Technical and Vocational Training Institute

Department of Vocational Pedagogy

A Module on
General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods
For Exit Examination Tutorial Program

By
Biadgelign Ademe, PhD (Associate Professor)

July 2023
Addis Ababa

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 1

 Contents

Contents Pages
UNIT ONE.................................................................................................................................................3
1. TEACHING........................................................................................................................................3
1.1. Definition of Teaching................................................................................................................3
1.2. The Teaching Procession and its Characteristics........................................................................4
1.3. Teachers’ Professional Code of Ethics........................................................................................5
1.4. Major Responsibilities of Teachers.............................................................................................6
1.5. Principles of Teaching.................................................................................................................9
1.6. Effective Teaching........................................................................................................................11
UNIT TWO..............................................................................................................................................14
2. METHODS OF TEACHING............................................................................................................14
2.1. Definition of Methods of Teaching..............................................................................................14
2.2. Introduction to Learning-Teaching in TVET................................................................................15
2.2. Types of the Methods of Teaching...............................................................................................16
2.2.1. Question and Answer Learning-Teaching Technique...........................................................18
2.2.2. Demonstration Technique of Learning..................................................................................23
2.2.3. Project-Based Learning...........................................................................................................25
2.2.4. Teaching a Skill.....................................................................................................................29
2.2.5. Computer Based Learning.....................................................................................................31
2.2.6. Simulation..............................................................................................................................32
UNIT THREE..........................................................................................................................................34
3. LESSON PLANNING........................................................................................................................34
3.1. Elements of Lesson Planning....................................................................................................35
3.2. Importance/Significance of Lesson Planning...............................................................................37
3.3. Classroom Management..............................................................................................................38
3.3.1. Problems of Classroom Management.....................................................................................38
3.3.2. Techniques of Classroom Management..................................................................................39

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 2

 UNIT ONE
1. TEACHING
Objectives of the Unit
At the end of the unit, students will able to
 define teaching in their own words
 list characteristics of effectiveness in teaching
 identify good and bad qualities of a teacher after observing him/her in the real teaching-learning
process.

Major Contents of the Unit

In this unit the following main concepts will be considered
 The Definition of Teaching
 The Teaching Procession and its Characteristics
 Teachers’ Professional Code of Ethics
 Major Responsibilities of Teachers
 Professional Duties and Responsibilities of Teachers
 Teachers’ Duties and Responsibilities as Teachers
 Teachers’ Duties and Responsibilities in Relation to Students
 Teachers’ Duties and Responsibilities as Scholars and Professionals
 Teachers’ Duties and Responsibilities as Colleagues and Relations to the
Community at Large.
 Teachers’ Duties and Responsibilities in their Schools
 Principles of Teaching
 Effective Teaching

1.1. Definition of Teaching

Dear students! Before you go through the sections below, please perform the following tasks. Brain
storm yourself, first in fours, then pass two members of group one into group two and two members
from group two to group three and so on to the last. Repeat the same until the round is completed in
this way so as to share your experiences about the following issues.

 What is teaching?
 Why do we teach?

The transmission of worthwhile activities, experiences, findings, achievements, or in short, cultural

heritages of one generation to the next can not be effected, as cited above, naturally. That is, the skills
needed to perform the functions/roles of the public/community, do not come by common sense or by
trial - and - error. Rather, such activities have to be taught and acquired through learning. This grand
reason is the very cause for the emergence and use of the term teaching. Having this in mind, thus,
what does teaching mean?

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 3

Teaching is defined in different ways by different educators. Nevertheless, all the definitions, in one
way or another; seem to convey much more alike message/information or meaning. For instance,
consider the following definitions.
 To teach is to give information; to show a person how to do something; to give lessons in a
subject ... teaching is imparting knowledge or skill.
 Teaching may be regarded as providing opportunities for students to learn. It is an interactive
process as well as an intentional activity
 Teaching is a process that facilitates learning. In this process, the teacher has an important role
to play because he acts like a catalyst, actively stimulating learning

These, three definitions of teaching, reveal the involvements of two inseparable bodies: the teacher and
students. In each definition, one may realize that teaching is an attempt/activity so as to help
individuals - students-so that they can acquire/ gain or change some skill, attitude, knowledge, beliefs,
convictions, or appreciation. For the facilitation of this, teachers, therefore have to create or influence
desirable changes in behaviour or in tendencies toward behaviour in his/her students.

1.2. The Teaching Procession and its Characteristics

Dear students! Before you go through the sections below, please perform the following tasks. Brain
storm yourself, first in four, then pass two members of group one into group two and two members
from group two to group three and so on to the last. Repeat the same until the round is completed in
this way so as to share your experiences about the following issues.

 What is profession?
 What are the characteristics of a profession?
 Is teaching a profession?
 From your experience as students, what is good teaching? And what is bad teaching? Why?
 What did you learn from your discussions?

Definition
 a profession is a form of employment or occupation area.
 a profession is respected in a society as an honorable and is only possible for an educated
person; it is attained after training in some special branch of knowledge.

An employment area becomes a profession if it meets the following criteria.

 A profession involves a body of knowledge and system of skills:
 The individual has to master a specific subject area and has special training
E.g Teaching: Eng, Ma... subject area training
Professional courses: GMT, curriculum, special training.
 A profession performs specific functions for personal and social purposes
 to earn an income for living- teacher
 trained manpower- result of teaching

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 4

  A profession is practicable:
 relates to the freedom/ autonomy that its members/teachers enjoy to practice/ do
their professional career without any restriction or interference.
 Entry into a profession requires an extended period of preparation
 A profession is organized:
 Can form association for the well being of its members.
 A Profession has a literature and language unique to it.
 Specialist terminologies and vocabularies

Teaching as a profession needs to meet a number of requirements. Those who want to join it are
required to:
 show commitments to the ideal services of human kind rather than to personal advantage;
 undergo a relatively long period of training to learn the subject matter and the basic skills
of handling classroom instruction;
 meet the established admission qualification and keeping up to date through in service
programs;
 have high degree of intellectual energy/ caliber;
 form organization to improve the standards of the profession, services, ethics, the social
and economic well being, etc. of its members;
 try to get opportunities for advancement, specialization and independence; and
 ensure permanent membership in the profession or taking teaching as ones life career.

1.3. Teachers’ Professional Code of Ethics.

This is related to teachers' commitments to the:
 students
 home and community
 profusion
Teacher's commitments to students include:
 guiding students in the pursuit of knowledge;
 inculcating democratic attitudes;
 providing the necessary help;
 providing equal treatment regardless of gender, ethnic background, religion, etc;
 respecting students' rights;
 recognizing individual differences;
 seeking to constantly improve learning facilities;
 becoming good example;
 withholding confidential information about a student and the like.

Teachers’ commitments to the home and community include:

 respecting the basic responsibility of parents;
 seeking to establish friendly and cooperative relationship with parents;

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 5

  keeping parents informed about the students’ progress;
 respecting the community and to be loyal to the school system and the community; etc.
Teachers’ commitments to the profession include:
 working to improve the quality of education;
 using educational facilities for intended purposes;
 seeking to make professional growth through research,...,
 making appropriate use of time granted for professional purposes,
 accepting no gifts of significance that might influence one's judgment, etc.,

1.4. Major Responsibilities of Teachers

Teachers are important personalities who play a paramount role in the shaping of the coming
generation. They are central figures in the educational system of a country. The way teachers cultivate
children, in the classroom, highly influences both the learner and the society at large.

Hence, the coming generation, though above all, is in the hands of teacher trainers, it is in the palms of
the would be teachers, as well. That is, the quality of the educational exposure available to children of
the coming generations largely depends upon today’s teacher trainers and would be teachers. In this
regard, therefore, teachers have a number of duties and responsibilities that they are expected to
discharge optimally.

Professional Duties and Responsibilities of Teachers

Definition: Responsibilities are obligations or duties that teachers need to discharge in a socially
useful and acceptable way (summarized from the different sites of the wave page).

Teachers’ duties and responsibilities could be related to their teaching, students, the school community,
etc. Some of the major ones are summarized below.

Teachers' Duties and Responsibilities as Teachers

 In collaboration with others, teachers have a responsibility for effective instruction,
including planning and preparing, setting and marking of work; assessing, recording, and
reporting, etc.
 They should encourage the free exchange of ideas between themselves and their students.
 The pursuit and dissemination of knowledge and understanding through teaching, research,
scholarly activities.
 They should be conscientious in the preparation and organization of their subject matter,
and should review this periodically in the light of developments in their field.

Teachers' Duties and Responsibilities in Relation to Students

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 6

  They must always consider carefully the safety of their students. Teachers’ actions must
insure that whenever they are in charge of students, whether on or off the compass/the
school site, the students' safety is never compromised.
 They should diagnose educational needs, prescribing and implementing instructional
programs.
 They are responsible to create a healthy educational and social climate that nourishes
students' intellectual, social, and emotional growth.
 They should teach in a manner that respects the dignity and rights of all persons with out
prejudices as to race, religious beliefs, color, sex, sexual orientation, physical
characteristics, age, ancestry, or place of origin.
 They should maintain good order and discipline among students and safeguard their health
and safety.
 They should keep in confidence all information gained in confidence about students:
students' academic progress, personal lives or political and religion views.
 Teachers may reveal information about the academic standing of a student in response to a
request from a reputable source; when acting as referees, they should strive to be fair and
impartial. In cases where the reference has not been solicited by the student, teachers should
inform the student prior to responding. Normally, they should not respond unless the student
agrees.
 When a teacher and a student are in a close personal relationship (such as being spouses to
one another, parent and child, or siblings) such that there is, or may be perceived to be, a
conflict of interest or possible favoritism, then the teacher should terminate a supervisory or
evaluative role with respect to the student in question.
 They should always be fair to their students, particularly in evaluating them.
 They should not accept pay for tutoring a student in any subject in which the teacher is
responsible for giving classroom instruction.
 They should not exploit the work of students for personal gain.
 The education service should help to protect students from abuse. Hence, all teachers should
be alert to signs of abuse and know to whom they should report any concerns or suspicions.

Teachers' Duties and Responsibilities as Scholars and Professionals

 They should work in accordance with the purposes of scholarly activities which are
concerned to:
 the increment and dissemination of knowledge and understanding;
 the improvement of the scholarly competence of teachers; and
 the initiation of students into the academic disciplines.
 they should familiarize themselves with and respect prevailing ethical guidelines regarding
research involving human or animal subjects.
 they have a responsibility to understand the centeral concepts, tools of inquiry, and
structures of the disciplines they teach.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 7

  They have a responsibility for professional and ethical behavior, continual professional
development, and to engage in professional activities related to teaching.
 They should act in a manner which maintains the honor and dignity of the profession.
 They should not engage in activities which adversely affect the quality of their professional
sciences.

Teachers' Duties and Responsibilities as Colleagues and Relations to the Community at Large.
 Improvements inside the classroom depend on improvements outside it. Hence, teachers
must take responsibility for more than the minimum, more than what goes on with in the
four walls of the classroom.
 Each teacher has an obligation to help increase and the degree and quality of day-to-day
interaction with other teachers.
 Both inside and outside the school, teachers should retain the responsibility of seeking the
truth and stating it as they see it.
 They should act to ensure a working milieu which is open, non-discriminatory and free from
personal, racial or sexual harassment. They should defend their colleagues' academic
freedom.
 They should refrain from denigration of the character and competence of colleagues.
 When presenting a professional judgment on a colleague at the request of an appropriate
school committee or authority (e.g. a committee dealing with appointments, tenure,
dismissal, or research) they have the obligation both to the colleague and to the school to be
fair and impartial.
 They should not exploit the work of colleagues for personal gain.
 They should not undermine the confidence of students in other teachers.
 Each teacher has a responsibility to try to understand and to attempt to improve the culture
of the school.
 When they enter into a special relationship with some sector of the community at large, as
when they are engaged as a consultant, they should ensure that these duties are in reasonable
balance with their obligations, duties, and responsibilities of the school.

Teachers' Duties and Responsibilities in their Schools.

 They should assume obligations to the school in addition to their primary duties as teachers
and scholars. Besides, discharging their professional duties such as preparing lessons,
marking students' work, and writing reports, they have the responsibility to participate in the
life of the school; in its administration through membership on committees at school and
department levels, provided that this participation is consistent with the discharge of their
primary responsibilities and with their own abilities.
 They have a responsibility to facilitate school improvement through democratic
participation, collaboration, and leadership.
 They should work for all days of the school year according to the school calendar.
 They should actively participate in staff meetings.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 8

  They should advise and cooperate with the director of the school on the preparation and
development of curriculum, methods of teaching, and assessment procedures, etc.
 They should abide by the rules and regulations established for the orderly conduct of the
affairs of the school.
 They should avoid potential conflicts of interest.
e.g.
 authorizing the purchase by the school equipment, supplies and
services from a source in which they or their family have a substantial
interest;
 lining any member of their immediate family as an employee or consultant for any
project supported by funds administered through the school; etc.
 They should give proper notice of resignation of a school appointment, in accordance with
the appropriate school regulations.
 They should provide as much notice as possible of a decision to terminate employment.

1.5. Principles of Teaching

There are a number of principles that teachers need to follow in their teaching. Some of them are
summarized as follows from different pages of the wave page.

Principle one: The principle of linking/ connecting school learning activities to social life
 all what the teacher does must be related to actual life outside of the school
 teachers’ lessons need to unite the theoretical to the practical activities, that is, it needs to
show where/ how the application is
Principle Two: The principle of planning lessons in line with the curriculum
 it is important to achieve the desired profile of students which is set in the curriculum/
syllabus. Hence, it is compulsory to follow the curricular documents in planning lessons.
Principle Three: The principle of verbalization of instruction
 It advocates the stating of what is learned in one’s own words. To give a clear understanding
and meaning of the material to be learned, students must be encouraged to talk on the issue.
 It gives a chance to retain what is learned for a longer period.
Principle Four: The principle of making instruction clear by using different instructional
media that appeals to the different senses
 advocates that all knowledge must be built on sufficiently clear and lively perceptions and
conceptions
 the scientific basis for the principle elaborates that the beginning of knowledge is sense of
perception
 hence, use multi- media in your instruction
Principle Five: The principle of recognizing individual differences in teaching:
 every individual is unique/ different from each other in his/her perception, intelligence,
maturity levels and rate, responses to the demands of the society, needs and interests of
students, etc.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 9

  hence, teachers should consider the presence of individual differences and try to
accommodate those differences accordingly.
Principle Six: The principle of uniting instruction with scientific findings and procedures:
 it advocates the need for sticking to scientific procedures, techniques and recent findings
 teachers need to make themselves up to date through personal efforts ( remember that there is
nothing static; things are in a state of constant change: what was taken as workable at one
time becomes obsolete at another time)
7. Principle Seven: The principle of integrating/coordinating learning experiences in different
subject areas:
 it assumes that individual’s practical activities are guided by his/her knowledge of the main
properties and features of the environment
 a teacher who teaches any subject at any grade level is expected to consider the different
kinds of subjects taught by other teachers.
Principle Eight: The principle of the leading role of the teacher and the independent activities
of the learner:
 learning is the student’s personal function. He/ she learns when he/she is active in the
instructional process
 the role of the teacher is to guide
 what is expected of the teacher is to create a conducive environment for learning: the
physical setup, the social and emotional environments need to be arranged, etc.
 the teacher motivates and acts as a guide, a stage setter, an organizer, etc.
Principle Nine: The principle of making lessons understandable/comprehensible:
 it advocates the adjustment of the lessons to the mental abilities of learners. Because
students learn at their best when the lesson fits to their present understanding level: “start
from where the learner is”.
 basic rules in lesson presentation are:
 presenting lessons from the known and proceeding to the unknown;
 starting lessons from the simple and proceeding to the complex;
 starting from the concrete and proceeding to the abstract;
 presenting lessons from the easy and proceeding to the difficult;
 starting from the whole and proceeding to the part/specific and vice-versa;
 starting from the immediate and proceeding to the remote; etc.
Principle Ten: The principle of defining the objectives of the lesson:
 students learn at their best when they are familiar with particular objectives of the lesson
 it makes them motivated and exert all their energy and attention to the already identified
objectives. Hence, inform students as what is expected of them at the end of your lesson.

1.6. Effective Teaching

Effective teaching can be termed/named in different ways by different scholars. For instance, it may be
success in teaching; or good teaching ; or effective teaching. In what so ever name that effective
teaching may be called, it is difficult to find a single, precise, and consistent/or acceptable definition for

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 10

the same. To illustrate this, it is enough to consider the following argument regarding to "What is good
teaching?"
 One may say that a teacher must be strict; another may say that he/she must be able to talk; a
third person still may say that he/she must be able to write neatly on board; and soon.
 When the characteristics of good teaching are reflected upon, the following factors should be
borne in mind.
 Children are unique and distinctive beings and what may be good teaching for one might prove
to be totally ineffective for another. One child might learn well through reading, therefore,
effective teaching for him would entail that the teacher should not speak a lot, but give him the
maximum opportunity to read. Another child might learn best by listening, which would mean
that his teacher should talk as much as possible. Therefore, there are children in the same class
who have divergent natures and cannot be treated alike. What can be regarded as good teaching
for one might be hopelessly inadequate for another.
 Like his/her pupils, every teacher has unique and distinctive personality traits. One might be a
master storyteller who is successful with the story method. Another might not have this ability
at all and should rather employ the question - and - answer method. One might be patient and
able to act in a particular way, while another might be short - tempered and should rather teach
in another manner. One might be neat and artistic and able to use the chalkboard in a masterly
manner, while another should rather let someone else make his transparencies and use the over
head projector. Certain techniques and methods that make a real master of one teacher might
make a hopeless failure of another.
 Besides, the unique differences between pupils and teachers, schools may differ greatly. For
example, one school might have modern viewing means which enable teachers to make use of
one method or technique, while another school might have almost no apparatus. The teachers at
the latter school are thus dependent on other teaching methods and techniques. The atmosphere
at one school might be such that it promotes question - asking teaching and pupil research and
contributions, while the atmosphere at another might be such that the teacher dare not allow the
pupils to experiment and research independently.

Seeing that students, teachers and even schools differ, it is very difficult to lay down general rules
applicable to effective teaching. If all pupils were treated alike it would be easy to draw up a set of
formulae according to which teaching could not help but be effective. In this regard, the medical
doctor has an easy time. He knows that if a person has a pain in a certain place and his fever has
reached a certain temperature, a particular pill or injection will lead to the healing thereof.
The human mind, however, is not subject to these scientific laws. For example, we cannot claim that if
a child does not understand a certain piece of work, then this is the problem or that is the solution and
therefore a particular formula should be followed. ... the teacher must always be flexible in his
presentation and vary his methods and techniques in accordance with the unique nature of his pupils,
his own personality and character traits and the demands which circumstances place upon him. Having
these arguments in mind, educational researchers as a result of their extensive studies of what teachers
do in the classroom, have produced criteria or factors for distinguishing effective teaching.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 11

Observational studies identified factors associated with what they called effective teaching. Thus, they
defined their factors for identification as positive and negative poles as follows.
 Warm and understanding versus cold and aloof.
 Organized and business like versus unplanned and slipshod.
 Stimulating and imaginative versus dull and routine.

Teachers rated nearer to the positive poles of each factor are considered more effective than teachers
rated nearer to the negative poles. Besides other indicators for teachers’ effectiveness research studies
showed two contrasting styles of teaching: direct and indirect. The result of the study reveals that:
Pupils of indirect teachers (which can be characterized by teacher reliance on asking
questions, accepting pupils' feelings, acknowledging pupils' ideas, and giving praise and
encouragement) learn more and have better attitudes towards learning. But pupils of
direct teachers (which are characterized by teacher reliance on lecture, criticism,
justification of authority and the giving of direction).

In general, a central dimension of responsiveness or teacher adaptability to students is teacher reaction

to group and individual differences. Effective teaching is also characterized by the tabular summary of
frequency mention of correlation between aspects of teachers or teaching and certain criteria of
teaching success that consists of:
 Resourcefulness (originality, creativeness, initiative, versatility, imagination, adventurousness,
progressiveness).
 Competencies (abilities to do) as a director of learning.
 Skill in identifying pupil needs
 Skill in choosing learning experiences
 Skill in using learning aids

A teacher who has such characteristics is successful in his/her teaching. Nevertheless, a teacher who
can be characterized by:
 lack of control of the technique of teaching;
 lack of knowledge of what pupils can do; and
 tendency to talk excessively;
can never be successful in his/her teaching: these are, rather, causes for failure in teaching

Generally, effective teaching may be characterized by teachers who are able to:
 establish a productive classroom atmosphere from the start by means of good organization and
carefully planned teaching structures; design instruction that will meet learner needs through
appropriate instructional materials, content, activities, format, and goals; include a variety of
students' activities in their respective lessons; deal with problems promptly before they get
out of hand.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 12

  analyse student abilities cultural backgrounds, achievement, needs including various
exceptional conditions of students' as limited sight and learning; give praise generously to
students.
 conduct instruction to best facilitate learning; use a variety of instructional methods; explain
new ideas, concepts, terms very clearly; present subject- matter and manage activities so as
to maximize learning; create specific kinds of climate settings for different lessons, e.g. serious
and business like or relaxed and enjoyable; teach in a relaxed manner with no sign of nervous
strain; use student ideas as much as possible.
 manage the classroom to promote productive learning; exercise good class control and
discipline, determine classroom time to focus on learning activities; manage student interaction
with each other and the teacher; donot over-react to students' misbehaviour.
 promote classroom communication to evoke and express academic information as well as
personal feelings and relationships; use friendly humour and create excellent student-teacher
relations; use standard language-according to the understanding level of students-both in
writing and speaking; use non-verbal communication systems such as body movement, facial
expression, an eye contact so as to express emotions as well as approval, disapproval,
permission, etc.,
 evaluate learning to determine the extent to which instructional objectives are achieved by
students; etc.

UNIT TWO
2. METHODS OF TEACHING

Objectives of the Unit

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 13

At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
 define the different methods of teaching in their own words.
 analyse the strengths and weaknesses of the different methods of teaching.
 compare and contrast the different methods of teaching.
 determine the method(s) of teaching employed by a teacher after conducting classroom
observation in the actual teaching-learning process.
 Combine the different teaching methods that suit instructional objectives.
 set criteria useful to select different techniques of learning-teaching in TVET
 select techniques of teaching appropriate for given objectives of learning in TVET
 analyze the ground for TVET learning techniques
 explain the advantages and disadvantages of given techniques of learning in TVET

Major Contents of the Unit

 Definition of Methods of Teaching
 Introduction to Learning-Teaching in TVET
 Types of the Methods of Teaching
 Question and Answer Learning Technique
 Demonstration Technique of Learning
 Project-Based Learning
 Teaching a Skill
 Computer Bided Learning

2.1. Definition of Methods of Teaching

Dear students! Before you go through the sections below, please perform the following tasks. Brain
storm yourself, first in fours, then pass two members of group one into group two and two members
from group two to group three and so on to the last. Repeat the same until the round is completed in
this way so as to share your experiences about the following issues.

 What do you understand by the methods of teaching?

 Do you think that can learning be possible without teaching?
 Do you think that is there a method of teaching which is versatile, correct, that can serve all the
purposes? Why?
 How different methods of teaching be selected and combined so as to meet the purposes of
teaching?
 What are the sources of the methods of teaching?

Methods of teaching are general means, manners, ways, procedures, or steps by which a particular
order is imposed upon teaching or presentation of activities. In clearer terms, methods of teaching refer
to construction of 'how teaching ought to be done'. On top of this, teaching methods may be viewed as
a series of discrete steps that the teacher uses or takes so as to achieve the predetermined instructional

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 14

objectives. Or, method of teaching is the sum total of the teacher's work with learners' goals, to plan,
direct, guide and facilitate their roles in carrying on their goal seeking activities.

Teaching method is the rational ordering and balancing, in the light of knowledge and purpose, of the
several elements that enter into the educational process - teaching learning process. This takes into
consideration the nature of students and materials of instruction and the total learning situation
including steps, procedure, subject matter and instructional activities.

A more specialized meaning of teaching method is the sequential or unified arrangement and selection
of elements of the curriculum on the basis of their appropriateness to the student's developmental
levels, and the educational outcomes aimed at, as well as the mainly different ways and techniques by
which these are introduced to the students, are among the salient features of its functions. Whatever
method is employed: Lecture - recitation, lecture - demonstration, practical laboratory work, inquiry,
etc., what the teacher actually does is selecting subject - matter, creating appropriate conditions,
making experiences possible, acting as a guide, encouraging participation, following up activities of
students and maintaining standards.

The general meaning of method is an orderly planned progress towards a given and/or a coordinated
system of principles for the performance or conduct of practice. Its role, again, is to assist the teacher in
his/her task as an intermediary between the curriculum (educational objectives, learning experiences)
and students learning outcomes, changes in behaviour). It enables the teacher to select appropriate
learning experiences, create appropriate environment, guide and direct learning activities, assess and
evaluate progress and bring about learning or understanding systematically without unnecessary waste.

2.2. Introduction to Learning-Teaching in TVET

Complete the following tasks, first individually and then in groups

1. Is there a method/technique of teaching which can be regarded as best? Why?
2. What is the grand difference of learning-teaching in the academics (in traditional classrooms) and
TVET?
3. What type of learning will help students to better master a particular skill? Why?
4. Observe a teacher while he/she is teaching in a TVET college. Then comment his/her teaching.
5. What is the dominant method/technique of teaching this teacher used? Why?

Education has been dominated by approaches to teaching and learning that reflect such assumptions as
learning is the process of accumulating bits of information and isolated skills; that the teacher’s
primary responsibility is to transfer knowledge directly to students; and that the process of learning and
teaching focuses primarily on the interactions between the teacher and individual students. In this
tradition, according to scholars, the teacher transmits information where the learner is to receive;
teaching practices focus on lecture as a means of conveying information and on the traditional

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 15

paper/pencil, multiple choice types of assessment. The emphasis of learning is on propositional
knowledge-knowledge that is concerned to facts, assertions, concepts, and propositions.

Teaching Knowledge and Skills

As vocational/technical teachers/instructors, you should be concerned with teaching relevant
knowledge and skills to your students. This instruction is not only culture-based but also concept-
based. Let’s consider the culture basis and the concept basis for the disciplines you teach. Also let’s
look at the relationship of culture and concept basis to general education and vocational education.

Culture–basis-one of the most known figures in the history of American education, Dewey had a
profound impact upon the American education system by progressing the idea that education should be
used as a means of bringing about the goals and values of the American system. In this way the
knowledge and skills which the culture at large determines to be of value are perpetuated by the
educational system and passed on to the leaders of tomorrow.

Instructions involved in such education system find their basis in the common culture. While this
method can be very beneficial for the continuance of a democratic society it can also be a weapon for
the propagation of less desirable ideals. We must know that nothing should be taught in school that
cannot be learned in another societal institution. However, as societal institutions such as family start to
function less effectively it is increasingly falling on education to fill these gaps.

Concept-based-in our modern information age there is simply too much knowledge for any one person
to know or learn in its entirety. The question then becomes what we teach from this common body of
knowledge. A guiding principle to follow is that given a choice between teaching a broad aspect of the
environment and one which explains just a narrow aspect of the environment, the former should be
chosen.

2.2. Types of the Methods of Teaching

Dear students! Before you go through the sections below, please perform the following tasks. Brain
storm yourself, first in fours, then pass two members of group one into group two and two members
from group two to group three and so on to the last. Repeat the same until the round is completed, in
this way, so as to share your experiences about the following issues.

 List, as many methods of teaching as you can.

 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of the method of teaching you listed.
 Give suggestions for the better use of the methods you listed.
 Which method of teaching is best? Why?

Teaching, as explained above, is the facilitation of students' learning. This is facilitated and becomes
meaningful only when method/methods of teaching is/are employed. In so doing, therefore, what type _
the best, if any, _ method of teaching shall be used/ selected? The writer, from his experience on

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 16

teaching, has come to realize that this question is the point of debating among teachers: science
teachers from technical subject area teachers or in general, methodologists from other subject area
teachers. The writer contends this way, at least, for the following grand reason.

Subject area teachers, as realized from experience, assume that there is one best method of teaching in
their respective areas. For instance, mathematics teachers contend that problem-solving is the best
technique for mathematics teaching; technical subject area teachers believe that laboratory method of
teaching is the best; language teachers, on the other hand, argue that methods that facilitate students'
interaction rate such as the discussion method are the best; etc. The truth, nevertheless, is a different
history. That is, different methods and techniques of teaching can be employed in the teaching of
mathematics, technical subjects, languages, or others. Because:
 debatable ideas, issues, or concepts of every discipline can be taught by the use of the
discussion method of teaching;
 new ideas, concepts, or issues of any subject area have to be interpreted, illustrated, explained,
or are similarly taught usually by the use of the lecture method of teaching;
 when the purpose behind is to relate theory with what was taught in the classroom-with
real/practical situations in the real environment, field-trips and/or laboratory method of teaching
are/is applicable to any subject area; issues, ideas, or concepts that are assumed to be
complex/vague to students have to be taught simultaneously by telling, showing and doing in
any subject area. That is, the demonstration method of teaching can be employed in any
discipline; etc.

Generally, research evidence regarding the best method of teaching reveals that there is no a single,
reliable, multi-purpose method which can possibly be considered as the best. For the betterment of the
teaching-learning process and thereby for the attainment of the instructional objectives, therefore,
teachers are insisted to approach their teaching in a variety of ways; have to use the combination of the
different types of methods and techniques of teaching. The combination of the different methods and
techniques of teaching, nonetheless, cannot be done by common sense. There are a number of factors
that shall be considered. So much important, in the final analysis is the requirement of the task to be
mastered. That is, instructional objectives have to be determined prior to trying to select and combine
the variety of methods of teaching. Teachers have to have a clear image/conception about the
distinctions of the following questions:

 does the task/topic to be taught need the real environment?

 does the task/topic to be taught need teacher's explanation? teacher’s
interpretation?
 does the task/topic to be taught involve debatable ideas? issues? concepts?
 does the task/topic shall be left to students so as to do for themselves? etc.
Teachers who are able to identify what their respective students are expected to acquire/ master,
confidently can select what type of method and technique of teaching to employ. That method or the
combination of the different methods and technique of teaching, for that particular task or topic

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 17

therefore, can be regarded as the best. Few of the Techniques and methods of teaching are considered
in the following sections

2.2.1. Question and Answer Learning-Teaching Technique

Since questioning technique of teaching is more widely used than any method of teaching; it is
frequently used by classroom teachers in the teaching learning process while they are demonstrating,
lecturing, explaining, or with the combination of other learning-teaching methods and techniques.
Hence, question and answer technique of learning can be regarded as versatile technique in the
learning-teaching process. To determine the frequency of questioning (timing of questioning) per
school day or per lesson or per minute,

Characteristics and Purposes of Questions

Question refers to a problem or puzzle which is presented to someone - in this study, to the learner -so
as to give answers, to give his/her opinions, to express his/her attitude, to tell his/her wishes, and the
like. A question is a statement for which a replay is expected. According to a dictionary definition,
question is a sentence which by word-order use of interrogative words (who, why, etc.) or intonation,
requests information, an answer, etc. It is something about which there is discussion, something which
needs to be decided

In the classroom, questions have a number of purposes/importance. For instance, they can be used to
develop processes of thinking and guide inquiry and decision – making; acquire and clarify
information, answer concerns, and develop skills; provide motivation by encouraging active
participation in learning; lead students to consider new ideas and make use of ideas already learned;
help students to clarify ideas, structure their study, and learn about things that interest them; provoke
students and teachers to share ideas they have; and it is to help teachers assess the effectiveness of their
own teaching.

Questions also serve two purposes. First, it is to test what has been learned. For this purpose, the four
interrogatives - who, what, where, and when-are generally used. Second, questions are used to
stimulate thought and lead to a deeper understanding. In this case, the interrogatives how and why are
more often used. This second purpose of questions plays a predominant role where learners are
required to think critically in lieu of the mere memorization of concepts, facts, procedures, or ideas.
Asking students questions which begin with phrases such as Why do you suppose...? and How does
the...?, the teacher pushes the student beyond a rote memory exercise- promotes critical thinking skills
on the part of learners. Such thinking skills have eminent importance to learners. Because, according
to these scholars, thinking skills are essential processes, such as observing, comparing, inferring,
generalizing, hypothesizing, and reasoning inductively and deductively; high-order cognitive
processes, such as problem-solving, decision making, and critical and creative thinking.

Generally, asking questions during the course of the lesson, according to Davies (1981), has four
reasons /purposes. First, it motivates trainees/students by gaining their interest and attention; second,

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 18

promotes mental activity; third, involves trainees as partners in the instructional process; and fourth, it
helps to obtain feedback on the trainees' ability to recall, understand, and apply what they have learned.

Common Faults of Teachers in Questioning

Most question types develop and promote students' critical thinking skills. Nevertheless, there are
some questions that limit learning, that lead students to rote type of learning, and even that confuse the
students. Some of them are: vague questions, multiple questions, trick questions, limited questions,
elliptical questions, and loosely-worded questions. Teachers, sometimes, ask questions that are not
clear and that are not understandable by students. For instance, teachers may ask such questions as:
 do you know how old miss x is today?
 where do you get electrons?
 where is these are?
 what do you use it? etc.

Such questions are called vague or very general questions. Vague questions, according to this scholar,
may not have answers at all or there may be so many possible answers and hence it is not worth to ask
such questions.

Teachers also ask two or more questions at a time - without having an answer for the first one-for they
may not think-out their questions in advance. Questions may grow as teachers see the problem from
different angles for guarding against the children from getting the wrong idea. Such questions are
referred to as multiple questions. For instance, teachers may proceed as follows:
 where is cotton produced? Who is the major producer? What is the importance?
 who will tell us about some?, about any?, any information?
 what is the use of rubber?, Jute?, Palm oil?, sugar?
 who are the major producers in Africa?, In Asia?, In America? And so on.

Teachers, intentionally pose trivial or non - sense questions that serve only to show off the knowledge
and skill of the teacher. They are designed to make a fool of the student and are called trick questions.

Sometimes, teachers use questions only for emergency - as an airman regards his parachute-only when
they run dry of information. Questions that serve such purposes are referred to as limited questions.
Limited questions include such questions as:
 has anyone any question?
 another question?
 any other?
 if you have a question, you can ask.
 any question you have? And the like.

Elliptical questions are those that take the form of incomplete sentences. Examples of such questions
are:

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 19

  early capitalism means...?
 soil erosion is controlled by...?
 are said to be...?
 is used for...?
 the first method of testing proteins is...? And the like.

Loosely worded questions are those that immediately follow teachers' presentation or explanation.
Examples of such questions are:
 ... they believe in what?
 ... a point is what?
 ... a magnet is covered by what?
 ... is found where?
 ... is the combination of what? And the like.

Questions such as vague, multiple, trick, limited, elliptical, and loosely-worded, are some of the
weaknesses or common faults of teachers in questioning. Chief indicators for weakness in questioning
lie in:
 the teachers' conception of the purposes or aims of questions;
 lack of knowledge of the mental processes of learning;
 teachers own lack of general education and intellectual interest; and
 when teachers' knowledge and thinking is poor
Faults in questioning can also be made from lack of experience in teaching. Inexperienced teachers
frequently make bad use of questions and fall into habits that tend to persist unless their attention is
drawn to them. Hence, such questions - that are wrongly framed or faulty use of questions - should be
avoided for they serve no purpose.

Do the following tasks

1. What shall be done to make questions serve their various proposes?
2. Provide a detailed example on the procedures for presenting good questions?
3. Observe a teacher while the learning-teaching process is on progress. Then, analyse his/her
questioning practices.
4. What are the strengths and weaknesses of this teacher? Why?
5. If a student’s response to one of your oral questions is wrong, ‘I do not know’ or if the student
remains silent; what are you going to do? Why? Give a practical example.
6. If the response of a student to one of your oral questions is weak, what are you going do? Why?
Give a practical illustration.

Skills of Questioning
Questioning is a highly complex skill requiring an understanding of people and group psychology as
well as thorough knowledge of what is being thought. This means that in order to attain the purposes of
questions, the skill of the classroom teacher in posing questions is highly important. Questions have to

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 20

be constructed or phrased with respect to the objective of instruction, and should be presented in a way
that have the greatest effect. No matter how good the questions may be if they are presented poorly, at
the wrong time, or when interest is not directed towards the topic, questions will not have the desired
impact. Therefore, to develop and promote the ability of children for comparing, contrasting, justifying,
solving problems, and the like, effective questioning skill has to be employed. This is for the very
reason that;
To question well is to teach well. In the skillful use of the question more than anything
elselies the fine art of teaching; for in it we have the guide to clear and vivid ideas and the
quick spur to imagination, the stimulus to thought, the incentive to action

Moreover, it is contended that in order to be an effective teacher, one must be an effective questioner
(Ibid); good questioning skill will keep the class on its toes, students become alert and mentally active
and they know more than they imagine. Consequently, it is worth to consider how questions, can be
directed or questioning skills. From the various ways of presenting questions, three of them are
summarized as follows.

The first step towards developing effective questioning skill is to increase the number of student
participation. Because, establishing positive patterns and high - level of interaction in a classroom are
useful questioning skills. The art which involves in this case is known as redirection. Redirection is a
technique of questioning which involves the framing of a single question for which there are many
possible responses and the receiving of responses from several students. For instance, a classroom
teacher may proceed as follows.

Having completed our ..., who do you think was ...? For such a question, a student may respond in one
way; another in another way; and still another student, in another way. During this time, the teacher
redirects the original question and, in so doing, eliminates any possible domination of the discussion
and increases the frequency of questions and student participation, both of which are related to
increased student achievement. In clearer terms, the way the teacher redirects questions can be put in
the sequence as follows.
Teacher (T): Some of you mentioned ... why do you think...?
Student: I think ... was ... (First student).
T: Do you have something, X1?
X1: I think ... was ... (X1, is a second student).
T: X2! Can you add anything else?
X2: They were all ... because ... (X2 is a third student). And so on.

Here, it is important to note that the three students may not have been dealing with the same individual
or answer though they were all responding to a single question posed by the teacher at start.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 21

How can one deal with students who cannot answer questions or whose responses are wrong? This is
the concern of the second skill of questioning called prompting. Its application in a classroom can be
illustrated by the following sequence between a teacher (T) and a student (S).
T: Regarding our discussion on ..., which pattern does...?
student seems to be confused and does not respond.
T: Any idea?
S: I don't know
T: Ok! Let us take another look at the ... they are said to be...?
S: Equal
T: Right. Equal in what?
S: Weight
The teacher nodes. Then;
T: Now, if we have these equal ..., what happens?
S: Balanced;
T: Great. This demonstration represents...?
S: The balance of...
T: Now, you got it.

Generally, prompting skill of questioning, which the preceding example demonstrated, involves the use
of hints or clues which are used to aid the student in responding successfully. This method/skill can
also be employed when a response is incorrect.

The third skill of questioning is probing. This arises when the students' reply is correct but insufficient
for it lacks depth. In such a case, it is important for teachers to have the student supply additional
information in order to have better, more inclusive answers. The following illustration vividly reveals
that how this skill of questioning is applied in the classroom.
Teacher (T): Do you think trees are important to the land?
A? (A is a student).
A: Yes
T: Why, A?
A: Because, they...
T: What do you mean by that?
A: Well, the roots...
T: That is very good, A and as we ...

The eminent purpose of such a skill of questioning, according to these scholars, is to encourage
students justify or further explain their responses, views, and suggestions so as to increase the depth of
discussion. It also helps to move students away from surface or shallow responses.
Generally, good questions follow an interactive rhythm that produces reflection rather than
interrogation, building trust in the interactive relationship. Moreover, effective questioning techniques
can generate a high rate of teacher-student interaction; teacher assistance, through priming, prompting,

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 22

and cueing, can be used to develop a high level of correct responses to questioning; and positive
feedback can promote students' self - esteem

2.2.2. Demonstration Technique of Learning

The demonstration method of teaching is described as an audio-visual explanation, emphasizing the
important points of a product, a process or an idea. It is basically an activity which combines telling,
showing, and doing so as to facilitate the understanding level of students.

Although the emphasis in demonstration is learning by observing /watching the

activities/demonstration of the teacher, it shall be followed by doing. That is, students have to get a
chance to practice and drill on different exercises. Hence, teachers are supposed to prepare and provide
such chances to students so that they can able to do the activity on their own. In any case, these
scholars noted that the demonstration method is a dramatic performance; the teacher being the actor
and students the audience.

The demonstration method of teaching has a wider application in subjects involving skill learning, such
as physical education, technical and vocational education and sciences. This, however, does not mean
that the demonstration method cannot be applied in social sciences. It can definitely be applied. The
possibility of using the demonstration method in either of the disciplines cannot be done for the sake of
using it. Rather, it can be employed only when prevailing conditions force classroom teachers to do so.

Conditions for Using the Demonstration Technique

The demonstration technique of teaching, as the lecture method, may not be used any time to any
topic/subtopic. Some topics in some disciplines will not become plain or understandable or become
complex, unless and otherwise, they are explained, presented, interpreted, by the use of some kind of
showing or demonstration. Some of the conditions that make teachers use the demonstration method
are summarized as follows.

When Teaching a Skill-skill can best be learned when students get the chance of practicing or
exercising that skill right from the start. For instance, when teaching about filling in wood technology,
a demonstration or the showing of the skills involved will provide a correct model of performance
before students are let to any practice. That is, before making students file the how of it and the
different steps and procedures that shall be followed have to be clearly demonstrated to them. It is after
this that students have to be let for the practice.

When Materials and Equipment are Insufficient-when one considers the facilities of schools,
particularly of Ethiopian's, he/she can recognize that very few of them have all the necessary materials
and equipment for individual or group study. In such instances, teachers will be compelled to use
models or substitute materials as a substitute for the realities in order to demonstrate and students will
observe, answer questions, record observations and formulate conclusions. This, in short, means that
when the availability of materials is scarce or not at all available for students, the teacher will

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 23

show/demonstrate by what he/she has, may be obtained from the school, or borrowed, or it may be a
personal material.

When the Content being explained is Complex or too Hypothetical-sometimes, the case under
consideration may become complex, vague, imaginary or too hypothetical to explain for students.
Nevertheless, this can be minimized/ or may be avoided when that type of issue is explained or
presented by the use of pictures, models, or real objects or situations related to that particular issue.
Hence, in such instances, the teacher will show, tell and may locate the different parts/points. This
indirectly depicts that the teacher employed the demonstration method of teaching.

Suggestions for Improving Demonstration

In order to employ the demonstration method for which it is intended to serve a particular purpose, as
effectively as may be expected, the skill or ability of teachers in using it is the most prevalent one. This
can be seen from two angles: teachers’ responsibility before the demonstration and during the
demonstration.

Teacher's Responsibility before the Demonstration

To ascertain an efficient and effective demonstration, teachers are responsible to conduct or arrange or
carryout different activities prior to using the demonstration method. Some of them are summarized as
follows.

Task analysis-the teacher is responsible to determine and analyse as to why he/she is going to
demonstrate, the objective of demonstration has to be determined or identified. This will serve as a
guide in deciding which aspect of the demonstration to emphasize or not and the like.

Preparation of explanatory materials-the demonstration method-even a single one requires the

availability of different materials. Prior to class hours, teachers, therefore have to prepare needed
materials and that every piece is exactly where the teacher wants it to be and when he/she requires it.
As Brown and his associates (1992) put it, It is most embarrassing and annoying to stop in the middle
of the demonstration only to say, I am sorry class, but I forgot the . . . could you (a student) please go
and fetch one for me from the store ? If the demonstration is interrupted in this way, it will reduce or if
not kill the interest of students and once interest is lost, it is difficult to regain it.

Rehearsal of the demonstration-teachers can effectively teach or effectively demonstrate things that
they thoroughly know and thoroughly practice them. Otherwise, that will become difficult. Hence,
before class hours, teachers have to do, practice, or perform for themselves and if possible with an
audience which knows little or nothing about the subject. This will keep teachers determine the variety
of their procedures and will give them an idea as to whether teachers planned too much or too little for
the time allotted. On top of this, this is the best mechanism for making sure that all the equipment is
working.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 24

Preparation of the environment-the place or the room where the demonstration can be done has to be
checked for its suitability in that every student has to able to see and hear the demonstration. If
materials are too small to be seen by students seated at the back, mechanisms have to be created, may
be by enlarging that small material, or by dividing the class into smaller groups, and the like. And, all
these have to be made ahead of class hours.

Teacher's Responsibility during the Demonstration

Teachers have a lot to do during the demonstration. Some of the most important ones are summarized
as follows,

Establish the proper attitude-the why of the demonstration has to be well explained to students. This
will enable students to get ready and be interested to attend your (teacher's) demonstration. Or, in short,
effort has to be made so as to make students carefully observe and be interested in your demonstration.
Their minds have to shift or focus on the demonstration. Because, students benefit only when they are
interested in what the teacher is doing, showing and telling.

Keep the demonstration simple-teachers are recommended or are responsible not to go or not to treat
the details, particulars, or specifics which do not have relevance or which are not basic to the
understanding of the demonstration. Because, the assumption behind is that students-may be at all
levels-may have difficulties for remembering too many specific/detailed points at a time. The
presentation has to be so simple in that all students have to benefit from the demonstration.

Refrain from deviating from the main points-while demonstrating; teachers have to focus on the
main points. It is advisable to postpone side issues or student questions or other issues that may have
little or no relevance to the demonstration. Try to stay on the right track all the time. Teachers have to
be certain enough that their presentation is clear and to the point/to the objective of the demonstration.

Pace the demonstration for the betterment of the effect-teachers are recommended not to make their
demonstration too fast or too slow. Because, this is like to get students confused in the former case and
be bored in the latter. Hence, determining the pace to the ideal-not too fast and not too slow is so much
important. This timing can be adjusted in the pre-demonstration activities of teachers, in the planning
and rehearsing stage. Therefore, if the demonstration is done on the optimum pace, teachers can
achieve the effect they want, and the like.

What should be the responsibility of the teacher after the demonstration?

2.2.3. Project-Based Learning

This is one of the student dominated technique of learning. However, traditional vocational training
always run the risk of failing to provide help in crisis situations; making the learner dependent upon the
teacher; situating the capacity for cooperation; and ignoring the formulation of complex problems
which transcend the boundaries of one specialized area. In order to avoid such risks, these writers noted

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 25

that it is advisable to make provision for project work as a complement to systematic training work-
oriented towards teaching plans. This is for the very reason that an essential characteristic of the project
technique of learning is that students are able to use individual theoretical and practical skills to
successfully complete concrete and useful tasks. Hence, one will talk about the project work when the
following conditions are met.

The objective is the solution of a complex problem; those participating in the project have the greatest
possible independence in deciding on the subject, planning, execution and application of the project; in
the project, decisions are made by consensus, the teacher is integrated into the project group; a
relationship is established between theory and practice; multi-disciplinary skills are necessary for
solving the problem set by the project; the work involved in the project is divided among groups; and
the objective of the project is to produce something concrete and useful. It, as the name implies, is
learning by doing/working on projects at individual or group level. Moreover, the project-based
learning, is a technique that ties teaching/learning to the development of work/task (project) or central
topics in an integrated and practical manner, with students participating actively and independently.
This technique allows students to acquire knowledge and skills in an independent and practical way,
while developing their social skills at the same time.

However, project based learning does not have one accepted definition. Rather, it may be defined in
terms of its characteristics. For instance, project based learning involves the students to engage in an
active learning process so as to help them develop flexible knowledge, problem-solving skills, self-
directed learning skills, collaboration skills and intrinsic motivation. Moreover, project based learning
requires the students to be self-directed or self-regulated with respect to their own learning process; it is
a systematic learning-teaching technique that engages students in learning knowledge and skills
through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions and carefully
designed products and tasks. This definition may encompass a spectrum ranging from brief projects of
one to two weeks based on a single subject in one classroom to yearlong interdisciplinary projects that
involve community participation and adults outside the school. More important than the definition, is
the attributes of effective projects. You will find that a number of criteria may be used in order to
distinguish carefully planned projects from other extended activities in the classroom. Outstanding
projects recognize students’ inherent drive to learn, their capability to do important work, and their
need to be taken seriously by putting them at the center of the learning process. Moreover, according to
these scholars, projects engage students in the central concepts and principles of a discipline; the
project work is central rather than peripheral to the curriculum; highlight provocative issues or
questions that lead student to in-depth exploration of authentic and important topics; require the use of
essential tools and skills, including technology, for learning, self-management, and project
management; specify products that solve problems, explain dilemmas, or present information generated
through investigation, research, or reasoning; include multiple products that permit frequent feedback
and consistent opportunities for students to learn from experience; use performance-based assessments
that communicate high expectations, present rigorous challenges, and require a range of skills and

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 26

knowledge; and projects encourage collaboration in some form, either through small groups, student-
led presentations, or whole-class evaluations of project results.

Project based learning approach triggers the students’ learning and they become highly motivated, they
enjoy the activities they do, appreciate the value of what they learn, consider about how they will use
their newly acquired knowledge and skills in the real situation in future and experience sense of
achievement upon completion of a project. Students cannot continuously be on spoon-feeding in
acquiring knowledge but they should be exposed to learn how to learn to help them cope with demands
of a rapidly changing and competitive working environment. The technical training provider should
develop learning opportunities that help students develop problem solving skills and lifelong learning.
Furthermore, learners in project based learning environment play an active role in the knowledge
acquisition process by attempting to solve ill-structured problems through participation in small group
discussions and self-study. In this case, learning is triggered by offering ill-structured problems,
providing a more realistic way to learning and creating an educational method which emphasizes real
world challenges, higher order thinking skills, multi-disciplinary learning, independent learning,
teamwork and communication skills. Self-Regulated learning is ubiquitous in research on education
nowadays and it is an umbrella term for various processes such as objective setting, metacognition, and
self-assessment, all of which influence learning in various ways

The criteria for effective teaching and learning are all fostered in small group interactions especially in
project based learning. This is for the very reason that the principal idea behind project-based learning
is the starting point of learning should be a problem, a query that the learner wishes to solve. Students
work on the problem to identify and search for the knowledge that they need to obtain in order to
approach the problem.

In order to be successful in applying Project-Based Learning, PBL, different scholars like had
underlined several components. The components include: strong conceptual understanding of subject
matter; the ability to apply knowledge in new or unanticipated contexts for problem solving; the ability
to reason with incomplete information and make decisions that will be the best for the class as well as
for students; and motivation for self-directed learning to stay apprised of current thinking within their
subject matter.

Benefits of Project-Based Learning

Many studies had been made on the effectiveness of project based learning implemented in medical
education, engineering, higher education and the like. These findings had shown the positive effect on
the students’ behavior toward learning. Learning styles are broadly described as the cognitive,
affective, and physiological behaviors that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive,
interact with, and respond to the learning environment. Studies had also shown that the students who
acquired knowledge by solving problems using project based learning are more likely to use it
spontaneously to solve new problems. Project based learning technique is proven to be very effective in

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 27

educating and propagating learning among students. However, the successful implementation of project
based learning apparently depends on many factors that will influence its effectiveness.
In short, project based learning helps students learn with and in their future working tasks; students
learn how to learn by themselves; students develop own initiative, learn to tackle problems, learn to
interact in the group; real-life situations are included, external competences can be included; school life
can communicate with economic and social life; and it helps students to vanish the boarders between
subjects may have. Project-Based Learning is also useful to teachers. Once the students are used to
project work, they will do most of the learning/work by themselves. Hence, teachers get the
opportunity to integrate different subjects (vocational with general, theory with practice); to create
cooperation between teachers; different roles of the teacher in the process will be lightened-become a
coach instead of being an instructor/lecturer; and the teacher will also learn a lot.

The Role of the Teacher in Project-Based Learning Technique

The teacher, in the project based technique of learning, like in the other techniques, has a number of
roles; his/her task will not be reduced. To assist students to be effective in their learning, teachers
should help students become aware of alternative ways of approaching learning situation. Learning
techniques appropriate for one type of learning situation may not be appropriate for another. Hence, it
is important to prepare students for self-directed learning and the project based learning process by
conducting and orientation at the beginning of the course or program. In short, the teacher’s roles, are
summarized as follows.

Process planning-the teacher should create and design learning environments and situations that lead,
through practical action, to the attainment of the objectives. This way, the planning process becomes a
central task for the teacher; the teacher becomes an advisor who helps to give structure to the learning
process. The principal changes in the role of the teacher can be summed up that the teacher should put
intense efforts into preparing learning processes; create relevant learning situations so that students get
involved both in cognitive and affective terms; tend to stay outside of the direct work process,
observing the project’s processes; provide or facilitates a pool of information sources, move up to the
second level and only intervenes when all other resources have failed; and the teacher is not only an
expert with respect to the contents (technical competence) but also an expert in the methodology and
social issues (methodological and social competence); and the teacher should bring about creative
thought and critical thinking through shared learning. Moreover, the teacher should foster independent
evaluation of work processes and experiences; assist in establishing links between already acquired
knowledge and new knowledge; pay special attention to processes related to co-operation, work
organization, and the methodology of group work; and the teacher should address these topics in
intermediate evaluations and interviews.

Selection of projects-topics for projects shall be selected based on the analysis of learning
opportunities; strike a balance with the level of education; and based on the nature of students
Preparation of projects-projects should clearly show definition of the scope (content/ time); definition
of work objectives; definition of learning objectives; development/ facilitation of auxiliary tools for

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 28

self-monitoring; assessment planning; and projects should be prepared based on plan for project
monitoring.
Acting as project advisor-the teacher should encourage students to be independent; motivate students
to ask questions; stimulate thought and reflection; ongoing counseling for the team; and the teacher
should act as driver of project methodology.
Project monitoring-at last, importantly not the last, the effectiveness of projects should be checked
through systematic discussion of the learning experience; encouragement of self-reflection; mapping
out the next steps in the learning process; and eventually, through the selection and planning of a new
project.

Types of Project-Based Learning

There are three types of project learning techniques. These are structured projects, semi-structured
projects and unstructured projects

Structured Projects-tasks, objectives, criteria and methodology or procedure of a project can be

defined by the teacher. The students might, for example, be told to carry out a program of formal
interviews with a given sample of people using a standard data collection instrument, analyze this data
using prescribed techniques, and write a report on their findings.
Semi-Structured Projects-the task is defined, mainly detailed objectives and criteria have to be
developed by the students as well as the procedure by the teacher. In the data gathering project, they
might be asked to design their own data collection instrument, to select their own data sample in order
to meet a specific set of criteria.
Unstructured Projects-the task and the methodology or procedure lies under the control of the student
or it is totally chosen by students. In the data gathering project, for instance, they might be allowed to
choose the area to be investigated, select their own methodology, and have the freedom to define the
nature of their report.

Perform the following tasks

1. What is skill?
2. Is there a difference between teaching a skill and the academics? Why? Give
practical examples
3. What shall be done in order to make skill teaching effective?

2.2.4. Teaching a Skill

Skill refers to an organized and coordinated mental and/or physical activity in relation to an object or
other display of information, usually involving. both receptor and effector processes. Skill is a set of
strategic adaptations to the mechanical limitations of the brain and of the body, which enable human
purposes to be achieved. It is built up gradually in the course of repeated training or other experience. It
is serial; each part is dependent on the last and influences the next.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 29

Sensory motor activity, which is at the basis of all skilled performance, is motor activity initiated and
controlled by sensory input from the performer’s environment and from the performer him/herself. The
performer must learn to be attentive to his/her environment, to respond to, or ignore, certain types of
cue from that environment and to mark his/her responses by selecting immediately an appropriate and
accurately timed movement from the repertoire he/she has acquired as the result of previous learning.
Among the distinguishing features of a skilled activity are accuracy in timing, anticipation of
movement, economy in appropriate movements, and, perhaps, above all, a flow of movement.

The general principles related to the teaching of a formal lesson also apply to the teaching of skills; that
is, those series of learned acts requiring simultaneous or sequential coordination in any area of leaning
are the same. For instance, according to this scholar, the operation of a lathe, a swing machine, or a
type writer, and the like involve essentially the acquisition of a practiced ease of execution in relation
to the appropriate sensory-motor activities. The principles of learning-teaching techniques are basically
the same whether the subject matter be welding or economic geography, typewriting, or algebra.
Learning by doing, according to Curzon, tends to feature more prominently, however, in lessons aimed
at skill acquisition. The objective of effective coordination of mind and muscle, resulting in the
production of swift and meaningful, desired patterns of movement, usually requires a special
arrangement of lesson content and an appropriate lesson structure.

Therefore, teachers who intend to teach a particular skill, in general, have to understand the pattern of
the movement as a whole and then practice it parts by systematic instruction and demonstration.
Demonstration, according to this scholar, may be taken as basic for introducing new skill to students. It
involves the process of showing, telling, and doing at the same time. Demonstrating the skill with a
running commentary, paying special attention to the key points and the more difficult parts is so much
vital. Activities of the teacher while demonstrating a particular skill may be summarized as follows.

Start by having all the necessary tools, instruments, equipment, materials, and the like set out on the
bench or work table ready for use; before commencing on the actual demonstration, it may be helpful
to show correctly by a means of a model, exactly what is to be done; guide students' attention to the
various parts of your (the teacher's) demonstration, ask, and encourage questions about points/steps or
procedures of special interest; demonstrate a skill slowly and by easily assimilated steps; and it is
important to relate and demonstrate at the same time, and in the process ask students why such and
such steps, procedures, and others are made. Moreover, during your demonstration examine as how
much that students benefited as the demonstration proceeds; as the demonstration is completed, discuss
on the main issues of the demonstration; develop a summary of the demonstration may be in the form
of notes, sketches, or other relevant means using handouts, chalk/white boards; and finally, students
then should be left for themselves as soon as possible for practicing the skill either in parts or as a
whole, initially under your guidance.

Some skills are best dealt with by a progressive part-a step- by-step practice-method, in which the
learner practices one part at a time until he/she can achieve an acceptable standard. Any two successive

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 30

parts can then be done together to the required level, after which the third is added and soon until the
whole job can be done in one operation. Some other skills may be taught by practicing each part in
isolation to the required and then combine them. Generally, to effectively teach a particular skill, some
sort of habit shall be formed on the part of students by employing the mechanisms explained as
follows.
The first impression that students receive is a very lasting one. Hence, the teacher in his/her first
demonstration of that particular skill shall check its clarity, accuracy, and scientific correctness. The
sooner students are let to practice that particular skill after the teacher's demonstration, the easier to
them practice it correctly and the sooner it may become a habit. The more the practice of that
particular skill is repeated by students; the better it may become a habit. Because perfection cannot be
expected on first attempts, and undue concern for early perfection may delay learning; practice for the
sake of improving is essential for developing skill proficiency. A skill learned/ practiced well, tends to
be more lasting and meaningful; correct practice leads to perfection.

2.2.5. Computer Based Learning

Computer based learning may be taught of as any means/technique by which educational processes are
furthered by the use of computers-uses computers as media of instruction. It is a technique of
instruction in which a learner and a computer interact with one another, with this two way commutation
can take place producing human learning and retention. Hence, computer based learning, according to
these scholars, assist instruction/learning, teaches, at least, as well as live teachers or other media; that
there is a saving in (the time it takes) to learn; that students respond favorably to computers; that the
computer can be used (to great advantage) in branching and individualizing instruction; that is true,
natural instructional dialogue is possible; and that the computer will virtually perform miracles in
processing performance data.

Computer based learning, these writers added, is superior over the other media, for the very reason that
it stores large amounts of information and make them available to the learner more rapidly than any
other medium; secures, stores, and processes information about the students’ performance prior to
and/or during instruction; provides programmed control of several media, such as films, slides, TV, and
demonstration equipment; gives the teacher an extremely convenient techniques for designing and
developing a course of instruction; and it provides a dynamic interaction between a student and
instructional program which is not possible with most the other media. In short, computer based
learning has the capability of individualizing both the means and ends of instruction; the capability of
doing research on teaching under controlled conditions and, in particular, under conditions which
individualize instruction in a particular way; and its advantage over direct teaching is that provides
interactive drill and saves time.

Accordingly, use of computer based learning (ICTs) in TVET increased and it has resulted in a major
paradigm shift, from a total dependence on the objectivist paradigm to a growing adherence to the
cognitivist and constructivist paradigms. Furthermore, technology-enhanced learning, according to this
organization, will play a crucial role in the development of a lifelong learning culture and has the

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 31

capacity to empower learners by providing them with multiple pathways that offer choices and
channels to meet their education and training needs.

Complete the following tasks individually and/or in groups

1. What is the advantage of CBL over PBL?
2. How lessons can be provided/implemented using CBL? Give practical illustration by
taking a topic in your area
3. What are the short comings of CBL, particularly when it is seen with respect to the
Ethiopian TVET system?

In this material I considered technology, ICT, or computer based learning as a means that complement
instruction. That is, when technology is used to complement instruction; the emphasis is on providing
opportunities to practice skills taught and extending learning by working with specific software
applications. In this regard, simulators are often used in TVET to address safety concerns during the
initial phase of training and to offset cost in renting equipment for training crane operators and truck
drivers. In its simplest form, technology can be used for drill and practice to complement instruction. In
short, from such illustrations, I understood and considered computer based learning to take place in
different forms like simulation and virtual reality. Therefore, in the paragraphs to come, I will consider
these forms of computer based learning techniques.

2.2.6. Simulation
Simulation is a technique of training that attempts to create a realistic experience in a controlled
environment. The earliest practical use of simulation, this scholar noted that, was in the construction of
physical models (may be prototypes) of real objects-physical representation of objects. The purpose
then was to permit the designer (trainee) to test specific aspects of the object that he/she wanted to
build on the replica. This puts him/her in a better position to avoid making mistakes and reduce
wastage in the construction of the real object.

In Medicine, for instance, simulation refers to the manipulation of an operating model. In early medical
education simulations typically represent biologic processes (like muscle and respiratory physiology)
or clinical experiences. Computer-based clinical simulations have since shifted the focus from text-
oriented presentations to multimedia-based systems. Nowadays patient simulators come as
mannequins/ models that represent human patients in both appearance and anatomical form and are
equipped with computer feedback systems. In addition, they are able to represent certain aspects of the
human physiological response and respond electronically to pharmacological intervention.

Simulation can also be understood as the imitation of the operation of real-world process or system
over time. Hence, it Is an appropriate tool/technique for learning when it enables the study of internal
interaction of a subsystem with complex system; informational, organizational and environmental

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 32

changes can be simulated and find their effects; a simulation model help us to gain knowledge about
improvement of system; finding important input parameters with changing simulation inputs;
simulation can be used with new design and policies before implementation; simulating different
capabilities for a machine can help to determine the requirement; simulation models designed for
training make learning possible without the cost disruption; a plan can be visualized with animated
simulation; and simulation is used when the modern system (factory, wafer fabrication plant, service
organization) is too complex that its internal interaction can be treated only by simulation.

Simulation, also called as a computer simulation, is a computer program that contains a model of a
particular system (either actual or theoretical) and that can be executed, after which the execution
output can be analyzed. Computer simulation is also the name of the discipline in which such models
are designed, executed and analyzed. The models in computer simulations are usually abstract and
involve mathematical models. Computer simulation, this scholar also noted that it has become a useful
part of the mathematical modeling of many natural systems in the natural sciences, human systems in
the social sciences, and technological systems in the engineering sciences, in order to gain insight into
the operations of these systems and to study the effects of alternative conditions and courses of action.

Nevertheless, simulation is not appropriate when the problem can be solved by common sense; the
problem can be solved analytically; if it is easier to perform direct experiments; if cost exceeds savings;
if resource or time are not available; if system behavior is too complex; and when we are dealing with
human behavior.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 33

 UNIT THREE
3. LESSON PLANNING

Objectives of the Unit

At the end of the unit, students will be able to:
 define lesson plan in their own words
 prepare a periodic lesson plan
 evaluate a periodic lesson plan
 analyse causes of classroom interruptions
 determine causes of classroom problems after conducting classroom observation during
the teaching learning process
 analyse classroom management techniques

Major Contents of the Unit

 Elements of Lesson Planning
 Format of a periodic Lesson Plan
 Practical Illustration on Lesson Planning
 Importance/Significance of Lesson Plan
 Problems of classroom management
 Techniques of classroom management

Dear students! Before you go through the sections below, please perform the following tasks.
Brainstorm yourself, first in pairs, then in four, eight, etc. about:

 Why do teachers are recommended to prepare lesson plan?

 What is lesson planning?
 Who has to prepare lesson plan?
 What is the distinction among lesson plan, periodic lesson plan and daily lesson plan?
 Is it an obligatory that all teachers, regardless of their teaching experience and qualification,
have to prepare lesson plan? Why?

Lesson plan, sometimes also called as periodic lesson plan or daily lesson plan, is ordering of the
teaching activities that show:
 the why of teaching: the rational of teaching or the objectives in specific terms;
 the what of teaching: the content - topic or subtopic or knowledge that is going to be imparted
to students by the teacher;

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 34

  the how of teaching: the methods and/or techniques of teaching, the activities of students
while the teacher is doing some activities;
the whom of teaching: the students/ learners, and knowing their interest, readiness to learn,
socio - economic background, the environment from where he/she has come from (rural or
urban), the level of students (grade level); etc.

3.1. Elements of Lesson Planning

Planning a lesson requires different steps or elements. These are summarised here in below.

Objectives:
Objectives identify the end product and help the teacher remain focussed on the lesson; enable teachers
to plan precisely the steps leading to the end behaviour. Objectives are specific statements that are
stated in terms of the learners' behaviour that are designed to answer the why of teaching. They are
expected changes on the learners' behaviour that are expected to be gained at the end of the lesson.

Hence, while stating/ preparing lesson objectives, care has to be given. That is, objectives should be:
 Specific
 Stated in terms of the learners' behaviour
 Measurable
 Clear, precise
 Attainable by all students
 Relevant, useful, etc.

Note: Periodic lesson plan objectives usually begin by the phrase: At the end of the
lesson, learners/students will be able to...

Contents/ Subject Matter

This refers the topics/subtopics that teachers planned to teach/impart to students. Contents are
vehicles/tools that are used for the realisation or attainment of lesson objectives. They answer the
question the "what of teaching?" Hence, contents shall be:
 in harmony with the syllabus or based on the syllabus.
 arranged from simple to complex, known to the unknown, from concrete to
abstract, etc.
 directly related to the objectives decided.

Methods
These are so much concerned with a set of directions or instructions on how to present the lesson.
Methods are general ways or procedures in the implementation process that answer the question of
"how". The methods to be employed shall depend on the objectives and content of the lesson. For
instance, a teacher who intended to teach on the parts of a flower may proceed as follows:

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 35

  display a transparency showing the parts of a flower - the teacher is using the
demonstration method and at the same time he/she is explaining about the
different parts.
 describe the function of each part - he/she is using the lecture method and/or
the explanation technique of teaching, and also other methods and techniques
may be incorporated.
 show the students an actual straw berry flower - the teacher during this time is
demonstrating and at the same time he/she may lecture and/or explain about
such parts.
 the teacher asks individual students to verbally identify the different parts of the flower -
he/she is using the questioning technique or may require students to describe each, which
again he/she is using the questioning technique; etc.

The methods and/or techniques that may be employed during the process of implementing the period’s
lesson may vary from one stage to the next. This is summarised as here in under.

At the stage of Introduction:

At this stage of the implementation of the lesson, the teacher will relate the previous (e.g. Yesterday's)
lesson to the new subject matter. This is a stage by which students are stimulated towards the daily's
lesson usually through outlining/telling the objectives what it is hoped the class will be able to do at the
end of the class or by stressing the relevance of the subject by explaining, lecturing, questioning,
demonstrating, etc.

At the stage of Presentation:

This is the stage by which the new subject matter is imparted to learners usually through lecturing,
demonstrating, discussion methods, etc and explaining, questioning, etc. techniques.

At the Stage of Stabilisation/Consolidation:

At this stage, main points of the lesson/that need so much stress will be repeated or summarised briefly
may be by lecturing or according to the nature of the topic.

At the Stage of Checking and Evaluation:

This is the stage by which the knowledge and information that the class has acquired so far will be
assessed/examined. This may be done through oral questions - by requesting learners to elaborate
certain ideas, points, concepts, etc. or by assigning class works so that the trials of each student will be
checked by the teacher, etc.

Teaching Materials
Teaching materials also called as teaching aids or instructional materials are aids to learning. That is,
they are materials that facilitate or enhance the understanding level of students.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 36

Such materials may be:
Visual materials: Such as objects, models, and text books, workbooks, chalkboards, machines, tools,
instruments, bulletin boards, projected materials (such as slides, film strips, overhead projection, etc.)
non -projected materials (such as photographs), charts, graphs, etc; where students are required to
observe, see, or watch or

Audio - Aids: Radio, tape recorders, etc; where students are required to listen; or
Audio - visual Aids: Motion pictures, TV.etc, where students are required to see
and hear at the same time to what is going on.

Remarks:
These may be added in the last column of the format of the periodic lesson plan. The reason behind is
to show that the teacher's comments regarding the implementation of the lesson (its appropriateness or
not, that is, is the plan properly done or not, why?) at the end of the implementation of the lesson. This
will help to give a timely feedback as to how the lesson was implemented and there by immediate
measures will be taken where there were problems.

3.2. Importance/Significance of Lesson Planning

Lesson planning has numerous importance to classroom teachers and other personalities who are
interested to know how and what is going on in classrooms during the teaching - learning process.
Some of the most important of these are summarised as follows:
 Direction is provided toward achievement of a desired result. This is for the very reason that
employing different facilitators can enhance communication. Besides, teachers can refer the
same plan, understand the why of that particular activity, and identify activities that shall be
completed on that particular time.
 Planning encourages achievement.
 Resources/materials appropriate to that particular lesson will be prepared in advance
and can be used more effectively.
 Control is facilitated for plans show start and completion times together with the why of and
the how of teaching for all events and elements.
 Plans tend to force teachers to visualise and understand the over all situation.

Generally, lesson planning is so much important in that it:

 helps teachers to be systematised in implementing the lesson.
 shows teachers where to begin, what to follow, how to go through, where and
when to end.
 helps to give stress on topics/subtopics that are important/new to learners that
need stress.
 helps teachers to avoid unnecessary repetitions.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 37

  helps teachers to use time appropriately.
 helps teachers to include important illustrations, concepts, ideas, or points.
 serves as a way of helping teachers about their teaching, as opposed to going
through daily activities in a rather mechanical way.
 helps teachers to explain to interested authorities or others as to why they are
teaching that topic(s)/subtopic(s) to students at that particular time; etc.

3.3. Classroom Management

Dear students! Before you go through the sections below, please perform the following tasks.
Brainstorm yourself, first individually, second in pairs, then in four, eight, etc. about:

 Why do teachers want to manage the class where they teach?

 How do teachers can manage their classroom?
 What are the mechanisms that can be used to control/protect or prevent class interruptions?
 What type of mechanisms can be employed so as to take remedial actions if a student creates
an interruption during the teaching-learning process?

Different scholars defined classroom management - concerned to non- - academic activities but is
highly related to teacher effectiveness and enhancement of student learning- more or less, in the same
way. Classroom management involves the organisation of certain non-academic tasks, which are
essential for effective teaching It consists of such activities as checking student attendance, keeping a
record of class progress, controlling students' conduct and activities, manipulating instructional
materials, improvement of classroom working conditions and elimination of any distractions which
may arise in the teaching learning process.

Classroom management is the orchestration of classroom life: planning curriculum, organising

procedures and resources, arranging the environment so as to maximise efficiency - the teaching
learning process -, monitoring student progress, and anticipating potential problems. In such regards,
that is, once the classroom atmosphere is maintained, therefore, classrooms look like magic shows.
This is for the very reason that in elementary classroom, students seem to glide from one activity to the
next and in secondary classrooms students totally, involve and responsive to the task at hand - in the
teaching - learning process. This reveals that in such classroom, teachers can be said that they have
mastered classroom management techniques. Then, what do you think about teachers who are
assumed/considered to be good classroom managers? What are the techniques followed by such
teachers? What are the consequences if classrooms are poorly managed? etc. are the concerns of the
following subtopics.

3.3.1. Problems of Classroom Management

The teaching - learning process can usually be interrupted by various causes of which may be
originated from different sources. The most commonly known sources for classroom management
problems are summarised as here in below.

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 38

Teacher caused problems
In a classroom you (the teacher) may observe a student or some students in a constant day dreaming or
talking to his/her friends, students may become bored and restless, students may show little or no
interest on what is being taught, etc. Such problems, undoubtedly, are caused by the teacher
him/herself. This is for the fact that such behaviours of students will be manifested in the classroom
when the respective teachers fail to properly plan their lessons with the respective objectives and
adequately motivate their students.

Student caused problems:

Students, may sometimes, fight one to each other or one may hit the other, or problems may be created
as a result of students' own confused mental and emotional state, and from an excess of physical
energy. On top of these, students may emotionally behave for the very reason that they may be away
from their parents and relatives for the first time. Or some students may find sitting in a classroom for
long hours every day which is an extremely difficult task since they are naturally energetic and playful.
Or they usually run any where and every where once they get out of class, not to break school
regulations deliberately but because they feel the physical need to burn up some energy. Or particularly
adolescents may suffer from emotional problems for the fact-that physical and emotional changes take
place in their bodies, giving them the physique of adults while their minds are still child-like, etc. All
such factors are sources for classroom management problems and hence teachers have to give care to
such instances.

School - caused problems

The school, as the name indicates, itself causes this type of problem. This may result in two situations.
First, if the school is a boarding one, then different administrative problems related to refectory and/or
lodging service may take place. Second, what so ever the type of the school it may be, if a number of
students are crowded per class or due to shortage of teachers or teaching materials or other relevant
materials/personalities that are assumed to contribute much for the betterment of students' learning,
then problems that may interrupt the teaching - learning process will be created etc.

3.3.2. Techniques of Classroom Management

The teaching - learning process has to be conducted smoothly so that the desired learning outcomes
will be attained. This can be effected, besides other things, when the classroom is effectively managed.
This, nevertheless, cannot take place by magic, rather by the efforts made, particularly by teachers.
Because, what the teacher does directly and proportionally affects what students do and act. Teachers,
therefore, have to have a thorough knowledge on the techniques as to how classrooms can effectively
be managed. Some of the most important ones are summarised here in below.

Preplanning:
The key to successful classroom management is preplanning. It is not enough for the teacher to engage
in lesson planning. To be successful, the teacher must also think about avoiding common classroom

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 39

occurrences that initiate misbehaviour. For instance, if the teacher forgot to provide appropriate
instructions, or to give resource information, or to decide what to do with finished tasks, etc; then
he/she may fail to conduct the teaching - learning process smoothly though he/she has the best periodic
lesson plan. Generally, for effective classroom management, you (the teacher) shall:

 set classroom routines and standards and communicate these to students

preplan instruction, anticipating students' needs for materials, assistance, etc.
 develop accountability systems to keep track of students’ progress and develop students' self -
control and self - evaluative skills.
 analyse tasks and learning experiences to anticipate time allotment, involvement, and task
constraints.
 tell the learners what you are going to do at the beginning of the lesson so that they will be
aware of the overall pattern of the session.
 prepare plenty of back - up material available for learners who finish assignments or activities
quickly.
 check that all your AVA equipment (OHP, Video, etc) work before the session begins.
 Plan carefully to ensure you finish on time. Have extra material on hand in case you finish
early.

Teacher Characteristics:
Good student behaviour can be developed and maintained by fostering co-operative behaviours and by
modelling appropriate behaviour through teacher - student interactions. Key teacher behaviours are:

Earn students' respect: If you, the teacher, want to become truly an effective classroom manager, you
must earn the respect of students. Following the activities listed below can attain this.
 Plan carefully so you thoroughly understand the topics you are going to teach;
 Announce tests, be clear on what test cover, avoid tricking students;
 Set realistic targets and provide genuine encouragement and praise; when the target is reached.
 Learn students' names quickly and use them regularly;
 Be aware of students' individual pressure - points: which one has difficulty in reading, family
problems, a long journey, a hearing or visual impairments, etc?
 Always begin the session on time, and expect late comers to explain/apologise;
 Gain absolute silence before you start speaking, gain attention and interest by an effective
introduction;
 Try to avoid directing all your attention to any disruptive student, avoid shouting; etc.

Consistency and equity: Teachers have to recognise that whenever they are inconsistent in their
responses to students will affect classroom behaviour. For instance, if a teacher expects his/her
students to work quietly without talking to neighbours while doing practice assignments but that there
is a favoured group of students' who are able to communicate with each other without being
penalised, then this inconsistency will affect the behaviour of other students. Inconsistency occurs

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 40

when teachers interpret classroom rules differently or inequitable cues or responses to students.
Hence, to be an effective classroom manger, teachers have to have equal and common outlook for all
students; shall not discriminate among students, do not spend much time with a particular student; do
not be against to a particular student; etc.

Clarity: Students come to school so as to know what and how they learn. Hence, when students
perform activities either in-group or individually, must understand what they are supposed to do, time
limitation, which is to do what, quality requirements, and the use of materials, etc. However, if teachers
use imprecise language or give assignment without verifying that students understand it, misbehavior
and confusion are the invariable consequences. Problems also occur during classroom discussion for
the fact that class members are unsure of the purpose of discussion or because the teacher may not ask
questions effectively. For students to take part in classroom discussion, the purpose of the discussion
must be understood; questions must elicit responses from many students, questions must be interesting
and motivating; questions must be clearly stated so that
students know what is being asked.

Thus, by such mechanisms the classroom atmosphere will be maintained to conduct effective teaching -
learning process.

Group Alert and Accountability: This involves the creation of suspense by posing
a general question, looking around the room, and then calling on a student. This shall be done
randomly rather than in a fixed order, with the teacher making a special effort to get around to every
one in the class frequently. All these suggestions not only get the students actively involved in the
lesson but also communicate wittiness.

Smooth Transitions: Effective classroom managers help students make smooth transitions from one
activity to another. Often teachers have a clear idea of where they are going. Employing the
techniques here in below can prevent a great deal of confusion and classroom interruption during
transition.
 Wait until the whole room is quiet and attentive before making the transition; which can be
done by raising your (teacher's) voice for attention and standing still to wait silence.
 Clearly state what transition is to be made
 Write important directions on the board if any aspects of the transition could be confusing
 Carefully monitor the transition as it occurs.

Flexibility and adjusting to student needs:

Teacher responsiveness to unexpected happenings is another way in which behaviour is modelled to
students. The development of flexibility in the process of teaching and learning can be the teacher's
greatest asset. When confronted with a learning problem, teachers shall to make some instant decisions
concerning their teaching method; students' learning style; a new objective; work activity; use of
materials; and time allotment; etc. However, if teachers are unwilling to adjust their plans, they

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interrupt the teaching - learning process, students become confused, and will not stay on task activities.
Unexpected events during the school day are also normal in the course of teaching. For instance, just as
you are about to clinch a learning experience, equipment breaks down and spoils the lesson; visitors,
assemblies, special personnel, etc all may represent unplanned happenings that require flexibility and
adjustment.

Good classroom managers are consistent and equitable in the treatment of student behaviour. They
provide clear instructions; they are respectful of students (there by generating respect from students);
they provide encouragement and meaningful praise; they are rational and consistent in maintaining
standards; and they adjust to both students' needs and unplanned school events. These behaviours
promote positive teacher - student relationships and help students appreciate the teacher as a model.

Ten Interventions when Students Disturb - Strategies to Stop Disturbance

1. Signal nonverbally
Make eye contact with students or move closer to them when they disturb, start to fall asleep or avoid
participation. Make an appropriate signal to stop students disturbing & start participating!

2. Listen actively
When students dominate discussions, talk about unrelated topics, or argue with you, provide a
summary of their views and then ask others to speak. Or invite them to discuss their views with you
after the class.

3. Give time for others to answer

When the same students always speak (answering your questions) in class, while others sit quietly,
pose a question or problem and then ask how many people have a response (answer) to it. You should
see new hands go up. Call on one of them. This same technique might work when trying to obtain
volunteers for demonstration purposes.

4. Invoke participation rules

Occasionally tell students that you would like to use new rules such as these:
 only students who have not spoken as yet can participate
 build on each other’s’ ideas
Alternatively, set ground rules with your students at the start and remind them of their rules. Modify or
add to the rules as you and the students feel appropriate.

5. Use good-natured humor

One way to deflect difficult behavior is to use humor with students. Be careful, however, not to be
sarcastic or patronizing. For e.g., gently protest repeated disagreement: “Enough, for today!”

6. Connect on a personal level

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 42

Whether the disturbing student is hostile or withdrawn, make efforts to get to know them. It’s unlikely
that students will disturb or not participate if you have taken an interest in them. Learning your
students’ names (and using them!), knowing their ability level and interest towards the subject are three
easy ways of connecting with them. Understanding and supporting their learning style is another
mechanism.

7. Change the method of participation

Sometimes you can control the damage done by difficult students by inserting new methods such as
using pairs or small groups rather than full class activities. Remember a lesson plan can be changed. If
the students are not responding positively to the methods or subject matter, consider changing them or
using an icebreaker before resuming the lesson and topic.

8. Ignore mildly negative disturbances

Pay little or no attention to minor disturbances. Continue with the class and see if they go away.

9. Discuss very negative behaviors (bad actions) in private

You must stop behavior you find detrimental to learning. Firmly request, in private, a change in
behavior of those students who are disruptive. If the entire class is involved, stop the lesson and
explain clearly what you need from them to conduct the class effectively and enable them to be able to
learn.

10. Don’t take personally the difficulties you encounter

many of the problem behaviors and student disturbances have nothing to do with you (as the teacher).
They are due to the student’s personal fears and needs or displaced anger towards someone else. See if
you can detect the signals when this is the case and ask whether the students can put aside their
problems which are affecting their positive involvement in the class. Alternatively, seek other
mechanisms to support the student (e.g. by contacting the class representative, academic staff and
colleagues, Guidance and Counselling Service, other relevant authorities or their parents).

Tips for enhancing your classroom management approaches

How do you develop and maintain a positive approach to classroom management or whatever
discipline approach you wish to adapt? Here are some practical suggestions that will work in most
situations.
1. Be Positive. Stress what should be done, not what should not be done
2. Use praise. Give praise according to merit. Show that you appreciate hard work and good
behavior
3. Trust. Trust students, bud don't be an easy mark. Make students feel you believe in them as long
as they are honest with you and don't take advantage of you.
4. Express interest. Talk to individual students about what interests them, what they did over the
weekend, how schoolwork is progressing in other areas or subjects. Be sensitive and respectful

General Learning-Teaching Techniques and Methods (2023). 43

 about social trends, styles, and school events that affect the behavior of the group. Be aware that
peer group pressure affects individual behavior.
5. Be fair and consistent. Don't have "pets" or "goats." Don't condemn an infraction one time and
ignore it another time.
6. Show respect; avoid sarcasm. Be respectful and considerate toward students. Understand their
needs and interest. Don't be arrogant or condescending or rely on one-upmanship to make a point.
7. Establish classroom rules. Make rules clear and concise and enforce them. Your rules should
eventually be construed as their rules.
8. Discuss consequences. Students should understand the consequences for acceptable and
unacceptable behavior. Invoke logical consequences-that is, appropriate rewards and punishment.
Don't punish too often; it loses its effect after a while.
9. Establish routines. Students should know what to do under what conditions. Routine procedures
provide an orderly and secure classroom environment.
10. Confront misbehavior. Don't ignore violations of rules or disruptions of routines. Deal with
misbehavior in a way that does not interfere with your teaching. Don't accept or excuse serious or
contagious misbehavior, even if you have to stop your teaching. If you ignore it, it will worsen.
11. Guide. There is a difference between guidance, whereby you help students deal with problems,
and discipline, whereby you maintain order and control by reacting to student surface behavior.
Your main goal should be guidance rather than discipline. Good guidance will serve as preventive
measure, whereby you can establish order and control without having to assert authority.
12. Avoid over controlling. Assert your authority only when you need to and without overdoing it.
Be confident without being condescending or egotistical. The need is to show you are in control
of the classroom without over controlling students.
13. Reduce failure, promote success. Academic failure should be kept to a minimum since it is a
cause of frustration, withdrawal, and hostility. When students see themselves as winners and
receive recognition for success, they become more civil, calm and confident; they are easier to
work with and teach.
14. Set a good example. Model what you preach and expect. For example speak the way you want
students to speak; keep an orderly room if you expect students to be orderly; check homework if
you expect students to do the homework.
15. Be willing to make adjustments. Analyze your disciplinary approach and preventive strategies by
yourself and with the help of experienced colleagues. Be objective about your abilities. Learn to
compensate for your weaknesses by making adjustments in your disciplinary approach and
preventive measures. Be sure your disciplinary approach and managerial techniques fit your own
teaching philosophy and personality.

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