was filled with themes like love, betrayal and anguish. This collection was
a breath of fresh air amidst the writings of Indian writers writing in English which was based on
themes of independence and nationalism. An Introduction (1965), The Descendants (1967)
voiced female issues of sexuality in an explicit manner. The Old Playhouse and other Poems
(1973) is another famous work by Das. She went to publish The Stranger Time in 1977, Tonight,
This Savage Rite in 1979, Collected Poems in 1984. The Anamalai Poems was published in 1985.
Her confessional mode is seen in Only the Soul Knows How to Sing (1997), My Mother at Sixty-
Six (1999) where she shares the emotion of a child going away from her old mother, and Ya Allah
in 2001. Kamala Das’s works set a different tone amongst the confessional poets in India.

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Therefore, the works have been translated into many languages like French, Spanish, Russian,
German, and Japanese following the popularity among the readers.
Andre Robert Breton was born on Feb 19, 1896 in Normandy, France. He was a writer,
poet and associated with surrealism. Breton went to medical school, but he was conscripted for
WWI and his education was interrupted. Breton was deeply influenced by Alfred Jarry, a devotee
of Jacques Vache, during his service at a neurological ward in Nantes, who showed lawlessness
and disdain for established artistic traditions.
Andre Breton joined the Dadaists after being influenced by psychiatry and symbolism.
He became part of a Dadaist group in Paris in 1916. In 1919, Breton along with Soupault
published “Les champs magnetiques”, that was the pioneer of automatic writing i.e., surrealist
technique. Breton was successful in founding the Bureau of Surrealist Research in 1924 and
worked closely with Dadaist Tristan Tzara. This association resulted in the publication of the
Surrealist Manifesto in 1924. He became part of the French Communist Party in 1927 but was
soon expelled in 1933. In 1928, he published a novel titled Nadja about his experience with a
visionary woman who later became insane. Breton joined the French Army in the medical corps
at the start of WWII, but his writings were banned, neglecting nationalism. He fled to the US
with the help of a fellow American and lived there for a few years. Later, he organised a
surrealist exhibition at Yale University. During his exile in US, he met Aime Cesaire after few
years and wrote an introduction to Cesaire’s work “Cahier d’un retour au pays natal” (1947).
During this period, he met his third wife, Elisa Bindhoff and went on to write Arcane 17.
In 1946, he returned to Paris and opposed the French colonization of Algeria. He was an
avid collector of art in all forms and, during a financial crisis in 1931, he made money by selling
his collection of paintings, sculptures, photographs, manuscripts etc. Breton devised Surrealism
as an extensive philosophy that brings together the seemingly two distinct states of affair of
dreaming and waking. The movement provided Breton a sense of liberation to express himself
through his work. The movement reckoned on the works of painters like Hieronymus Bosh and
James Ensor along with writers like Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud al with influence of
political views of Karl Marx.
Breton published some famous works, including, L’Immaculée Conception in 1930,
written in collaboration with Paul Éluard. They made an effort to convey a verbal impression of
various types of mental problems. In 1932, Breton explored the possibility of dream and reality
through his works Les Vases communicants (The Communicating Vessels) and L’Amour

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fou (Mad Love) published in 1937. He expressed his critical views in the work Les Pas
perdus (The Lost Steps) in 1924, Légitime Défense (Legitimate Defense) in 1926. He exhibited
connection between painting and surrealism in the work Le Surréalisme et le
peinture (Surrealism and Painting) published in 1926, Qu’est-ce que le surréalisme? (What is
Surrealism?) published in 1934 gives a clear understanding of surrealism, and La Clé des
champs (The Key to the Fields) was published in 1953. He passed away in Paris on September
28, 1966.
Derek Alton Walcott was born on 23 January 1930 in Saint Lucia and passed away on
17 March 2017 in Cap Estate. He was a remarkable poet who became the voice of Caribbean
literature. In addition to poetry, he wrote plays about the African people in the West Indies. He
was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1992. Walcott received his education at St.
Mary’s College in Saint Lucia. Later, he attended the University of the West Indies in Jamaica.
He started teaching at a school in Saint Lucia, followed by a school located in Grenada. He
began composing poems at an early age. He contributed numerous articles and reviews in
various periodicals in Trinidad and Jamaica. He was agog in play writing and pursued studies in
theatre in 1958 in New York City. He began producing plays in Saint Lucia in 1950. He kept
moving between Trinidad and the United States for the rest of his life.
Walcott is celebrated more for his poetic genius than his playwriting. Walcott’s poetry
revolves around black folks and Caribbean islands whose beauty is best reflected in his poem In
a Green Night: Poems 1948–1960 (1962). Walcott is often seen to be caught up between his
African culture and European influence, being a native of Caribbean. The selected verses in his
following poems titled Selected Poems published in 1964, The Castaway written in 1965, and the
Gulf composed in 1969 express the beauty of the Caribbean simultaneously expressing his
feelings of personal isolation. Another Life published in 1973 is an autobiographical poem
written by Walcott. He studied the cultural differences that exist due to language and race in his
two works Sea Grapes published in 1976 and The Star-Apple Kingdom in 1979 respectively. He
writes about the alienation of a black writer in America in The Fortunate Traveller, published in
1981. His work titled Midsummer written in 1984, delves into the distancing of a person from his
Caribbean homeland.
Walcott is critically acclaimed for his book-length poem Omeros (1990) which is
primarily based on Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey in a Caribbean setting. In his collection titled The
Bounty (1997) he writes about his mother’s death and his Caribbean house. Walcott published a

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poetic biography titled Tiepolo’s Hound (2000) on the life of a French painter Camille Pissarro
born in West Indies. The book-length poem The Prodigal (2004) explores the nature of identity
and exile based in Europe and North America. In his work White Egrets (2010) ageing forms the
central theme of the collection.
In addition to the poetry collection, Walcott contributed approximately thirty plays along
with the poems. He is well-known for his play Dream on Monkey Mountain (1967) which
depicts the struggle for reclamation of identity and culture. In another play titled Ti-Jean and His
Brothers in 1958, he writes about brothers striving hard to overpower the evil force. This is based
on a West Indian folktale. In his work Pantomine, published in 1978, he delves into the theme of
colonization through the story of Robinson Crusoe. In 1993, The Odyssey: A Stage Version was
published, which is again based on theme from black folk culture in the West Indies.
Walcott received many literary accolades throughout his life. In 1971, he was awarded
the Obie Award for his play Dream on Monkey Mountain. He was given MacArthur
Foundation award. His poetry collection White Egrets won T.S. Eliot Prize in 2010. He won
Poetry lifetime recognition award by the Griffin Trust in 2015.
Check your progress
1. Why is Kamala Das known as “mother of Indian poetry”?
_____________________________________________
2. Who started the Surrealist movement?
____________________________________
3. To which place does Derek Walcott belong to?
____________________________________
15.2.1 Summary of the poem titled “My Mother at Sixty Six” by Kamala Das:
“My Mother at the Age of Sixty-Six” is one of the most celebrated poems of Kamala Das.
The poem highlights a daughter’s feelings for her old mother. The poem pictures the personal
relationship of the poetess with her mother, which has a universal echo of love and pain which is
inevitable. She captures the complexity of emotions in a simplistic manner while leaving for
Cochin.
The poet writes that she was coming back from her parents’s house after a visit on a
Friday morning when she saw her mother who had grown so old that it aches her heart to see her
present condition. Her mother sat next to her in the car and she was sleeping carelessly, her
mouth was open, which also shows her less control over her body as she is aging. The fatigue of

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old age is reflected in the way she sleeps in the car. The poet writes that her face is pale now, as
if she was a dead person. The poet feels pained as she thinks that the tentacles of death have
already clutched her tight.
The poet acknowledges the pain of old age and separation at the same time, both are
inevitable. Therefore, she tries to distract herself from this feeling by looking out of the car
window. She sees the trees sprinting by as their car moves speedily. It is nothing but the time that
passes by quickly, as fast as her mother has aged within a few years from a youthful woman to an
old lady. The poetess also watches young children playing outside their house. Their happy
voices echo the youthfulness and energy that reminds her of life as a beautiful gift that
culminates in death.
She goes into an introspective mood that may be she did not care enough for her aging
mother and time flew by without her even realizing it until that day. Her heart pangs deeply at
the helplessness of the situation where she has to leave her mother at an old age once again. In
the next few lines, she writes that she is used to the temporary pain of separation growing up as
she worked far away from her.
She compares her mother’s ashen and pale face to a winter moon. She says like a winter’s
moon that loses its brightness and radiance behind the fog in the winter season and looks dull
and dying similarly, her mother’s face has also become dull with the advancing old age. On the
other hand, winter season also symbolizes slow down and inactivity of old age that has crawled
upon her once youthful mother. In the last lines of the poem, after the realisation that she is but
helpless to control her advancing old age, she chooses to smile before parting her old mother
with the hope that she might live longer and bids her goodbye.
15.2.1.1 Critical analysis of the poem “My Mother at Sixty Six”:
The Indian writer, Kamala Das explores the affectionate relationship shared by a daughter
and an old mother. The daughter becomes conscious of her mother growing old and the truth that
follows. She is not ready to bear the thought of losing her. Throughout the poem, the narrator
describes the change in emotions she feels looking at her old mother on her way to the airport as
she leaves for Cochin. The irony in the poem My Mother at Sixty-Six is that the poetess finds it
difficult to accept that her mother has grown old.
The poetess describes that it was on her journey to the airport from her parents’s house
that she noticed age of her mother who was sitting next to her in the car. When she looks at her
mother asleep next to her with her mouth open, she realises how much she has aged over the

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period of time. She compares her face to a corpse as she no longer has the youthful glow on her
face which is indicative of her nearing death.
She distracts herself from these distressed thoughts by shifting her glance from her
mother’s face to the outside. On looking out of the window, she finds a binary that existed. She
could see young trees passing by at a great speed, just like her mother’s age. Imagery is used to
show life and activity in “young trees sprinting” and “merry children spilling”. The poetess could
see children running out of their houses to play. Their happiness was an embodiment of energy
and optimism, whereas she felt the opposite when she looked at her mother.
She looks back at her mother while standing at the airport security check. She focuses on
her mother’s face only to find her face to be dull and wearisome like a winter’s moon that lacks
lustre. Similes have been used to compare the mother’s face to that of a corpse and a “late
winter’s moon”. The poetess brings to surface the fear of losing her as a child. She finds the
parting situation at the airport difficult as she feels sad to leave her in this situation at her
approaching end. She composes herself in front of her mother and waves her mother goodbye.
Though the last words of the poem are “smile, smile, smile,” the poem ends on a sad note that
reality cannot be changed. Repetition and alliteration can be seen in the use of the word ‘smile’
in the last line of the poem. Neither can the poet reverse the aging process of her mother nor can
she stay back with her mother to shower love on her during her old age.
15.2.1.2 Themes in the poem “My Mother at Sixty Six”:
Ageing - Ageing is a natural process which is inevitable and irreversible. The poem
focuses on the aging of a human being that evokes sad emotions in a child to see parents getting
old. It depicts the change in physical appearance of a human being, loss in energy, slowing down
of body functions, and the loss of youthfulness that once existed. It also raises one’s
consciousness towards the passing of time and the approach to death. In the poem, the poetess
seems guilt ridden as she will not be able to take care of her mother in old age.
Separation - Separation from a loved one is another theme explicit in the poem. The poet
fears separation from her old mother, who is in her sixties. In the poem, she reflects upon the
temporary separation she experiences when she leaves her mother behind for her work and visits
her occasionally. Further, she writes that leaving her old mother in her sixties hints at permanent
separation that might follow soon, as death might knock on her door and she would not be able to
see her again.

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 Acceptance - The poem shares the concept of acceptance of different phases in life. The
poet is unhappy seeing her mother ageing. She experiences guilt for not being able to take care of
her in old age, but as the poem ends, she accepts the reality of life and puts a smile on her face as
she leaves the airport. She understands the harsh reality of life that ageing is part of human life
and her mother too has to get old. She will leave this world, marking a culmination of their
relationship. Kamala Das has beautifully illustrated the idea of acceptance using imagery and
symbolism in the poem.
15.2.2 Summary of the poem titled “Five Ways to Kill a Man” by Andre Breton:
The poem titled “Five Ways to Kill a Man” is written by Andre Breton. It is about the
different ways through which a large number of humans have been killed over a period of time.
Here the poet elaborates on different ways of sabotaging humans for centuries. He writes about
five major transformative changes in the history of mankind that has portrayed a ruthless picture
of killing people at the hands of people in power. It also talks about the incompetency of human
beings to contribute something positive in their lives. Andre Breton writes about the crucifixion
of Christ as the first event that is equivalent to the killing of humanity. He writes that Christ, the
saviour of humanity, was forced to carry a wooden plank to the top of a hill. In the following
lines, the poet focuses on the people who were indifferent seeing the condition of Christ and the
brutalities carried out on him. Instead, they were mere spectators wearing sandals to throw at the
Christ. These people outrightly rejected knowledge of Christ who came to save them. The poet
highlights the cruelty of such people against Christ that even his cloak was torn off in order to
deny him a proper burial. When, on one occasion, Christ asked for water, he was only given
vinegar soaked in a sponge. Finally, he was nailed to the wooden cross plank and succumbed to
death.
In the second stanza, he mentions the loss of human life in civil wars fought by Kings in
England during the Middle Ages, before the renaissance. He elaborates upon the use of steel
swords marked with distinct emblem of the side they were fighting for in wars. The poet
describes the craftsmen who were so skilled at making swords that the warriors could pierce the
metal armour of other soldiers with that steel sword. The poet writes about the scene in the war
of the English countryside where the warriors fight under different flags, skilled in using bows
and arrows, with white horses. He writes, after such gruesome happenings at both the ends, this
victory of human killing is celebrated as a banquet in the King’s castle. The underlying irony in
these lines is that the killing of a man is celebrated with pomp and show.

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 In the third paragraph, he highlights the brutalities carried out by men using gas to kill
other human beings mercilessly. Here, the poet talks about the killings that happened during
WWI by gas. He writes that the English army was caught up in their own act of destroying the
German army as they blew the gas cylinders towards the German army, but due to a change in
the wind, their own soldiers were killed. The poet writes that such a killing was succeeded by
fighting against each other in inhuman conditions by staying in ditches full of mud, black boots
to move through the tough terrain, bomb squads diffusing bombs that are capable of taking many
lives at a time. These conditions got worst with the bubonic plague. In the next stanza, the poet
presents a fourth way of killing men. This time, man makes use of aeroplanes to drop bombs by
pressing a small switch. Here, he refers to the bombarding of two cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki
during WWII. Further, he writes about how people become inhuman. The poet writes that killing
is carried out as two governments share different perspectives on things and support different
sides in the war. They have different opinions on the use of science and technology and how
Americans built nuclear bombs after knowing the German psychopath, Hitler, had already built
something similar. Here he calls this person as a psychopath who decided to kill lakhs of people
with a bomb making that land inhabitable for future generations as no one could remain
unaffected by the radiation caused by the dropping of nuclear bombs.
Lastly, he suggests the fifth and easiest way to kill a man is to live in the contemporary
age following WWII, i.e., in the 1950s. He writes that this is the age accompanied with its own
set of problems of uncertainty, doubt, poverty, inflation, unemployment etc. He implicitly
suggests the inhumane treatment of human beings towards other fellows. He conveys that these
problems will kill men naturally if not addressed properly with utmost care.
15.2.2.1 Critical Analysis of the poem “Five Ways to Kill a Man”:
The poem titled “Five Ways to Kill a Man” comprises five stanzas. In each stanza, the
poet discusses five different ways in the history of mankind when the most number of killings
have been carried out. He outlines the fact, the way man has turned the world into a hell by their
own actions. The poem consists of thirty-one lines. The first, second, and fourth stanzas consist
of seven lines each, whereas stanza third is made up of six lines and stanza fifth comprises of
four lines respectively.
The tone of the poem is highly ironic as the poet highlights how such heinous crimes of
murder committed against humanity are celebrated under the pretence of gaining more wealth,
power and success. He also points out that a murderer never confesses the ghastly act of murder

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carried out by him. He also portrays the inhuman nature of man against each other from time
immemorial. He writes that all the killings were carried out when people had different visions
and opinions, even the noble soul like Christ was not spared by people who did not agree with
his vision. Furthermore, he writes in the second paragraph, the irony of a grand celebration
carried out after the killing of people by the winning house. In order to gain power, humans have
ruthlessly paved their way by killing so many people. They are even ready to suffer depression
living in trenches, wearing black boots, being affected by plagues and even using poisonous gas
to get rid of their opponents.
In the next stanza, he writes that humans became technologically advanced but used this
advancement to kill each other. Here he cites the example of bombarding two cities of Japan with
atomic bombs and later justified his actions. Lastly, he writes that, to be born in this age is to be
killed naturally due to hunger, poverty, and unemployment.
The poem does not follow any rhyme scheme, though the poet makes use of metaphor
when he compares the armour of a soldier with a cage of metal that is keeping them caged to
fight for their king. In another paragraph, he uses metonymy when he compares “two flags” to
different houses that are opposed to each other fighting against one another. Writing such a poem,
the poet evokes a consciousness among readers of the damage caused to humanity from time to
time by killing so many people, also making them aware of the heinous crimes committed by
humans against each other.
15.2.2.2 Themes in the poem “Five Ways to Kill a Man”:
Wars against human beings - The poet outlines major wars fought among the people
from time immemorial which are also referred to as the greatest wars against humanity. He spells
out that it is the crucifixion of Christ at the hands of evil people that marked the first major crime
against humanity. He writes from here on, man has gone to heights by making use of guns, gas
and atomic bombs to kill each other. The poet here mentions that man has adopted different ways
to kill each other making the world an inhabitable place for some people who do not agree with
the vision of one in power. He also points out the hatred human beings have been carrying in
their hearts and celebrating the death of other beings as a mark of achievement and success. At
the same time, he writes that with each passing war, the number of killings has increased
proportionally. The World Wars have resulted in the killing of people beyond imagination.
Crisis of present times - Throughout the poem the poet focuses on the way wars over the
centuries have led to mass destruction all over the world. It is only in the last paragraph that he

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mentions a silent death covered in the contemporary issues that could kill half the population on
the planet without the use of any weapon. The present time issues he refers implicitly are hunger,
disillusionment, poverty, the absurdity of life, unemployment, as a result of irresponsible human
actions in the past.
15.2.3 Summary of the poem titled “A Far Cry From Africa” by Derek Walcott:
Derek Walcott’s famous poem “A Far Cry From Africa” is set in Africa. The poet says
that wind is moving through the “tawnt pelt”, Africa that means he is describing an image of
Africa which is turned brown. The Nigerian tribe, Kikuyu is swarming like flies all over the
place. The once called paradise is covered with corpses of Kikuyu people who lost their lives
defending their land against the colonisers. The colonisers do not show any empathy towards the
lost lives. Instead, they treat them equal to animals. The colonisers use statistics to justify their
expansion and killing of people in the colonies. The poet remarks the scholars make use of
different facts to debate about the injustice carried out by the colonisers. In the next line, he
presents a conflicting view where he questions whether these explanations make any difference
to a white boy who is killed while sleeping. The poet here refers to the Mau Mau uprising in
Kenya during 1950s. Here the African people were killed like Jews which in turn is followed by
killing of white child in its bed by the black people.
In the second para, the poet describes the farmers snapping long grass that fills the air
with white dust. The dust here is actually the flying away of ibises, a long-legged bird of white
colour. These birds are disturbed by the farmers and fly away just as they have been doing for
thousands of years since the beginning of civilization. The violence among animals is seen as
‘natural’ but humans who consider themselves God like are nothing less than animals as they
fight and kill each other. They carry out wars against each other as if dancing to the beat of
drums made out of corpses.
The poet writes that though fighting against the Whites is termed as ‘courage’ by the
natives, it is actually the fear of getting exterminated at the hands of the perpetrator that
motivates them to fight and protect themselves, which has a different perspective from a white
colonial perspective who term the killing of native rebellion as way to maintain peace in the
colonies. The poet calls this uprising a way to justify the violence perpetrated by them. The
colonisers, in turn justified it as a necessity, just like they had in the past during the Spanish Civil
war. He calls the natives as apes who are technologically underdeveloped are fighting against the
supreme power who are technologically advanced and have advantage over them.

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 He presents his traumatic view that he is poisoned with the blood of the coloniser and the
colonised. In the same spirit, he writes, he is unable to choose between African people, his
ancestors and the English language that he loves so much, it has taught him so much, and given
him an expression to put forward his views. At the same time, he is moved by the violence
carried out on the Africans that gives him sleepless nights as he cannot stand violence.
15.2.3.1 Critical Analysis of the poem “A Far Cry From Africa”:
The poem is one of the most famous poems of Derek Walcott that is set in Africa with the
Mau Mau uprising as the backdrop. In the poem, the poet presents his ambivalent view on the
war of independence for Nigeria fought in the 1950s against the colonisers. He presents a
gruesome picture of Africa as the war has resulted in the killing of innocent people, leading to
streams of blood in the country. The poet writes that violence perpetrated by any side is not
welcomed as it is the loss of human life. He is in an indecisive state as he can neither choose
Africa nor English tongue. He writes that he loves the English tongue that is result of
colonization but at the same time he cannot tolerate the slaughter of African people with whom
he shares the blood and traditions.
The title of the poem contains an idiom “a far cry” which the poet is able to hear because
of his African lineage, but it is not audible to any other person. This also suggests that the poet is
present at a distance to hear the impossible sound. It also means Africa, once considered as
‘paradise’ is in ruins now, is calling out for help.
The poet uses animal imagery throughout the poem. In the first two lines, he regards the
mood of African land as a ferocious animal that is ready to kill the colonisers. In the next few
lines, he accepts the ‘nature’s law’ of animals hunting each other for their survival but, he
condemns humans turning into animals to gain power over the others. He writes that human
beings have no rationale behind mass murders carried out by them. He is against the animalistic
behaviour of humans that has resulted in unstoppable violence.
The opening lines of the poem suggest the wind of change blowing through Africa that is
likely to bring a change in a contented country. The Kikuyu people are seen as ‘flies’ sucking on
streams of blood running on the grassland of Africa. The poet made use of personification as he
personifies ‘worm’ to give out a strong message that compassion cannot change the situation.
Further, the poet makes use of imagery of ibis where they are driven out by the natives for their
settlements.

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 The use of the word ‘poisoned’ suggests that the poet is not happy about the situation that
he is witnessing. He is unable to reconcile with the violence inflicted by the colonisers on
African people, but at the same time, he loves the English language, the language of the
colonisers, so much that he cannot part with it. The irony presented in the poem when the poet
put forward his dilemma in choosing between Africa heritage and the English language is clear
when he chooses to write a poem in English and get it published. The poem is composed in free
verse. It does not follow any rhyming scheme.
15.2.3.2 Themes in the poem “A Far Cry From Africa”:
Identity Crisis: The major theme of the poem is the identity crisis faced by Walcott.
Walcott holds African and European roots, that makes it difficult for him to choose between
Africa and the English tongue that he loves. He feels his blood is “poisoned” by atrocities carried
out by each of them on one another. He is unable to relate to any one of them as he stands against
the violence carried out by the colonisers as well as the natives of Africa. The poem hints
towards the conflicted personality of the poet.
Violence: The poem is set in Africa with the Mau Mau uprising as the backdrop to gain
independence from the colonial rule during the 1950s. Due to this rebellion by the natives against
the whites, many people were killed on both sides showing a gruesome picture of violence. The
poet shows the different forms of violence that exist in nature and the change they bring to the
surroundings. He writes that animals carry out violence on each other for food and survival,
whereas humans ruthlessly kill each other to attain more power. The poet successful portrays the
painful legacy of violence of colonisation in Africa and killing of the Whites in retaliation by the
natives.
Language as a tool of Resistance: the poem brings to light the ambivalent yet complex
relationship shared by the colonised people and the colonisers i.e., English. The poet undergoes a
conflict while choosing between Africa and England, because learning English has given a
means of expression and thought, but at the same time, English colonists have caused pain and
suffering to the African people. So, the act of expressing himself in English is causing him pain
and happiness at the same time. He makes use of the language of the oppressor as a means of
self-expression. He shows resistance towards the violence caused by the British in Africa by
writing in English as the language carries the identity and heritage of the colonisers. He
expresses his hatred of the English rule, but at the same time finds that English has become part
of his personality and a means of self-expression from which he cannot part away.

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 Check your progress
1. What are the major themes discussed in the poems?
_________________________________________
2. How are these poems personal in nature?
_________________________________
3. Where did the Mau Mau uprising take place?
____________________________________
15.2.4 Let Us Sum Up:
The above mentioned poems are significant contributions to modern writings in English.
All the poems are deeply personal as the writers share their emotions about their changing
relationships with humans. In the first poem, Das shares her emotions on leaving her old mother.
The second poem mirrors the horrors of ruthless killing of humans over the centuries. The last
poem highlights the split identity of the poet due to violence carried out by Africans as well as
the British on each other.

15.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should have become familiar with the prescribed poems and
gained an understanding of the poets and their milieu.

15.4 Glossary

Iconoclasti: One who breaks the established norms

Tumultuous: Disorderly
Reckoned: To count on
Surrealism: A movement or philosophy that emphasizes on power of subconscious
Conscripted: One who is enrolled compulsory military service
Disdain: Contempt
Heinous: Disgraceful
Pretence: Act
Ghastly: Causing fear
Accolades: Award, prize

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Pangs: Sharp pain, painful emotion
Sabotaging: Destroy
Tantalizing: Provoking

15.5 Sample Questions

15.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. When was Derek Walcott born?
(a) 1920
(b) 1930
(c) 1896
(d) 1936
2. Who is known as “the mother of modern English poetry” in Indian Writing in English?
(a) Sarojini Naidu
(b) Kamala Das
(c) Toru Dutt
(d) Shashi Deshpande
3. The most famous work by Derek Walcott is _________.
(a) Omeros
(b) White Egrets
(c) The Castaway
(d) The Prodigal
4. Which rebellion forms the backdrop of the poem “A Far Cry From Africa”?
(a) Haitian Revolution
(b) Malagasy Uprising
(c) Mau Mau Uprising
(d) Texas Revolution
5. Why is the narrator sad at the airport?
(a) She is leaving her mother forever.
(b) She has to leave her old mother behind.
(c) She is not sad.

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 (d) She does not want to go.
6. According to the poet in the poem “Five Ways to Kill a Man” with each passing age the
number of killings has _________.
(a) Decreased
(b) Remained same
(c) Increased
(d) None of the above
7. The poet compares her mother’s face to _______.
(a) An Autumn moon
(b) A summer moon
(c) A winter moon
(d) A winter sun
8. Why was the writer unable to see the difference between his desk chair and reclining chair?
(a) He was lost
(b) He was tired
(c) He was never tired
(d) There was no difference between the two
9. What is “the absence of all desire” according to Lu Hsun?
(a) It is the first step towards salvation
(b) It is the first step towards death
(c) It is the first towards life
(d) It is living life of free will
10. When was the time when the writer started enjoying little things in life?
(a) During his recovery from illness
(b) When he was healthy
(c) When he was workaholic
(d) He never enjoyed little things in life
15.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. What is the theme of the poem “A Far Cry From Africa” by Derek Walcott?
2. What is the narrator of the poem “A Far Cry From Africa” in dilemma for?

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 3. What are the different ways of killing a man as discussed in the poem “Five Ways to Kill
a Man”?
4. What was the consequence of the fourth way of killing a man in the poem “Five Ways to
Kill a Man”?
5. Why is the mother’s face compared to a ‘late winter’s moon’?
15.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. Write the critical appreciation of the poem “Five Ways to Kill a Man”.
2. Discuss the ideas shared in the poem “A Far Cry From Africa” by Derek Walcott.
3. What are themes discussed by the poetess in the poem “My Mother at the Age of Sixty-
Six”?

15.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Dwivedi, A.N. Kamala Das and Her Poetry. Atlantic Publication, 2000.
2. Hammer, Robert D. Critical Perspectives on Derek Walcott. Three Continent Press, 1992.
3. Kour, Iqbal. Perspective on Kamala Das’s Poetry. Intellectual Publishing House, 1995.
4. Mittapali, Rajeshwer. Kamala Das: A Critical Spectrum. Atlantic Publication, 2001.
5. Padhi, Sangita. Indian Poetry in English: A Critical Study. Atlantic Publication, 2018.

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 Unit - 16:
(a) Emily Dickinson: “I’M Nobody! Who are You?”
(b) Khalil Gibran: “On Children”
(c) Pablo Neruda: “Clenched Soul”

Structure
16.0 Introduction
16.1 Objectives
16.2 Emily Dickinson, Khalil Gibran, and Pablo Neruda
16.2.1 Emily Dickinson
16.2.1.1 “I’M Nobody! Who are You?”
16.2.2 Khalil Gibran
16.2.2.1 “On Children”
16.2.3 Pablo Neruda
16.2.3.1 “Clenched Fist”
16.2.4 Comparative Assessment
16.3 Learning Outcomes
16.4 Glossary
16.5 Sample Questions
16.6 Suggested Learning Resources

16.0 Introduction

Poetry, as a genre, expresses the innermost intense emotions of different kinds. The poet
provides the experiences of happiness, gloominess, turmoil, pathos and various kinds of shades
of human emotions that exist alike all over the world sans language, culture, race and gender,
caste and creed. The study of the poetry of one poet in comparison with others gives a deeper
understanding of their poems as well as enhances the importance of expression in contemporary
conditions, raising a voice of resistance, giving philosophical insights, healing the wounds,
spreading the message of humanity, etc.
Emily Dickinson (America), Khalil Gibran (Lebanon) and Pablo Neruda (Chile)
represent three different nations, three different cultures, but they speak in the same vein. The
basic philosophical assumptions and undercurrents in their poetry are universal. Their
representation of the world may differ, but the texture of their thoughts brings them together as
human fellows located in three different spaces and time.

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16.1 Objectives

The objectives of this Unit are to:

 critically appreciate Emily Dickinson’s “I’m Nobody! Who are You?,” Khalil
Gibran’s “On Children” and Pablo Neruda’s “Clenched Soul”
 evaluate the poetic devices employed in the above mentioned poems
 understand the poetic genius of Emily Dickinson, Khalil Gibran and Pablo Neruda
and make a comparative assessment
 make a thematic comparison of these poems
 examine the use of imagery in these poems.

16.2 Emily Dickinson, Khalil Gibran, and Pablo Neruda

In this section, you will be introduced to three poets, Emily Dickinson, Khalil Gibrab,
and Pablo Neruda. You will also undertake a comparative study of their poems prescribed for
your study.
16.2.1 Emily Dickinson:
Emily Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts. Her father was a renowned lawyer
and a United States Senator. Her family were Calvinists. But Emily was attracted to the
Protestant faith and transcendentalism. She was a master of Latin and developed a keen interest
in Botany. She lived alone and avoided social contact. She had several love affairs but those were
brief. She had a turbulent relationship with her parents. Her mother was unaffectionate and her
father did not support her writing endeavours. Her family home was converted into a museum in
2003. She faced many health issues. She suffered from depression and anxiety disorder. She died
at the age of fifty-five due to a stroke.
Emily’s sister found her collections of poems after her death. Emily shared her poetry
with her friends in written correspondence. Only ten were published during her life. The
important aspect of her poetry was her unusual use of syntax. She used dashes and capitals
abundantly. She avoided pentameter and mostly used trimeter and tetrameter. Emily used
irregular meter mostly. Ballad stanza is employed when she uses regular meter. Emily was
influenced by Benjamin Newton, William Wordsworth, Ralf Waldo Emerson, William
Shakespeare and Lydia Maria.

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 Emily Dickinson wrote about 1800 poems. Her poems deal with love and death. Her
major poems are “Because I could not stop for Death”, “I heard hope is the thing with feathers”,
“I’m Nobody! Who are you?”, “I heard a Fly buzz when I died”, “Success is counted sweetest”,
“A narrow fellow in the grass”, “A bird came down the walk”, “I taste a liquor never brewed”,
“There’s a certain Slant of light”, and “I like to see it lap the Miles”.
Check your progress
1. Name any three poems by Emily Dickinson.
____________________________________
2. What are the major themes in Emily Dickinson’s poetry?
_____________________________________________
3. What are the main influences on Emily Dickinson?
_________________________________________
16.2.1.1 “I’m Nobody. Who are you?”:
In this section we will discuss the poem, “I’m nobody. Who are you?” by Emily
Dickinson. We will attempt an appreciation of the poem, look at the poetic devices, and examine
the significance of the title.
Appreciation of the poem:
The poet says she is nobody. She is insignificant. She asks whether you are also
insignificant. If so, then they are a pair of friends. She advises that they should not tell anybody.
Or else they would be banished from their world of privacy. Public life, to the poetess, is
cramped and dreary. It is like the life of a frog which proudly tells its name to its admiring bog
where it lives. But the frog is not known outside the marshy bog.
The present poem is often quoted as an example of Emily’s modesty. But it seems to be
an illustration of Emily’s self-exile into a private world of her own. The result of her self-
imposed exile was that she remained insignificant during her lifetime. She was nobody in the
world. But it does not matter. Two ‘nobody’s’ can become companions. In the second stanza,
there is a touch of satire. Public life is dreary and cramped. It is like the life of a frog which tells
its name all the time to the boggy ground where it lives.
Check your progress
1. Why does the poet want to be insignificant?
____________________________________
2. What is public life, according to the poet?

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 __________________________________
3. What is public life compared to?
__________________________
Significance of the title of the poem
Emily Dickinson, in this poem, renounces the world by denying any special identity,
status or recognition in society. It is an affirmation of nothingness of human beings in the vast
scale of the universe. The poem underscores the togetherness of those who do not have any fixed
identity as per the norms of the world. The fear of revealing one’s identity is present as nobody
can cause great damage to their existence. It is imperative to carry the tag of some unique
identity all the time to categorize human beings for various reasons. People without identity are
like shadows of ghosts, invisible but dangerous in the eyes of people who have a fixed visible
identity. Threat to the fixed and visible identity would result in the advertisement of people
having no identity. The poet is quite sure about it and cautions not to reveal the identity.
The poet, on the other hand, after renouncing identity, status, fixity, and visibility,
becomes critical of these facets of existence. In her opinion, it is ‘dreary’ to have status or being
somebody. She condemns publicity or visibility and pronouncing it every now and then. It seems
to be like a ‘frog’ which attracts the attention of everybody throughout the day like it. The poem
evinces the desire of the poetess to lead a quiet life without any desire to be known. Thus, the
title of the poem is striking and significant.
Check your progress
1. How does the poet renounce the world?
_________________________________
2. What does the poet warn about?
__________________________
3. What is dreary, for the poet?
_______________________
Poetic devices
The poem consists of two stanzas. Each stanza is a quatrain. In the first stanza, the
speaker refers to the reader or all the other people and introduces themselves as ‘Nobody’. So, it
is about identity and solidarity. The second stanza discusses people who want to be ‘somebody’.
The poem is generally Iambic. It does not possess a regular meter due to metrical
variations and unusual punctuation. The exclamation mark in the middle of the first line and the

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stress on ‘No’ emphasize that the speaker does not feel the need to reveal her identity. All the
lines have either three or four stresses. The Iambic tetrameter is seen in the seventh line, which
hints at boredom in the lives of ‘somebodies’. The first two lines and the sixth and eighth lines in
the poem rhyme. The first pair, you/too, indicates the speaker’s excitement that they have found
a ‘you’, another person who is also a ‘Nobody’. ‘Too’ suggests that there is more than one person.
Another rhyming pair is frog/bog. A bog is the dwelling of the frog or the frog lives in swampy
bogs. This rhyme indicates that like frogs, ‘somebodies’ yearn for recognition.
Assonance is used in the line “Are you-Nobody too” as the sound /oo/ is repeated.
Anaphora is found in the first stanza as the word ‘How’ is repeated. The line “Don’t tell! they’d
advertise-you know” is an example of hyperbole. In the opening lines of the poem, irony is used
since the poetess introduces herself as nobody. Oxymoron is used in the first two lines in the
poem. The line ‘to an admiring bog’ is an example of personification. Simile is used in the
second line of the second stanza to compare people who want to be famous to a frog.
Check your progress
1. What is the rhyme scheme of the poem?
_________________________________
2. State the function of rhyming words in the poem.
________________________________________
3. What comparison is made in the second stanza?
______________________________________
16.2.2 Khalil Gibran:
Khalil Gibran was born on 6 Jan 1883 to Kamila Jubran and her second husband, Khalil
Sa’d Jubran in Bisharri, North Lebanon. He had a half brother, Butrus Rahma and two younger
sisters, Sultana and Marianna. His family were Moronite Christians. His mother, Kamila Jubran
was the daughter of a Maronite priest. His father was a drunkard and a gambler. He used to
collect taxes for the village headman, but lost his job due to the some irregularity and his
property was seized. Kamila deserted her husband and took the children to the US. She strove to
educate the children. Khalil received primary education in the US. He further studied in Beirut,
Boston and Paris.
Khalil was a central figure in Arabic literary modernism. He was influenced by European
modernism of the late 19th century. His works deal with the experiences and loneliness of Middle
Eastern immigrants in the US. His style inspired the Arabs. The themes of alienation, disruption

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and lost rural beauty and security in the modern world pervade his works. However, American
critics do not rate him highly.
Khalil Gibran was influenced by Leonardo da Vinci’s drawings. His Arabic style was
influenced by late 19th century European Romantic writers. He portrayed Lebanese folk culture
in his works. His first book, Al Musiqa (On Music) published in 1905, consists of only 11 pages.
In this work, he points out that music was worshipped by past civilizations. His Ara’is al muruj
(Nymphs of the Valley) published in 1906 is a collection of three short stories. Al Arwa al-
mutamarrida (Spirits Rebellions) published in 1908 is a collection of four stories. Al Ajniha al-
mutakassira, a novella was published in 1912. His first book in English, The Madman: His
Parables and Poems, was published in 1918. His other works include Al Mawakib ( The
Procession - 1919), Al Awasif ( The Storms - 1920), The Forerunner: His Parables and Poems -
1920, Al Bada’i’ wa al-tara’if (Best Things and Masterpieces) - 1923, Sand and Foam - 1926,
Kalimat Jubran in Arabic - 1927, Jesus, the Son of Man: His Words and his Deeds - 1928 and
Arabic Al- Sanabil (Heads of Grain - 1929). His masterpiece was The Prophet published in 1923.
Besides, he also wrote two one-act plays, Lazarus and his Beloved, and The Blind.
Check your progress
1. Mention the recurrent themes in Khalil Jibran’s works?
______________________________________________
2. What were the influences on Khalil Gibran?
___________________________________
3. Why was Khalil Gibran considered a central figure in Arabic literary modernism?
_________________________________________________________________
16.2.2.1 “On Children”:
Appreciation of the poem
The poem is about the advice given by the prophet Al-Mustafa to a woman. The woman
is a mother who asks him about children. First of all, the prophet clarifies that parents cannot
consider their children as their own. Religion prescribes that the soul belongs to only God who is
the supreme ‘life’. The human soul is a part of this supreme ‘life’. So the prophet speaks about
the spiritual self inside the children. He emphasizes that children belong to God. Parents are just
the medium through whom children assume bodily form.
The speaker emphasizes that children are the sons and daughters of God. God desires
human form and sends its fragments to earth. God intends to unravel the mysteries of nature. The

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speaker suggests that children are sent to the world through their parents. Parents thus become a
part of the divine scheme. God controls everything. God chooses appropriate persons for the
purpose. So, to assume that children come from their parents is not proper spiritually. Human
beings unite in a marital bond and give birth to a new form, but God infuses life into that body.
The soul initiates its worldly journey. The parents of the children nurture and guide the children.
But when the appointed hour comes, the soul returns to its origin. So the parents are companions
only momentarily.
The speaker then advises the manner in which children can be brought up. Parents do not
realize that children will ultimately return to God. They love their children selflessly even if they
do not follow them. They cannot impose their thoughts on children. The soul chooses its parents
but does not know about the future. So, the parents should align with the divine proposition.
They should not interfere with God’s will. They should provide spiritual nourishment to the
children. They cannot constrain the souls. They can just provide for the external environment
while God protects it. After death, the soul merges at a certain place. Human beings are unaware
of this place.
The speaker also refers to the childhood stage. It is a phase when the soul is in its purest
form. Childhood is divine. Human beings wish to return to this phase and enjoy the bliss. But the
past cannot be lived again. Parents strive to be like their children, but the process is irreversible.
Life moves forward but cannot turn backward. The thoughts of the past should not mar the
present. One should live in the present moment. The parents are also warned not to make the
children like them. This suggests that parents had lost their innocence in adulthood. So they
should not spoil the innocence of children by trying to make children like them.
The speaker, Al-Mustafa says that parents are bows through which God sends their
children as ‘arrows.’ Bows and arrows are dependent on each other for action. An arrow cannot
move further unless acceleration is provided by a bow. The bow cannot send the arrow without
force. A skilled archer sends an arrow to the exact mark. God is supposed to be an archer who
looks at the mark, the divine spirit. God bends the arrow and sends it to the fixed mark. Similarly,
parents should be flexible in their approach.
Lastly, the speaker talks about the kindness of God. The ‘bending’ refers to the flexibility
of the human mind. Parents who are not rigid can enable good spiritual development of a child.
The flexibility of the bow enables swiftness of an arrow. God loves both the bow and the arrow.
It suggests that God is concerned about both parents and children. The speaker further suggests

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that parents should have a stable mind. They should not break apart. They should remain firm
and be flexible too, which can enable their children to reach the final destination.
Check your progress
1. Who is the supreme life?
______________________
2. Name the Speaker in the poem.
_________________________
3. Why should the parents align with the divine proposition?
______________________________________________
Significance of the title of the poem
The poem offers advice on parenting. It discusses how two individuals, united in
marriage, can become model parents. The prophet, Al-Mustafa, is a wise person who guides the
parents. When the mother asks him to instruct her about children, he informs that the children do
not belong to the parents. Rather, children are fragments of the divine. The prophet emphasizes
that the soul requires a medium to come into existence on earth. God chooses parents as this
medium. Parents have to nourish these souls until they find their own self. Parents act like arrows
and are used to propel arrows. God holds the arrow and sends it in a particular direction. Similar
is the role of parents. If they fail to do so and try to act as per their wish, they indulge in
manipulation of the divine scheme.
The poem discusses the idea of nurturing children. It deals with the mindset of parents on
upbringing of a child. Thus, the title of the poem is significant.
Check your progress
1. What is the significance of the title of the poem?
_______________________________________
2. How can parents become role models, according to the poet?
_________________________________________________
3. How do children exist on earth?
__________________________
Poetic devices
“On Children” is a prose-poem which does not conform to the norms of conventional
poetry. It contains sixteen prosaic lines. It does not contain all the poetic features. The lines are

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long and do not follow a rhyming scheme. It is composed in free verse. It does not possess a
particular metrical pattern. It contains Iambic metre as well as trochaic metre.
Figures of speech make the poem more effective. Paradox is used in the third line,“ Your
children are not your children,” which suggests a truth that appears shocking. The next line
“Life’s longing” is a metaphor. It is also alliteration as the letter ‘l’is repeated. Epigram is used in
the fifth and sixth lines. Anaphora is used in the fourth and the fifth line as the same word is used
in the beginning. Antithesis is used in the eleventh line, “ You may strive to be like them, but
seek not to make them like you” as the opposite ideas are brought together. Personification is
used in the twelfth line as life is spoken as if it is an object. A metaphor is used in the last few
lines where God is compared to an archer and parents to a bow. The Epigram is used in the last
line of the poem.
Check your progress:
1. How poetic is “On Children?”
________________________
2. What is the rhyming scheme of the poem?
__________________________________
3. State epigrams used in the poem.
__________________________
16.2.3 Pablo Neruda:
Pablo Neruda was born on 12 July 1904 in the town of Parral in Chile. His real name was
Neftali Ricardo Reyes Basoalto. He adopted the pen name of Pablo Neruda in memory of the
Czechoslovak poet, Jan Neruda. His father was a railway employee and his mother was a teacher.
After the death of mother, his father moved to Temuco and married dona Trinidad Candia
Malverde. Pablo spent his youth in Temuco, where he was acquainted with Gabriela Mistral,
head of the Girls secondary school, who began to like him. Initially, he wrote some articles for
the daily La Manana. Entusiasmo y Perseverancia was his first poem. In 1920, he started writing
for the literary journal Selva Austral. Some of his poems can be found in his first published book
Crepusculario (1923). In 1924, he published Veinte poemas de amor y una cancian desesperada
which became very popular and was widely translated. Neruda studied French and Pedagogy at
the University of Chile in Santiago. Later, he became a French teacher.
The government appointed him as a counsel. So he travelled to different places in the
world between 1927 and 1935. During this period, he wrote a collection of poems Residencia en

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tierra in 1933. The Spanish civil war and the murder of Garcia Lorca moved him and he joined
the Republican movement in Spain and then in France. He published the collection of poems
Espana en el Corazon in France in 1937. He returned to Spain in 1937. Subsequently, his poetry
dealt with political and social issues. In 1969, he was appointed ambassador to France.
In 1939, Neruda became Counsul for the Spanish emigration. Then he became Consul
General in Mexico. He rewrote his poem Canto General day Chile which describe entire South
American continent. It consists of about 250 poems and was published in 1950. This was
translated into 10 languages. In 1943, Neruda returned to Chile. In 1945, he became a senator of
the Republic and joined the Communist Party of Chile. He protested against President
Gonzalez’s policy against miners in 1947 and had to remain underground for two years. He left
the country in 1949 and again returned in 1952. Las Uvas y el Viento (1954) deals with the
events of his exile. The collection of poems Cien sonetos de amor published in1959 is dedicated
to his wife Matilde Urrutia. His poems were based predominantly based on the themes of love,
depression, politics and nature.
Pablo Neruda was one of the most well-known Chilean poets. He was one of the most
significant Latin-American poets to write in Spanish in the twentieth century. He received the
Nobel Prize in literature in 1971. He was diagnosed with prostrate cancer in France. He died on
23 September 1973.
Check your progress
1. Which work of Pablo Neruda was widely translated?
____________________________________________
2. Which poem of Neruda deals with his exile?
______________________________________
3. What was the real name of Pablo Neruda?
____________________________________
16.2.3.1 “Clenched Fist”:
Appreciation of the poem
Clenched Soul occurs in Neruda’s collection of poems 100 Love Sonnets published in
1959. The poem is a sonnet which offers penetrating insight into human emotions.
Clenched Soul depicts the human condition and emotions. In the first stanza, the speaker
describes the soul as clenched and shut off from the world. It conveys resistance as the soul holds
something tightly. It deals with the speaker’s emotional state which remains confined to itself.

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The second stanza of the poem depicts the speaker’s will to release himself from the state of
isolation and join with the world. He desires to free the soul and live to the fullest in the lap of
nature. He wants to be immersed in the beauty of nature. In the third stanza, the speaker
describes the suffering of a living being. He refers to the world as a “wild abyss” containing
sorrow and pain. The speaker finds it difficult to deal with the bitter reality of life. In the fourth
stanza, the speaker points out that death is unavoidable and the nature of life changes. But
human beings do not accept this fact and try to escape from reality. In the final stanza the speaker
again refers to “clenched soul.” He considers himself as a prisoner confined to his own emotions
and cannot break free. It hints that struggle in life is constant and human beings have their
limitations.
Thus, the poem deals with human experience. The poem depicts human beings’ struggle
to face bitter reality. It deals with the universal human experience.
Check your progress
1. Explain the form of the poem.
_________________________
2. What is the poem about?
____________________
3. What does the poet refer to the world?
_______________________________
Significance of the title of the poem
Neruda first describes the speaker’s mind which is melancholic. The speaker rues the loss
of a moment of romance shared with someone close to him. He regrets the loss and becomes sad.
The image of the “blue night” suggests darkness. The speaker desires more intense moments.
The sunset depicts beauty and joy that the poet and his beloved are unable to experience. It
evokes a sense of celebration, but the speaker is isolated and sad. The son is referred to as a coin
which hints at fragility and the moment they desire is beyond them. The speaker remembers a
moment with a person but cannot reach it. “Clenched Soul” hints at the powerful emotions
which cannot be controlled. The moment, being in the past, cannot be recaptured. There is a kind
of rhetoric which hints at uncertainty. The speaker accepts that the person he desires has left and
he is lost. It hints at emptiness and the speaker feels vulnerable at the absence of a person the
speaker desires, which leaves a void in his life.

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 The poem is a reflection on loss and desire. It is about the desires that are not fulfilled
and continue to haunt people forever. The speaker personally is overwhelmed by a strong
emotion that he cannot control. He desires something that he cannot possess.
The poem celebrates the beauty and the fleetingness of life. Imagery creates a sense of
surprise in the natural world. “The clenched soul” indicates that emotions are human and cannot
be repressed. The poet depicts a sense of loss and desire which is personal as well as universal.
Thus, the title of the poem is significant.
Check your progress
1. What does the image of the “blue night” suggest?
________________________________________
2. Why does the poet refer to the fiesta sunset?
___________________________________
3. What does the poet mean by “clenched soul”?
_____________________________________
Poetic devices
The poem consists of fourteen lines. It contains two quatrains and two tercets. Iambic
pentameter is used in the poem. The rhyming scheme of the poem is abba abba cdc dcd.
Repetition is used in the second line of the poem. A metaphor is used in the third line of the
poem as the night is described as blue. The sun is compared with a coin in the sixth and seventh
line. So it is an example of a simile. Simile is again used in the twelfth line as the sweater is
compared with a dog. Repetition is used in the second last line of the poem as the word ‘always’
is repeated to emphasize that he remembers his beloved every time.
Imagery is used in the poem to create the desired poetic effect. The image of the world as
a “wild abyss” is used to convey sorrow and pain. The image of the “blue night” hints at
darkness. The fiesta sunset depicts beauty and joy that the poet and his beloved cannot
experience. It evokes a sense of celebration, but the speaker is isolated and sad. The son is
referred to as a coin which hints at fragility and the moment they desire is beyond them. He
recalls his pleasant memories, but he refers to these memories as ‘burned’ like a “coin in my
hand”. “The clenched soul” suggests that emotions are human and cannot be repressed.
Check your progress
1. What is the rhyming scheme of the poem?
_____________________________________

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 2. Explain the use of figures of speech in the poem.
_____________________________________
3. Which image is used to describe the world?
____________________________________

16.2.4 Comparative Assessment:

The poetic genius of Emily Dickinson, Khalil Gibran and Pablo Neruda:
Emily Dickinson was an introvert and lived a private life. With the exception of a few
pieces, all her poems were published after her death. It is possible to group these poems under
the headings like love, death, immortality etc. Her treatment of various themes, nature, love,
pain,suffering, death, and immortality is distinctive and her poems on these subjects have their
own identity. Some of Dickinson’s early poems contain a praise of nature as “the gentlest
mother.” She looks upon nature as a moral teacher or guide. This attitude is evident in the poems,
I had been hungry all the year, and She is content with picturing changes, etc. “A light exists in
spring and “As imperceptibility as grief” are fine poems about spring and summer respectively.
She had a genuine reverence for nature.
Many of Emily Dickinson’s poems are concerned with the themes of death and
immortality, the Creator, and the Redeemer. These themes are mystical in nature and her poems
on these themes are the fruit of a very deep insight and an intensely emotional nature. The poems
do belong to the body of that literature which is based on the search of the mystic of God and for
union with Him. There is faith, certainty and religious conviction. We find an effort at a complete
identification with the Divine spirit which motivates the true mystic. She believes in God and in
the things of the spirit. Death and heaven are the objects of constant speculation. In the poem,
“Because I could not stop for Death,” she sees death as a person whom she knew and trusted.
Emily Dickinson described immortality as the ‘flood subject.’ She knew that one of the
strongest incentives to belief was the intense desire of the heart not to be robbed by the grave.
This was the firmest proof for now to believe that the grave was a gateway to immortality. She
described it in the poem, “Because I could not stop for death.” In this poem, death escorts her to
her new house that is her grave. The horses lead her to eternity. It is one of her most confident
statements about the existence of the soul after death.
Her treatment of the passion of love is characterized by the originality which is a feature
of all her work. Love, in her view, triumphs over both life and death to achieve an almost divine

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status. One of her poems, “Till Death is narrow loving,” states that only death’s separation truly
measures the extent of love. Her poem, “The Soul selects her own society” describes the
exclusiveness of affection or the highly selective quality of love. “Again his voice is at the door”
deals with a sublime emotional moment when two human beings are united by love. She
sublimated her passion of love and visualized a heavenly marriage with God or Christ. An
important poem in this category is “I cannot live with you,” where human passion is transformed
into divine love.
Emily Dickinson’s poetry is even more distinctive in technique. Her use of words,
consciousness and economy, metrical and rhyme patterns are different. Dickinson’s treatment of
various themes is of astonishing integrity and originality. Many of her poems are mediation on
the nature of things. Her symbols and her metaphors have much clarity and transparency. Her
poems are perfectly natural as she had a very keen observation.
Khalil Gibran was a Lebanese-American poet and philosopher. Gibran wrote various
genres, such as poetry, short stories, fables, political essays and letters. He also wrote plays in
English and Arabic. His works revolve around religion, science, love, happiness and death. His
works are romantic in nature and influenced by the Bible, Friedrich Nietzsche and William Blake.
The works are lyrical and depict Gibran’s religious nature. He used an experimental style which
was most of the time oratorical. Symbolism pervades his works. His language is less idiomatic.
His most famous work is The Prophet, published in 1923. It is about the Prophet who was about
to board a ship but was stopped by the residents of the city who requested him to give
information about the mysteries of life. The prophet then talks about love, marriage, passion and
death. His longest book is Jesus, the Son of Man: His Words and His Deeds as Told and
Recorded by Those Who Knew Him, published in 1928. It was about the views of about seventy
eight people who knew Jesus. His final work was The Earth God (1931), which was a debate of
three Gods on the transcendence of the human world. “On Children” occurs in Khalil Gibran’s
The Prophet. In this poem, Khalil Gibran offered advice on children. The prophet explains how
parents should think of their child.
Pablo Neruda is the most important Latin-American poet of the twentieth century. Pablo
Neruda’s first collection of poems Crepusculario was published in 1923. These poems resemble
Symbolic poetry. His second collection of poems Twenty Love Poems and a Song of Despair was
a result of a failed love affair. The four distinctive traits observed in Neruda’s poetry are love,
depression, political issues and usual daily life. These trends are in sync with Neruda’s

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personality. His love affairs, depression in exile, commitment to political causes and interest in
daily life bear influence on his poetry. Being a communist, he advocated social justice, which is
reflected in his poems too.
Check your progress
1. How does Emily Dickinson deal with immortality?
__________________________________________
2. Is Khalil Gibran a mystic poet?
__________________________
3. Mention any two distinctive characteristics of Pablu Neruda’s poetry.
_______________________________________________________
Thematic Comparison of Emily Dickinson’s “I’m Nobody! Who are You?,” Khalil
Gibran’s “On Children”, and Pablo Neruda’s “Clenched Soul”
Emily Dickinson’s “I’m Nobody! Who are You?” enquires about the necessity for
garnering attention. It talks about the virtues of isolation. It is an ode to solitude and anonymity
which was a special feature of Dickinson’s poetry. Emily and those people like her chose to be
‘Nobodies’ over ‘Somebodies.’ The poem suggests that there is nothing wrong with living a
secluded life.
The speaker claims that she is nobody. She also encourages others to be nobody. The
speaker’s identity is anonymous. She asserts that it is important to be nobody. She points out that
some people yearn for fame. They would want others to become like them. She suggests that
people that shy people are not boring. Instead, she calls ‘somebody’ as dreary. These people are
obsessed with their fame and sing praises of their own. They are desperate to seek attention and
show that they are important, but the poet asserts that one should live alone and should not be
dependent on others for recognition of their identities.
In “On Children,” Khalil Gibran informs the parents that they do not own their children.
He points out that children exist on the earth as life longings for itself. Gibran expresses his
views through the prophet. Gibran regards parenthood as a spiritual journey in which the child
and parents have a role to play as determined by God. The child is compared to an arrow and
looks at the future. The parent is likened to the bow and should be stable and both are dependent
on God, the divine archer. The theme of the poem is spirituality and humanism. The poem
indicates that the journey of every person depends on hope and faith. It is about how children
should be raised spiritually. It emphasizes the connection between generations and the

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significance of recognizing the qualities of every individual. He stresses that children can shape
the world and parents have a responsibility to guide them. Parents should guide children but also
respect their freedom and realize their talent.
In “Clenched Soul,” the themes of loss, confusion and love persist. Pablo Neruda portrays
his grief, despair and heartbreak at the loss of his beloved. He describes the first night when he
will be alone. He will be without a person with whom he was supposed to spend his entire life.
He does not know what to do without her. He remembers his past. He thinks that he and his
beloved are walking together “hand in hand”. The blue colour is used to highlight his sorrow and
deeper emotions. He recalls his pleasant memories, but he refers to these memories as ‘burned’
like a “coin in my hand.” It signifies the pain he felt at his beloved’s absence. He is confused and
asks himself why his beloved deserted him .He thinks that she might have found someone else in
life. Neruda portrays love in a negative light. He stresses that love can be painful.
Check your progress
1. Mention the thematic concerns in Emily Dickinson’s “I’m Nobody! Who are You?”
_________________________________________________________________
2. Does the concept of an archer relate to the theme of Khalil Gibran’s “On Children”?
__________________________________________________________________
3. What does the term Clenched Soul indicate?
____________________________________
Comparison of Symbolism/Imagery in Emily Dickinson’s “I’m Nobody! Who are
You?,” Khalil Gibran’s “On Children”, and Pablo Neruda’s “Clenched Soul”
Imagery is not much used in Emily Dickinson’s “I’m Nobody! Who are You?” The only
image used in the poem is that of a frog. The speaker compares ‘somebody’ to a frog. This frog is
the public creature which indicates that frogs signal their arrival through loud croaks. The other
frogs surrounding them imitate. It hints that ‘somebodies’ are also interested in talking about
themselves all the time to other people. The frog symbolizes this irritating tendency. The bog is a
swampy and smelly place. It indicates that the company of somebody is an unpleasant
experience. The way adopted by somebody to be known as being significant makes them
insignificant.
In Khalil Gibran’s “On Children,” the speaker provides an image of a bow and an arrow.
God holds the bow and aims to shows an arrow at a fixed target. He calls parents as ‘bows’ and
children as ‘arrows’. Thus, like bows, parents shoot their children towards a better future. If the

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bow is flexible, it will bend more. If the string of the bow is strong, it can impart strength to the
arrow. If the aim is steady, the arrow can reach its destination perfectly. Gibran refers to God as
an archer and thus the Supreme Archer sends children to the world with a definite purpose. The
cycle of life continues for generations. The souls of the children reside in a metaphysical home.
It is not possible to recognize its vastness. But one can live in the present and raise children
perfectly.
In “Clenched Soul,” the symbolism of a hurt dog, the color blue, the insecurity of twilight
darkness of night is used to signify the emotion of loss and sadness. The hurt dog symbolizes the
broken-hearted animal’s request for aid. The sun is a symbol of happiness but turns into an object
which burns the character. The blue colour indicates the poet’s sorrow and deeper emotions. He
recalls his pleasant memories, but he refers to these memories as ‘burned’ like a “coin in my
hand.” It hints at the pain he felt at his beloved’s absence.
Check your progress
1.What image is used in Emily Dickinson’s “I’m Nobody! Who are You?”
2. Mention the symbol(s) used in Khalil Gibran’s “On Children?”
3. What images/symbols are employed in “Clenched Soul?”

16.3 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you should have understood that Emily Dickinson’s “I’m Nobody!
Who are You?” is a lyric on isolation and insignificance, Khalil Gibran’s “On Children” is an
advice to parents and Pablo Neruda’s “Clenched Soul” is a romantic poem. You should have
become familiar with the figures of speech, the poetic devices and the thematic concerns of the
individual poems. You have also learned to attempt a comparative assessment of the prescribed
poems.

16.4 Glossary

I’m Nobody! Who are you?

Dreary: Dull, bleak
Bog: An area of wet muddy ground
On Children

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Bosom: A woman’s chest
Longing: Desire
Dwell: Living place
Tarries: Delay leaving a place
Archer: One who shoots with a bow and arrows
Swift: Quick
Clenched Soul
Clenched: To hold very tightly
Fiesta: Festival, celebration
Recede: Move back, withdraw

16.5 Sample Questions

16.5.1 Objective Questions:

1. Emily Dickinson died at the age of _______ .
(a) Fifty five (b) Sixty
(c) Forty (d) Thirty
2. Public life, to Dickinson, is________.
(a) Bliss (b) Busy
(c) Tiresome (d) Dreary
3. Public life is compared to the life of a________.
(a) Frog (b) Lion
(c) Sailor (d) Poet
4. Khalil Gibran was influenced by the drawings of _________.
(a) Mona Lisa (b) M.F.Hussain
(c) Leonardo da Vinci (d) Michel Angelo
5. Khalil Gibran’s Arabic style was influenced by _________.
(a) 19th century European romantic writers
(b) 20th century modernists
(c) American modernists
(d) French realists

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6. The speaker, Al-Mustafa says that parents are bows through which God sends their children as
_______________ .
(a) Messengers (b) Angels
(c) Arrows (d) Playthings
7. “On Children” discusses the idea of nurturing ____________.
(a) Nature (b) Good habits
(c) Parents (d) Children
8. The line,“ Your children are not your children” is an example of ____________ .
(a) Simile (b) Metaphor
(c) Oxymoron (d) Irony
9. Neftali Ricardo Reyes Basoalto adopted the pen name of Pablo Neruda in memory of the poet,
__________ .
(a) Pablo Picasso (b) Jan Neruda
(c) John Keats (d) Robert Frost
10. “Clenched Soul” occurs in Neruda’s collection of poems 100 Love Sonnets published in
________________.
(a) 1959 (b) 1962
(c) 1966 (d) 1968.
16.5.2 Short Answer Questions:
1. Comment on Emily Dickinson’ views on public life.
2. Examine the theme of self-imposed exile in the poem, “I’m Nobody! Who are You?”
3. How is the concept of the bow and arrow central to the theme of the poem “On Children”?
4. What advice does the prophet give to the woman?
5. What does Pablo Neruda mean by the term Clenched Soul?
16.5.3 Long Answer Questions:
1. Make a comparative assessment of the poetic genius of Emily Dickinson, Khalil Gibran and
Pablo Neruda.
2. Bring out the thematic comparison of Emily Dickinson’s “I’m Nobody! Who are You?”,
Khalil Gibran’s “On Children”, and Pablo Neruda’s “Clenched Soul”.
3. Examine the use of imagery in Emily Dickinson’s “I’m Nobody! Who are You?”, Khalil
Gibran’s “On Children” and Pablo Neruda’s “Clenched Soul”.

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16.6 Suggested Learning Resources

1. Bloom, Harold. Ed. Modern Critical Views: Emily Dickinson. New York: Chelsea House
Publishers,1985.
2. Johnson, Tamara. Ed. Readings on Emily Dickinson. San Diego: Greenhaven, 1997.
3. Dickinson, Emily. “I’m Nobody! Who are you?” In Poems and other Writings. New York:
Library of America, 2000.
4. “Khalil, Gibran 1883-1931,” Poets.org https://poets.org/poet/Khalil-Gibran.
5. R.C., Abbot. “Khalil Gibran on why parents don’t own their children.”
https://rcabbot.medium.com/Khalil-Gibran-on-why-parents-don’t-own-their-
children54061ccdda297
6. Pablo, Neruda: Poems. https://PoemsHunter.com.2011.

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 MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL URDU UNIVERSITY
M.A. English
III SEMESTER EXAMINATION, February 2022
Code : MAEN303CCT Paper : Comparative Literature
Time: 3 hours Max. Marks : 70 Marks

Note : This question paper consists of two parts : Part – A and Part-B Number of words to answers each
question is only indicative. Attempt all parts.
Part-A contains 10 questions, of which students are supposed to answer 8 questions. Answer each
question in approximately 100 words. Each question carries 05 marks. (8x5=40 marks)
Part-B contains 5 questions, of which students are supposed to answer 3 questions. Answer each
question in approximately 250 words. Each question carries 10 marks. (3x10=30 marks)

Part – A

1. Write a note on Wide Sargaso Sea as a post-colonial novel.

2. With reference to Appa Rao’s poem that you have read, comment on the element of
patriotism in it.
3. Attempt the character sketch of Irina Arkadina.
4. How is the person whom Khusro is addressing in his poem Just by Casting a Glance related to him?
5. Write a critique of Pablo Neruda’s Clenched Soul.
6. Write a short note on the depiction of violence in Derek Walcott’s poem A Far Cry from Africa.
7. Critically examine the use of imagery in the poem Five Ways to Kill a Man.
8. What do you understand by Walter Benjamin’s concept of ‘Kinship of Languages’?
9. Attempt critical appreciation of Emily Dickenson’s I am Nobody! Who are you.
10. Comment on the element of modernism in the poetry of Arun Kolatkar and Kamla Das.

Part – B

11. Faiz Ahmad Faiz’s poem is a critique of partition. Discuss

12. Write a detailed note on the use of supernatural in the play Hamlet.
13. “No poem is intended for the reader, no picture for the beholder, no symphony for the audience”
Comment
14. According to Jonathan Culler, what is Comparative Literature?
15. Comment on ‘Love versus Autonomy’ as a major theme of Jane Eyre.

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