Cambridge Court World School

Subject-Chemistry
Class-XII Chapter – 1 Solutions [Synopsis]
Solution-It is a homogenous mixture of two or more components or it is a homogenous mixture of
solute and solvent.

Terms for Expressing of concentration in solutions

1.Molarity(M)-Number of moles of solute(B) per litre of solution. Unit of Molarity = Mols/ ltr
no. of moles of solute 𝑛
M , M=𝑉 𝐵
volume of solution in litre (𝑙)

𝑊𝐵 (𝑔) 1000
M= ×𝑣
𝑀𝐵 (𝑚𝑙)

Effect of Temperature on molarity – Molarity is inverse of temperature.With increase of temp

,volume increases hence molarity decreases.
2.Molality(m)- Number of moles of solute(B) in per kg of solvent. Unit of molality is mols/ kg

no. of moles of solute 𝑛𝐵

M , m= 𝑊
mass of solvent in kg 𝐴(𝑘𝑔)
𝑊𝐵(𝑔)×1000
m= 𝑀𝐵 ×𝑊𝐴(𝑔)
Effect of Temperature on molality – Molality doesn not depend on temperature as there is no
effect of temperature on weight.
3.Mole Fraction(X)-Ratio of moles of one component to total moles of solution.
XA=Mole Fraction of Solvent XB= Mole Fraction of Solute
XA 𝑛𝐴 X B = 𝑛𝐵
=𝑛 +𝑛 𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵
𝐴 𝐵

XA + XB = 1 , XA = 1 – XB
Effect of Temperature on mole fraction – Mole fraction does not depend on temperature as there is
no effect of temperature on weight.
4. Normality(N)- Number of gram equivalents(GEW) of solute(B) per litre of solution.Its unit is
gram equivalents per ltr.
no. of equivalents of solute
N
volume of solution in litre
WB 1000
N  n or N=M x n, Where n is acidity/basicity/valency.
M B v(ml)
For acid n=Basicity [H+ ions given by an acid.Ex-HCl[1],H2SO4[2],CH3COOH[1]
n=OH- ions given by a base.Ex-NaOH[1],Ca(OH)2[2]
 n=Charge/valency on ion in a salt.Ex-NaCl[1],CaCl2[2],CuSO4[2]

Effect of Temperature on normality – Normality is inverse of temperature.With increase of temp

,volume increases hence normality decreases.
5.Mass percentage(w/w) = Mass of one component x 100
Total mass of solution
mass of A
Mass % of A =  100
Total mass
Ex-10% aqueous solution of glucose means 10 gms glucose is dissolved in 90 gm of water.

6.Volume percentage(V/V) = Volume of one component x 100

Total volume of solution
Ex-10% aqueous solution of ethanol means 10 ml ethanol is dissolved in 90 ml of water.

7.Mass by Volume percentage(w/V) = Mass of one component x 100

Total volume of solution
Ex-10% aqueous solution of ethanol by mass by volume % means 10 gm ethanol is dissolved in 100
ml of water.
8.Parts per million(ppm)- It is defined as the parts of given component in one million parts of solution.
Mathematically.
ppm = Mass of one component x 106
Total mass of solution

Different Formulae for Molarity and molality

1.For comparison of Molarity of two solutions of same substance. (Dilution Formula)

𝑀 𝑉
M1V1 = M2V2 , 𝑀2 = 𝑉1 1
2
2.Molarity of a resulting Solution on mixing of two solutions of same solute.
𝑀 𝑉 +𝑀 𝑉
(Resulting Solution) M = 1 𝑉1 +𝑉 2 2
1 2
3.Relation between Molarity & Density of Solution
%×𝑑×10
M = 𝐺𝑀𝑀
𝐵
%  (Percentage of Solute by Mass)
4.Relation between Molarity & Normality
Normality-Number of gram equivalent weights of solute per litre of solution.

N = M × n , n = Factor (Activity of Salt, Acidity of Base, Basicity of Acid)

Different ways to find ‘n’ factor
a) No. of H+ ions in an acid HCl = 1, H2SO4 = 2
b) No. of OH- ions in a base.NaOH = 1, Ca(OH)2 = 2.
c) Valency of ion in a salt like 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑙 = 1 ,𝑀𝑔2+ + 2𝐶𝑙 − → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 n = 2
+ −

𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 → 𝐴𝑙 3+ + 3𝐶𝑙 − n = 3, 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 → 2𝑁𝑎 + + 𝑂−2 n=2

5. Relation between Molarity ,Molality & Density of Solution
M = 1000M
1000d –M x MB
6. Relation between Molarity and Mole fraction of Solute
XB= M x MA
M x MA-MB+1000d
7. Relation between Molality and Mole fraction of Solute

m= 1000 XB
XA x MA

Intext Q. 40 g NaCl mixed with 600 ml water. Give its molarity at 25ºC temp. if temperature
increases to 35ºC. how it affects molarity?
40 1000
Ans. M   1.1mol / litre  1.1M ,With increase of temp molarity decreases.
58.5 600

IntextQ. 25 g Ethanol mixed with 400 g of benzene. Give mole fraction of each component in
solution.
Ans.
25
XA  46  0.09
25 400

46 78
X B  1  X A  1  0.09  0.91
Intext Q. 5 g of NaCl is dissolved in 1000 g of water. If the density of the resulting solution is
0.997 g per cc, calculate molality, molarity, normality and mole fraction of the
solute.
5
Solution: Mole of NaCl = = 0.0854 (Mol. wt. of NaCl = 58.5)
58.5
Moles
Molality =  1000
Wt. of solvent in gram
0.0854
=  1000 = 0.0854 m
1000
Wt. of solution in gram 1005
Volume of the solution= = cc
Density in gram / cc 0.997
Again by definition
Moles
Molarity =
Volume of solution in litre
0.0854
= = 0.085 M
1.008
 Normality = 0.085 N (for NaCl, eq. wt. = mol. wt)
1000
Further, Mole of H2O = = 55.55
18
(1000 gram of water = 1000 ml of water, because density = 1 g/cc)
Total mole = Mole of NaCl + Mole of H2O
= .0854 + 55.55 = 55.6354
7.85 0.0854
Mole fraction of NaCl = = = 1.535  10–3
98.66 55.6409

Intext Q. If 20 ml of ethanol (density = 0.7893 gm / ml) is mixed with 40 ml of water

(density = 0.9971 gm/ml) at 25°C, the final solution has density of 0.9571 gm / ml.
Calculate the percentage change in total volume of mixing. Also calculate the molality
of alcohol in the final solution.
Solution: Mass of ethanol = v  d
 W = 20  0.7893 gm = 15.786 gm
Mass of water = v  d
= 40  0.9971 gm = 39.884 gm
Total volume = 60 ml
Total mass = 15.786 + 39.884 = 55.67 gm
Let the volume of solution = x ml
mass 55.67
X= = = 58.165 ml
density 0.9571
Change in volume = 60 – 58.165 = 1.835 ml
1.835
% change in volume =  100 = 3.05%
60
w 1000 15.786 1000
Molality, m =  =  = 8.604 m
m W (in gm) 46 39.884
Types of Solutions based on physical state of solute and solvent

Solute Solvent Example

1. Solid Solid Alloys (Steel,brass)
2. Liquid Solid Amalgum Zn-Hg,Cu-Hg
3. Gas Solid H2/Pd, H2/Pt
4. Solid Liquid Glucose in water
5. Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water
6. Gas Liquid Oxygen in water
7. Solid Gas Camphor in N2 gas
8. Liquid Gas Water vapour[mist]
9. Gas Gas He-Ne,Mixture of gases

General Properties of liquid solutions-There are three types of liquid solutions.

(1.) Solid – Liquid (2.) Liquid – Liquid (3.) Gas – Liquid
1. Boiling Point:-The temperature at which vapour pressure of a liquid equals to atmospheric
pressure.
Factors affecting BP-
(a) BP  Intermolecular Molecular Forces (b) BP  Molecular Mass
1
c BP  (d) BP  Surface Area
volatility

2. Vapour Pressure:-Pressure exerted by liquid vapours on the surface of liquid in a close

container. It depends on:-
1
(a) VP  Surface Area of liquid (b) VP  temp  c VP 
BP
1
(d) vp
Intermolecular forces
3. Solubility:-The maximum amount of solute which can be dissolved in a liquid at a particular
temperature.
Factors affecting solubility of solids in liquid.
(a) Nature of solute-According to like dissolves like.[Polar in polar, non polar in non polar]
 (b) Temperature-It depends on nature of process. If a process is exothermic then solubility 
temp. If a process is endothermic then solubility  temp.
Factors affecting solubility of gases in liquid.
(a) Nature of solute-According to like dissolves like.[Polar in polar, non polar in non polar]
(b) Solubility  temp[Process is always exothermic]
(c) Solubility  pressure
Henry’s Law:- The solubility of gases is directly proportional to the pressure.

Applications
1. Making of aerated drinks/cold drinks.Ex- O2 in water, CO2 in water.
2. Supply of O2 and CO2 in blood in respiration process.
3. Anoxia (breathing problem at high level which reduces thinking ability of climbers) at the high
mountains due to low pressure.
4. Bend formation in sea divers-When scuba divers suffer from painful effects called bends when
they come towards surface.When they go into sea, pressure increases therefore more O2 is
dissolved in blood which causes pain/burst in blood vessels.That’s why inert gas helium is
mixed with nitrogen and oxygen in their gas cylinder to prevent bend formation.
5. Cooking rate at high altitude (mountains) becomes slow due to lack of oxygen.
NOTE-To increase rate of cooking at high altitudes pressure cooker is used.
Rault’s Law & Vapour pressure of liquid solutions
1. First Raoults law for a solution containing non-volatile solute:-Ex-NaCl + H2O ,Glucose +
H2O .On addition of non-volatile solute, vapour pressure decreases due to decrease in surface
area of liquid.NVS particles present at surface decrease the rate of evaporation hence VP
decreases.The decrease in vapour pressure is known as lowering in vapour pressure[LVP].It is
directly proportional to mole fraction of solute.
Raults law-Lowering in vapour pressure  mole fraction of NVS.

Lowering in vapour pressure(∆P) = Po- P

Where Po= Vapour pressure of pure solvent , P= Vapour pressure of solution

Vapour Pressure of a solution containing non-volatile solute is directly proportional to mole

fraction of solvent only.[As solute is NVS which does not form vapours].
P  XA

, XA = Mole fraction of solvent.

First Raoults law as a special case of Henry law-Raoults law becomes a special case of Henry
law as in both laws pressure depends on mole fraction.When KH becomes equal to vapour
pressure of pure solvent(POA) then Raoults law becomes a special case of Henry law.
 P = KHXB – Henry is law and P = Pº X A – Rault’'s law
Intext Q. Calculate vapour pressure of 1 molal aqueous solution containing non-volatile solute if
pressure of pure water is 12.8 Kilo pascal.

Ans.
NOTE- 1 molal solution means 1mole of solute present in 1 kg solvent.
XA = nA/nA+nB Where nA=1000/18=55.5, nB=1
XA =0.982,

, P  12.8  0.982  12.57kpa

2. II nd Raoults law for a binary solution containing volatile liquids-Vapour Pressure of a
solution containing volatile liquids is sum of partial pressure of both components.The partial
pressure of each component is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
Ptotal  PA  PB
PA  X A  PA  P 0 A X A
PB  X B  PB  P 0 B X B

II nd Raoults law as a special case of Dalton’s law -Raoults law becomes a special case of Dalton’s
law as in both laws total pressure is sum of partial pressure of both components.
Intext Q. 2 moles of liquid A are mixed with 2 moles of liquid B.The vapour pressure of solution 450
mm Hg. If 1 mole of A is added to solution then vapour pressure becomes 460 mm Hg.
Calculate vapour pressure of pure liquid A and B.
Ans.
2 1 2 1
XA   ; XB  
22 2 4 2
Ptotal  P A XA  P B XB
0 0

1 1
450  P 0 A   P 0 B  ..................1
2 2
3 2
460  P 0 A   P 0 B  ................. 2
5 5
1800  2P 0 A  2P 0 B
2300  3P 0 A  2P 0 B
 P 0 A  500 , P 0 A  500 mm / Hg.
P 0 A  P 0 B  500 , P 0 B  400 mm / Hg.

Types of solutions based on Rault’s Law

1. Ideal Solutions
2.Non- Ideal Solutions
 1. Ideal Solution:- Ideal solution is the solution which obeys the Rault’s Law with following
conditions. In these types of solutions solvent-solute[A-B] interactions are almost same as
solvent-solvent[A-A] and solute-solute[B-B] interactions.
The liquid molecules having almost same size,shape and molecular mass are used to form
ideal solutions. Ex. Benzene + Toulene, ethyl chloride + ethyl bromide, h-hexane + n-
heptane etc.
These solutions follow these conditions
i. Vapour Pressure of a solution containing volatile liquids is sum of partial pressure of both
components. Ptotal =PA+PB
ii.No Enthalpy change on mixing. ∆Hmix = 0
iii.No change in volume on mixing of liquids. ∆Vmix = 0
Graphical representation between vapour pressure and mole fraction for an ideal solution

XA=1 X A=0
XB=0 XB=1

2. Non-ideal Solution:-Which do not obey Rault’s Law .

In these solutions
i. Vapour Pressure of a solution containing volatile liquids is not equals to partial pressure of
both components.
ii.Enthalpy change occurs on mixing.
iii.Change in volume on mixing of liquids.
(𝑎)𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ≠ 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵 (𝑏) 𝛥𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑥 ≠ 0 (𝑐 )𝛥𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥 ≠ 0

There are two types of non-ideal solutions

(i) Non-ideal Solution[NIS] showing positive deviation
a. P > PA+PB VP ↑ Increases
b.∆Hmix > 0 or ∆H= +ive means Endothermic process
c.∆Vmix > 0 or ∆V= +ive means Volume also increases
(a) Vapour pressure increases-In these types of solution solvent-solute[A-B] interactions are weaker
than solvent-solvent[A-A] and solute-solute[B-B] interactions.Therefore intermolecular
molecular forces decrease and vapour pressure increases. [VP Intermolecular Molecular
Forces]
NOTE- A-B Interactions < A-A and B-B interactions
(b) .∆Hmix >0 or ∆H= +ive means Endothermic process
 Process is endothermic-Due to stronger A-A and B-B bonds, their bond dissociation enthalpy is
higher than bond formation energy of A-B bonds.So the energy is supplied to break stronger
bonds and the process will be endothermic.
(c) .∆Vmix > 0 or ∆V= +ive means Volume also increases
Volume increases-Because A – B bond lengths are greater than A- A and B – B bond lengths
due to weaker interactions between solute and solvent particles.Therefore volume is expanded.
Example:- Alcohol + water,CCl4+CHCl3,CCl4+C6H6.
Graphical representation between vapour pressure and mole fraction for an ideal solution
showing positive deviation.

X→
XA=1 X A=0
XB=0 XB=1

(ii) Non-ideal Solution[NIS] showing negative deviation - a. P < PA+PB VP ↓ Decreases

b.∆Hmix < 0 or ∆H= -ive means Exothermic process
c.∆Vmix < 0 or ∆V= -ive means Volume also decreases
(a) VP ↓ Decreases -In these types of solution A – B interactions are stronger than A – A and B – B
interactions therefore intermolecular molecular forces increase and vapour pressure decreases. [VP
Intermolecular Molecular Forces]
NOTE- A-B Interactions > A-A and B-B interactions
(b) ∆Hmix < 0 or ∆H= -ive means Exothermic process- Due to weaker A – A and B – B bonds,
the bond dissociation enthalpy is lower than bond formation energy of A – B bond so the
process will be exothermic.
(c) ∆Vmix < 0 or ∆V= -ive means Volume also decreases-Bond length of A – B bonds are
lesser than bond length of A – A and B – B hence volume decreases.
Example-HCl + H2O,H2SO4 + H2O, CHCl3 +C6H6.
Graphical representation between vapour pressure and mole fraction for an ideal solution
showing negative deviation.
 XA = 1 XA = 0
XB = 0 XB = 1
Azeotropes or Constant Boiling Mixtures-The mixture of liquids which boils at constant
temperature and posses same composition in liquid as well as in vapour phase.
(i) Minimum Boiling Azeotropes-These azeotropes are formed by the liquids having lower
boiling point than either of liquids.These mixtures show positive deviation.
Example:- Alcohol+water,CCl4+CHCl3,CCl4+C6H6.
(ii) ) Maxiimum Boiling Azeotropes-These azeotropes are formed by the liquids having higher
boiling point than either of liquids.These mixtures show negative deviation.
Example-HCl + H2O,H2SO4 + H2O, CHCl3 +C6H6.
Q. Two liquids A and B are mixed to form an ideal solution.25 g of A (MM 40g/mol) mixed
with 45 g of B (MM 60 g/mol). Calculate vapoure pressure of solution in a closed
container .The V.P. of pure liquid A is 109.2 Kpascal and B is 114.2 Kpascal.
Ans.
25 45
𝑃 = [105.2 × ( 40
25 45 ) + 114.2 × ( 60
25 45 )] × 103
+ +
40 60 40 60
5 8 3 8
𝑃 = 105.2 × 8 × 11 ; 114.2 × 4 × 11 × 103
103
𝑃 = [526 + 685.2] × 11
1211.2
𝑃= × 10 = 110.1 × 103 = 110.1 𝐾. 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
3
11

Collegative properties (CP)-Properties of solution whose value depends upon the concentration or
mole fraction of solute but not on the individual identity of solute.
Relative lowering in vapour pressure (RLVP):On addition of non-volatile solute, vapour pressure
decreases.The decrease in vapour pressure is known as lowering in vapour pressure.It is because that
NVS occupies surface of solution which decreases surface area of solution.
According to Raoults law-Lowering in vapour pressure  mole fraction of NVS.

According Raults law relative lowering in vapour pressure is equal to mole fraction of
solute.
For highly diluted solution nB =0 , Hence 𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 ≃ 𝑛𝐴
 Molar mass of solute can be calculated by using relative lowering in vapour pressure as
following.

𝑊𝐵 ×𝑀𝐴 𝑃º
𝑀𝐵 = × 𝛥𝑃
𝑊𝐴

Lowering in vapour pressure(∆P) = Po- P

Where Po= Vapour pressure of pure solvent , P= Vapour pressure of solution

(i) Elevation in boiling point (EBP):-When we add NVS in any pure solvent then its boiling point
increases.Means ,the boiling point of solution containing NVS becomes higher than boiling point
of pure solvent.The increase in boiling point is known as Elevation in boiling point (∆Tb).

Boiling point-The temp. at which vapour pressure of a liquid is equals to 1 atm or 1.013 bar.As on
addition of non-volatile solute, vapour pressure decreases therefore boiling point increases.
[BP of solution> BP of solvent]
Elevation in boiling point directly proportional to molal concentration or mole fraction of
solute in solution.
∆Tb α ∆P
Tb  BPof solution  BPof solvent
Tb  P  X A
∆Tb α Xb
∆Tb= K Xb

Xb= nb/nA + nB , For highly diluted solutions it can be written as Xb= n b/nA = nB xMA
WA
∆Tb= K nB xMA
WA
nB/WA =Molality and K x MA =Kb

∆Tb = Kbm , m = Molality

K b  Wb  1000
Tb 
M B  WA

Molar mass of solute can be calculated by using Elevation in boiling point as following.
K b  Wb  1000
MB 
Tb  WA
Kb=Molal elevation constant or molal ebullioscopic constant .It is increase in boiling point for
one molal solution of non-volatile solute.Its unit is K kg/mol.
∆Tb =Kbm ,If m=1 then Kb= ∆Tb
Graphical representation between vapour pressure and boiling temperature of solution
containing non-volatile solute
 Solvent vapour
Solution vapour

Pressure
P

Tb

Tb To Tb = T2 - T1
Temperature
T2 = B.P. of solution
T1 = B.P. of solvent
Depression in freezing point (DFP): When we add NVS in any pure solvent then its freezing point
decreases which is known as Depression in freezing point (DFP). Means ,the freezing point of
solution containing NVS becomes lower than freezing point of pure solvent.

Freezing point- The temp. at which vapour pressure of a liquid is equals to vapour pressure of its
solid phase..As on addition of non-volatile solute, vapour pressure decreases therefore freeziing point
also decreases.
Depression in freezing point directly proportional to molal concentration or mole fraction of
solute in solution.
∆Tf α ∆P α Xb
∆Tf α Xb
∆Tf= K Xb
Xb= nb/nA + nB , For highly diluted solutions it can be written as Xb= nb/nA = nB xMA
WA
∆Tb= K nB xMA
WA
nB/WA =Molality and K x MA =Kf

∆Tf = Kfm , m = Molality

Tf  F.p.of solvent  FP of solution
[FP of solvent>FP of solution]
𝑊𝐵(𝑔)×1000
∆Tf = Kf 𝑀𝐵 ×𝑊𝐴(𝑔)

Kf = Molal cryoscopic constant (Molar depression constant)- It is decrease in freezing point for one
molal solution of non-volatile solute.Its unit is K kg/mol.
∆Tf =Kfm ,If m=1 then Kf= ∆Tf

Molar mass of solute can be calculated by using Depression in freezing point as following.

K f  WB  1000
MB 
Tf  WA

Applications of DFP
(i) Anti-freeze solutions which are used in car radiator at high altitude. (NVS- Ethanol,methanol,
ethylene glycol are used with water).
(ii) Clearing of ice from roads- By using NVS like NaCl,CaCl2 etc.
 Graphical representation between vapour pressure and freezing temperature of solution
containing NVS
C
E
Frozen
solvent
B

Vapour Pressure
D
A
T1
Freezing point depression
Tf Tf°
Temperature (K)

Applications of DFP
(i) Anti-freeze solutions which are used in car radiator at high altitude. (NVS- Ethanol,methanol,
ethylene glycol are used with water).
(ii) Clearing of ice from roads- By using NVS like NaCl,CaCl2 etc.

Q. 40 g NaCl mixed with 400 g of water. Calculate boiling point of aqueous solution if Kb for
water is 0.52 KKg/mol.
Ans.
Tb  BP of solution  BP of solvent
BP of solution  Tb  BP of solvent
0.52  40  1000 K b  Wb  1000
  100 Tb 
400  58.5 M B  WA
0.52  100
  100
58.5
520
  100  0.87  100  100.87
58.5
(iv) Osmotic Pressure (OP)
Osmosis-The flow of solvent from lower to higher concentration[From pure solvent to
solution] through semi-permeable membrane (SPM) is known as osmosis.
NOTE-Perchment or pig’s bladder are naturally obtained SPM and cellophane is synthetic
SPM.
Osmotic Pressure (OP)-The pressure applied from solution to solvent side to stop osmosis is known
as osmotic pressure.It directly proportional to molarity of solution at given temp.
From PV = nRT for liquids we can write πV = nRT
n
 RT  CRT ;   osmotic pressure n/v = molarity or concentration(c)
v
𝑊 𝑅𝑇
𝜋 = 𝐶𝑅𝑇 = 𝑀 𝐵𝑉
𝐵 (𝐿)
Molar mass of solute can be calculated by using osmotic pressure as following.
WBRT
MB 
V
NOTE-OP is used to calculate molar mass of macromolecules (polymers,proteins,nuclic acids etc) as
it is apreciable for such substances & can be easily measured even in very dilute solutions.It is
 mreasered at room temp. and the biomolecules are stable at room temp.At high temp.
biomolecules are unstable and polymers are less soluble.
Types of solutions based on osmotic pressure
i.Isotonic solution-Two solutions having same osmotic pressure are known as isotonic
solutions.No osmosis occurs between these solutions.
ii.Hypertonic solution-The solution having higher osmotic pressure is known as hypertonic
solution.
iii.Hypotonic solution-The solution having lower osmotic pressure is known as hypotonic solution.

NOTE-Solvent moves from hypotonic to hypertonic solution.Like a blood cell(0.91%) is placed

into water then water acts as hypotonic solution and moves into blood cell and blood cell
swells but when same blood cell is placed into saline water having concentration more than
0.91% which is hypertonic solution then water moves out side of blood cell and it shrinks.
Edema-People taking lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in tissue cells and
intracellular spaces because of osmosis.This resulting puffiness or swelling is called as Edema.

Reverse Osmosis:-Flow of solvent from solution to solvent [inner to outer] side through SPM if
external pressure is greater than osmotic pressure, then it is called as reverse osmosis process.
Applications of Reverse Osmosis
(i) Purification of water (RO system)
(ii) Desalination of sea water to make drinkable water.In this method cellulose acetate membrane
is used which is permeable for water not for impurities and salts.
𝟏
NOTE-All CPs are used to calculate Molar mass of solute. 𝑪𝑷 𝜶
𝑴𝑩
Abnormal Molar Mass and Vant Hoff factor (i)
On association or dessociation of solute its molar mass is changed and that changed molar
mass is known as abnormal molar mass (M o).
Mn = Normal Mass , Mo = Abnormal Molar mass
Association-On association of solute particles ,its molar mass is increased.Means Mo>Mn
Ex-Formation of dimer,trimer or polymers or through H-bonding in carboxylic acids and
alcohols etc.
Dissociation- On dessociation of solute particles ,its molar mass is decreased.Means M o < Mn
Ex-On electrolysis/dissolution of salts in aqueous solution.
If no association and dissociation then no change in molar mass. Mo = Mn
Vant Hoff factor (i)-It is ratio of the normal and observed molar masses of solute.It is used to express
the extent of association or dissociation of solute.
a. i = Mn /Mo [For molar masss where Mn = Normal Mass , Mo = Abnormal Molar mass ]
b. i=CO/Cn [For colligative properties Cn = Normal CPs , Co = Abnormal CPs]
c. i = Number of particles of solute after association or dissociation/ Number of particles of solute
before association or dissociation

Example: Dissociation
NaCl is completely dissociated as
NaCl  Na+ + Cl-. Therefore, i = 2
 K2SO4 is completely dissociated as
K2SO4  2K+ + SO42-. Therefore, i = 3
Association
1
2C2 H5OH   C2 H5OH 2  Association i  (Dimerisation)
2
1
2C6 H5COOH   C6 H5COOH 2 i (Dimerisation)
2
If association-On association[Formation of dimer,trimer or polymers through H-bonding] of
solute particles its molar mass is increased hence value of i is lesser than 1. M o > Mn, i<1
If dissociation- On dessociation of solute particles[Through electrolysis/dissolution in
aqueous solution] its molar mass is decreased hence value of i is geater than 1. Mo < Mn, i>1
If no association and dissociation then no change in molar mass. Mo = Mn ,i=1

If any association or dissociation occurs then: colligate properties are calculated using
Vant Hoff (i) factors in following equations.
1. RLVP ∆P = i XB
P0
2. EBP ∆Tb =iKbm
3. DFP ∆Tf =iKfm
4. OP π = iCRT

Degree of Dissociation (Diss.) and Degree of Association (Ass.):

Degree of Dissociation ( Diss) - Fraction of solute which is dissociated in solution.

K2SO4  2K+ + SO42-. Therefore, m = 3

NaCl  Na+ + Cl-. Therefore, m = 2
Degree of Association ( Ass) - Fraction of solute which is associated in solution
i 1
 Ass  ; m  No. of particles beforeassociation in solution
1 1
m
Example:- 2C2 H5OH   C2 H5OH 2  Association m=2(Dimerisation)
2C6 H5COOH   C6 H5COOH 2 ,m = 2 (Number of particles before association)

Intext Q. 40 g CaCl2 dissolved in 200 gm of water. Calculate freezing point of aqueous Solution if
solute is completely dissociated.Kf for water is 1.86 .
Ans.
 Tf  FP of solvent  FP of solution
CaCl2  Ca 2  2Cl i3
Fp of solution  Fp of solvent  Tf
FP of solution  273  iK f m
3  1.86  40  1000
 273 
111  200
 273  10.05
 262.95K
Intext Q. 5 gm benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) dissolved in 100 g of benzene. Calculate % association
of acid if it forms dimer in solution. Molal depression constant (Kf) for benzene is 4.9 and
Tf = 1.62.
Ans. 2C6 H5COOH   C6 H5COOH 2
m = 2 (Number of particles before association)
Tf  ik f m
5  1000
1.62  i  4.9 
100  122
122  1.62
i  0.80
4.90  50
i 1 0.80  1 0.2
 Ass. 100    100   100  40
1  0.5 0.5
  1
m
%  Ass. 40%