● The powers of the prime minister are partly based on the authority of the

unelected monarch.
● The European Convention on Human Rights is not binding on Parliament, so
individual rights and liberties remain under threat.

Table 1.5 How democratic is the UK political system?

Democratic
feature Positives Negatives
Peaceful transition The UK is remarkably conflict-free Short-lived disputes have arisen when the results were
of power not clear, in 2010 and in 2017, leading to some claims
of a lack of legitimacy
Free elections Nearly everyone over 18 can vote Some groups, such as prisoners and effectively the
There is little electoral fraud and there homeless, are denied their right to vote and new voter ID
exist strong legal safeguards laws are believed to have added to the disenfranchised
The House of Lords is not elected at all, nor is the head
of state (monarch)
Fair elections There are proportional systems in place The first-past-the-post system for general elections
in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland leads to disproportionate results and many wasted votes
and other devolved and local bodies Governments are often elected on a modest proportion
of the popular vote
Widespread There is extensive membership of Since 2001 voter turnout in general elections has been,
participation pressure groups, which are free and on average, lower than in previous elections, while
active. There is also a growing level of party membership, especially among the young, has
participation in e-democracy generally been in decline. Despite some increases in
party membership after 2015, it is still below levels
experienced in the 1950s
Freedom of The press and broadcast media are free Much ownership of the press is in the hands of a few
expression of government interference. Broadcast large, powerful companies such as News International,
media maintain political neutrality. There the owners of which tend to have their own political
is free access to the internet preferences
Some information available on the internet is false and
detrimental
There is some debate over how independent the BBC is
and attempts by politicians to influence its reporting
Freedom of There are no restrictions on legal The government has the power to ban some groups
association organisations based on the potentially unfair perception of their
People may organise and instigate public activities.
protests Public meetings and demonstrations can be restricted
on the grounds of ‘public order’
Protection of rights The country is signed up to the European Parliament is sovereign, which means rights are at the
and liberties Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and mercy of a government with a strong majority in the
the courts enforce it House of Commons
The House of Lords advocates for rights The ECHR is not binding on the UK Parliament
The rule of law Upheld strictly by the judiciary The monarch is exempt from legal restrictions
The right to judicial review underpins this There is statistical evidence to suggest social and
The judiciary is independent and non- economic standing impact severity of sentencing
political
A constitution Parliament and the courts ensure the There is no codified UK Constitution so the limits to
government acts within the law government power are vague
The Human Rights Act (see below in Parliamentary sovereignty means the government’s
this chapter and in Chapter 8) acts powers could be increased without a constitutional
as a restraint on the actions of the safeguard
government, and constitutional checks The prerogative powers of the prime minister are
exist to limit the power of the government extensive and arbitrary

14 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 14 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Contents

UK Politics 1 Constitutional reform in the UK

since 1997 184
Devolved bodies in the UK and the
1 Democracy and participation 2 impact of devolution on the UK 195
Current systems of democracy 3 Debates on further constitutional reform 204
Suffrage 22
Group activity 27 6 Parliament 214
Rights in context 37 The House of Commons and
House of Lords 215
2 Political parties 49 Comparing the powers of the
Principles of political parties 50 House of Commons and House of Lords 230
Established political parties 61 Legislation 232
Emerging and minor UK political parties 81 How Parliament interacts with
UK political parties in context 85 the executive 235
A summary of the role of parties
in the UK 91 7 The prime minister
and the executive 251
3 Electoral systems 96 The structure, role and powers of the
Different electoral systems 97 national executive 252
Electoral system analysis 112 The power of the executive 256
Referendums 118 Ministerial responsibility 266
The prime minister and the Cabinet 272
4 Voting behaviour and the media 129 Prime ministerial case studies 280
Voting behaviour 130
The influence of the media 154 8 Relations between the branches 289
Case studies of key general elections 161 The Supreme Court 290
Key operating principles of the
Supreme Court 297
UK Government 173 The relationship between the executive
and Parliament 304
The UK and the European Union 311
5 The Constitution 174 The location of sovereignty in the UK
What is a constitution? 175 political system 320
The nature and sources of the UK
Constitution 176 Index 327
Coverage of core and non-core political ideas
are available in other textbooks to complete
your study for Components 1 and 2. Go to
www.hoddereducation.com/government-politics

iv Contents

9781398388093.indb 4 08/03/24 3:54 PM

 Get the most from this book

This new edition of our bestselling textbook covers the key content of the Pearson
Edexcel Government and Politics specification for teaching from September 2017.
This book does not cover the Core Political Ideas content for Component 1 or the
non-core political ideas content for Component 2 which are compulsory elements
of the Pearson Edexcel Government and Politics specification.

Special features
Objectives Study tip
A summary of the Revision advice such
learning objectives for as common mistakes,
each chapter. pitfalls and key points
to remember.
Key terms and
Useful terms Knowledge check
Concise definitions Short questions to
of key terms (in the assess comprehension
specification) and of the subject.
useful terms (for
understanding) where Discussion point
they first appear. Interesting questions
to be used as the basis
Synoptic/topic links
for class discussions or
Links between concepts
homework.
that occur in more
than one area of
the specification or
textbook.
Case study Practice questions
Outlines of key events Revision questions at
and examples that the end of each chapter.
relate to the course Answer guidance
content. available online: www.
hoddereducation.com/
Summary
EdexcelUKPolitics7E.
A summary at the end
of the chapter against Activity
which you can check Short tasks designed to
your knowledge. research or utilise data
that will help extend your
Key terms in application of material
this chapter
A summary of key terms Debate
used throughout the The two sides of a
chapter. controversial question
set out to hone
Further reading evaluation skills.

Get the most from this book iii

9781398388093.indb 3 08/03/24 3:54 PM

 1 Democracy and participation

The concept of democracy is fundamental to an understanding of politics as it

underpins all the other concepts, ideas and topics you will be studying. Yet it is
a concept that sparks fierce passions, debates and conf licting attitudes. Take, for
example, the debates over Brexit. On the one hand, you had people arguing that
the democratic ‘will of the people’ needed to be respected, as the result of the 2016
referendum indicated the people wanted to leave the EU. On the other hand, you
had people arguing that it was up to Parliament to decide, and that MPs should
vote in the ‘national interest’ and choose to remain in the EU. Western democracies
like the UK boast of their democratic institutions and accuse totalitarian regimes
like North Korea of being undemocratic dictatorships, yet North Korea, like many
Communist states, calls itself a ‘Democratic People’s Republic’. How can there be such
disagreement over a term that is so central to politics?
Democracy simply means ‘rule by the people’. It comes from the Ancient Greek
demos (the people) and kratia (rule or power), but who the people are and how the
will of the people should be translated into action is a matter of fierce debate. In
Ancient Athens, democracy meant not only that the people were directly consulted
on issues, but that office holders were directly chosen by the people and therefore
were held accountable to them too. So the people represented themselves and
managed the state as a collective, with no professional politicians. In fact, the ancient
An anti-lockdown protest Greek philosopher Plato saw democracy as undesirable and worried that mob rule
held in Trafalgar Square, by the uneducated masses would be damaging and could lead to anarchy and chaos,
September 2020 a view that persists even today in many debates about democracy.

2 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 2 08/03/24 3:54 PM

 Democracy is just a word, but how that word is interpreted and how it is applied to
modern politics determines much of the decision-making and many of the political
systems that affect all our lives. Democracy today is largely seen as a ‘good thing’,
but people still dispute its meaning and how it should be applied, as evidenced by the
heated debates over the Covid-19 lockdowns and government responses.
At its heart, democracy is about the process and means of translating the will of the
people into coherent plans and action, but how this is brought about and how it
works in the real world is f luid and ever-changing, which is why it is important to
start by getting to grips with what democracy means in practice.

Objectives
In this chapter you will learn about the following:
➜ The meaning of the term ‘democracy’ and the current systems of representative and direct
democracy
➜ The advantages and disadvantages of representative and direct democracy
➜ The case for reform to improve democracy
➜ The nature of political participation in the UK and how it has evolved
➜ The development of the franchise in the UK and current issues concerning the future of
suffrage and voting
➜ The role of group activity within a democracy, including pressure groups, lobbyists and think Key terms
tanks Direct democracy All
➜ The general nature of political influence in the UK individuals express their
➜ The nature and context of rights in the UK and their relationship to obligations opinions themselves
➜ Issues concerning rights in the UK, including how effectively they are protected and not through
➜ The claims of collective rights versus individual rights representatives acting on
their behalf. This type of
democracy emerged in
Current systems of democracy Athens in classical times
and direct democracy
We normally divide the concept of democracy into two main types: direct can be seen today in
democracy and representative democracy. referendums.
Representative
Direct democracy democracy A more
Direct democracy was how the idea was first conceived in ancient Greece, mainly modern form of
in the city state of Athens in the fifth century BCE. Hence it is sometimes described democracy, through which
as ‘Athenian democracy’. an individual selects a
What made Athens a democracy was the idea that every tax-paying citizen would person (and/or a political
have one vote of equal value to all others and all citizens were able to contribute to party) to act on their
a decision. Therefore, the assembled free citizens would make important decisions behalf to exercise political
directly, fairly and equally, such as whether the state should go to war or whether choice.
a prominent citizen who had committed anti-state acts should be exiled. After Legitimacy The
Athenian democracy declined in the fourth century BCE, direct democracy, with rightful use of power in
a few exceptions, disappeared as a democratic form until the nineteenth century. accordance with pre-set
criteria or widely held
Today, direct democracy has returned in the form of the referendum, now relatively
agreements, such as a
common in Europe and some states of the USA (referendums and their use will be
government’s right to rule
covered in more detail in Chapter 3). However, direct democracy today should be
following an election or
seen as an addition to representative democracy rather than a separate system, one
a monarch’s succession
that can add great legitimacy to the decisions made by politicians. Some decisions
based on the agreed rules.
are considered so vital, and also so unsuitable for representatives to make them,

1 Democracy and participation 3

9781398388093.indb 3 08/03/24 3:54 PM

 that they are left to the people. However, the size and nature of modern politics
would make the regular use of direct democracy impracticable and so it cannot be
considered as an alternative to representative democracy in the twenty-first century.
Direct democracy has its critics as well as its supporters. Table 1.1 summarises the
main advantages and disadvantages of direct democracy.

Discussion point
Evaluate the view that direct democracy is a desirable way of governing a country.
Three key areas to discuss are:
1 Why the advantages of direct democracy are positive ideas and the disadvantages negative.
2 How direct democracy can work on a practical level in the UK.
3 How involved the people should be in all decisions.

Table 1.1 Direct democracy — is it desirable?

Advantages Disadvantages
It is the purest form of democracy. The It can lead to the ‘tyranny of the majority’,
people’s voice is clearly heard whereby the winning majority simply ignores
the interests of the minority and imposes
something detrimental on them
Useful terms It can avoid delay and deadlock within the The people may be too easily swayed
Accountability Where political system by short-term, emotional appeals by
charismatic individuals
those who have been
The fact that the people are making a Some issues may be too complex for the
elected in a representative
decision gives it great legitimacy ordinary citizen to understand
democracy must be made
responsible for their
policies, actions, decisions Representative democracy
and general conduct.
Representative democracy is the most common model found in the democratic
Polls Another term for world today.
elections; polls simply
establish the number of
In a representative democracy the people do not make political decisions directly;
people who support a
instead, they choose representatives to make decisions on their behalf. The most
particular person, party or
common way of choosing representatives is to elect them through a formal,
issue.
competitive election process. Indeed, if representatives are not elected in a vote with
some degree of choice, it calls democracy into question. Elections are therefore what
Constituents The ordinary
we first think of when we consider representation.
voters who elect a
particular representative, In addition to choosing representatives, representative democracy ensures that those
usually based on elected to positions of power and responsibility must be held to account by the
residence in a particular people. Accountability is essential if representatives are to act responsibly and
geographical area. in the interests of the people and prevents one party from becoming an elective
dictatorship. At election time both individual representatives, such as MPs in the
UK, and the government as a whole are held accountable when the people go to the
polls. During the election campaign, opposition parties highlight the shortcomings
Topic link of the government and offer their own alternatives. At the same time, the government
The nature of voting will seek to explain and justify what it has done to try and be re-elected. Similarly,
behaviour and the role individual representatives will be held to account for their performance: how well
of opinion polls will be they have represented their constituents and whether their voting record meets the
considered further in approval of those same constituents. Of course, MPs are often faced with a dilemma
Chapter 4. of how best to represent their constituents, voting either for their constituents’
wishes or according to their own conscience. For, as the eighteenth-century

4 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 4 08/03/24 3:54 PM

 Voters queuing to vote at a polling station
Conservative thinker Edmund Burke wrote (at a time when all MPs were men),
‘your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgement; and he
betrays instead of serving you if he sacrifices it to your opinion’. We shall explore
this dilemma in greater detail later.
Study tip
Accountability is less certain between elections, but those in power can be held to
account regularly through investigations, media scrutiny and individual representatives Democracy underpins
asking questions on behalf of their constituents. Individual representatives are everything in UK politics,
normally safe until the next election, though the growing use of recall petitions to so it is vital that you are
remove MPs has provided another layer of accountability. comfortable with the
functions and different
As representatives in a democracy are elected and accountable, we now need to understand types of democracy
the concept of representation in general. It can have different forms and meanings. as these will help you
evaluate all other aspects
Different types of representation of the course.
When people consider representation, they usually think of someone who will
express the concerns and needs of the local community, acting as a ‘spokesperson’ or
champion for the area that elected them. Representation can take different forms, Synoptic link
however, which can have implications for interpreting and evaluating the strength
The main representative
of representative democracy in the UK.
body in the UK
is Parliament, so
Social representation understanding how
Social representation implies that the characteristics of members of representative different types of
bodies — whether national parliaments, regional assemblies or local councils — should representation impact
be broadly in line with the characteristics of the population as a whole. In other words, on Parliament will help
they should be close to a microcosm of society as a whole and ‘look like’ that society. For explain how democratic
example, just over half should be women, a representative proportion should be drawn and effective Parliament
from minority ethnic or religious groups, and there should be a good range of ages and is at carrying out its
class backgrounds in representative bodies. Of course, this is difficult to achieve, and the representative role, as
UK Parliament certainly falls short. This is explored further below when we discuss the outlined in Chapter 6.
state of representative democracy in the UK specifically, as well as in Chapter 6.

1 Democracy and participation 5

9781398388093.indb 5 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Representing the national interest
Useful terms Though representatives may be elected locally or regionally, if they sit in the national
National interest A Parliament, they are expected to represent the interests of the nation as a whole and
term used to describe do what they believe is right, rather than what the people may want. Sometimes
something that may not this may clash with the local constituency they represent, so they have to resolve the
be popular but will be best issue in their own way. For example, an MP representing a constituency near a major
for the nation as a whole, airport may be under pressure to oppose further expansion on the grounds of noise
and which, therefore, MPs and pollution, but they may see it as in the national interest to expand that airport.
have a duty to prioritise
above the concerns of Constituency representation
citizens. The exact nature The locality that elects a representative in UK national politics is known as a
of the national interest is constituency. The idea is that people in a geographical area will have similar social
usually determined by the and economic concerns that a representative will speak about in the elected body. The
government and can be main focus, therefore, is on local issues. Such representation can imply three things:
the source of great debate.
1 It can mean representing the interests of the constituency as a whole, such as funding
Redress of grievances
for local services, or whether a new railway or airport should be built in the area.
This is an ancient
2 It can also mean representing the interests of individual constituents. This is
function of the House of
often described as the redress of grievances. In this case, a representative will
Commons. It involves an
champion a constituent who feels they have been treated unfairly by the tax
MP pursuing a grievance
office or local hospital for example, or who needs help with an overseas issue.
that a constituent may
3 Finally, it can simply mean that a representative listens to the views of their
have against a public
constituents when deciding about a national issue. This can lead to another
body, usually claiming that
dilemma. What happens if the elected representative does not personally agree
they have been unfairly
with the majority of the constituents? This becomes a matter of conscience that
or unequally treated. MPs
has to be resolved by the individual concerned.
may lobby ministers and
officials or raise the matter
in the House of Commons.
Party representation
All modern democracies are characterised by the existence of political parties.
Furthermore, the vast majority of those seeking and winning election are members
Activity of a political party. It is unusual in modern democracies to find many examples
of independent representatives who do not belong to a party. Parties have stated
Carry out some research policies. At election time these are contained in a list of party promises called a
into how your local MP (or manifesto. It follows that members of a party who are seeking to be elected will
their predecessor) voted campaign based on the party’s manifesto. This means that they are representing their
on the issues of Covid-19 party and the voters understand this.
lockdowns, ‘illegal
migration’, public order Activity
and the revised Northern
Ireland protocols. On what Find out which parliamentary constituency you live in. Access the website of the local MP. What
basis do you feel they local issues are currently prominent in your area? What type of representation do you feel your
cast their vote (national local MP is delivering?
interest, constituency
interest or party interest)? Topic link
Manifestos are a list of policy promises made by political parties at election time to persuade
voters to vote for them. This will be covered in greater detail in Chapter 4.

Occupational or social representation

Some elected representatives represent not only their constituency or region, but
also a particular occupational or social group. For example, those who support and

6 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 6 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 are supported by trade unions often pursue the cause of groups of workers; others
may represent professions such as doctors or teachers. This function can also apply to
social groups such as older people, those with disabilities, the LGBTQ+ community
or low-income groups.

Causal representation
Where representative bodies are not representing people so much as ideas, principles
and causes, this is called causal representation. In a sense this represents the whole
community, in that the beliefs and demands involved are claimed to benefit everyone,
not just a particular group in society. Typical causes concern environmental
protection, individual rights and freedoms, greater equality and animal rights.
Though elected representatives often support such causes and principles, most causal
representation is carried out by pressure groups.
As we can see from the points above, the type of representation being followed by
an MP is often down to a combination of factors and may depend on the nature of
the issue being presented. To evaluate the nature of representation in the UK, you
need to consider the advantages and disadvantages of representative democracy as
outlined in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 The advantages and disadvantages of representative democracy
Advantages Disadvantages
Representatives can develop expertise to Representatives may not act in the best
deal with matters the public does not have interests of their constituents
the time or knowledge to deal with
Representatives can be held to account for It can be difficult to hold a representative to
their actions at election time account between elections
Representatives have the time to deal with Allowing voters to delegate responsibility
a variety of complex matters, leaving the to representatives can lead to the public
public free to get on with their own lives disengaging from social issues and other
responsibilities
In a large modern country, it is the only Representative bodies can be
practical way to translate public opinion into unrepresentative and may ignore the
political action concerns and needs of minority groups

Debate
Is direct democracy a better form of democracy?

Advantages of representative
Advantages of direct democracy democracy
● It is the purest form of democracy. It is the voice of the ● Elected representatives may have better judgement than
people. the mass of the people.
● Decisions made directly by the people have more authority. ● Elected representatives may be more rational and not
● Decisions made by the people are more difficult for future swayed by emotion.
governments to change or cancel. ● Representatives can protect the interests of minority
● Direct democracy can help educate the people about groups.
political issues. ● Elected representatives may be better informed than the
general public.
Look over the points for both sides of the debate and consider which side of the debate you believe to be stronger by
comparing the relative advantages of the two forms of democracy and deciding why one form, overall, would be better.

1 Democracy and participation 7

9781398388093.indb 7 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Synoptic link The nature of representative democracy in the UK
Having explored the concept of representative democracy, we can now consider
Devolution has been a key
how representative democracy operates in the UK and evaluate how effective it is.
constitutional reform that
aimed in part to improve The whole administration of representative democracy is regulated by the Electoral
local representation and Commission. This body ensures that representation is fair, that all those entitled
democracy across the UK. to vote can register to vote and that the political parties do not have any undue
The impact of devolution inf luence through spending. It can be said that representation in the UK today
on representation is also is broadly uncorrupted, fair and honest, at least when compared with the past.
discussed in Chapter 5. However, there have been some notable exceptions to this, with some peers and
MPs breaking the rules and acting dishonestly. These ideas will be explored in
greater detail in Chapters 2 and 4.

Levels of representation in the UK

First, we can see that the people are represented at different levels of government.
Table 1.3 demonstrates how this works in the UK.
Table 1.3 Levels of representation
Level Jurisdiction
Parish or town The lowest level of government. They deal with local issues such as parks and gardens, parking
councils* restrictions, public amenities and small planning issues
Local councils These may be county councils, district councils or metropolitan councils, depending on the area. They
deal with local services such as education, public transport, roads, social services and public health
Combined Where groups of two or more local councils in England join together to share resources and have increased
authorities powers devolved to them from central government. These may be presided over by an elected mayor, such
as in Greater Manchester, or not have a mayor, such as the combined authority in West Yorkshire
Metropolitan This is big city government, such as in London. These bodies deal with strategic city issues such as
authorities* policing, public transport, arts funding, environment, large planning issues and emergency services.
They normally have an elected mayor and strategic authority
Devolved The governments of Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. They have varying powers, but all deal with
government health, social services, education, policing and transport. All three have elected representative bodies
(an assembly in Northern Ireland, Parliaments in Scotland and Wales)
National This is the jurisdiction of the UK Parliament at Westminster and the UK government
government

* In England and Wales only

We can see that all citizens of the UK are represented at three levels at least and that
Useful term many enjoy four or five levels of representation. It is also clear that representation
Decentralisation The has become increasingly decentralised with the advent of devolution, and the
process of spreading delegating of increasing powers to city administrations.
power away from the
centre (i.e. central Forms of representation in the UK
government) both towards Having established at what levels of government we are represented, we can now
devolved governments in examine what forms of representation f lourish in the UK.
the national regions and to
local government. Constituencies
It is a cornerstone and an acknowledged strength of representative democracy
in the UK that every elected representative should have a constituency to which
they are accountable and whose interests they should pursue. These constituencies
may be quite small, such as a parish or a local ward, or they may be very large,
like those for the Northern Ireland Parliament or the Greater Manchester area
(see Figure 1.1), but the same principle applies to all. This principle is that individuals

8 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 8 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 in the constituency should have their grievances considered, that the interests of the
whole constituency should be given a hearing in a representative assembly, and that
the elected representative is regularly made accountable to their constituency. The
levels of constituency in the UK, from smallest to largest, are shown in Table 1.4.

Bury N
Rochdale
Bolton
NE Heywood
Bolton W
and
Wigan
Bolton Middleton Oldham E and
SE Bury S Oldham Saddleworth
W and
Blackley Royton
and
Makerfield Salford
Worsley Broughton Ashton-under-
Leigh and Stalybridge
and Lyne
Eccles Manchester and
Eccles S Central Hyde
Manchester Denton and
Stretford and
Gorton Reddish
Urmston
Manchester
Withington
Stockport Hazel
Altrincham Wythenshawe
Grove
and Sale W and
Sale E
Cheadle

Figure 1.1 The parliamentary constituencies in the Greater Manchester area as of the 2019
general election

Table 1.4 Levels of constituency in the UK

Level Representatives
Ward or parish Parish and local councillors
Parliamentary constituency MPs
City region Assembly members
Metropolitan authority Elected mayors
Devolved assembly Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs), Members of
constituency the Senedd in Wales (MSs) and Members of the Legislative
Assembly (MLAs) in Northern Ireland

Parties
In the UK, political parties play a central role in representation. This is for two
reasons:
● First, political parties have evolved out of ideological principles and are therefore
united by a set of core beliefs and principles at the heart of the party, such as
conservatism for the Conservative Party, socialism for the Labour Party and
liberalism for the Liberal Democrats. This means that, at their heart, members
of UK parties have a shared ideology and set of beliefs, whereas in some other
countries, such as the USA, parties arose in reaction to particular events or
conf licts, so they are looser confederations with a shared label but large differences
in principles.

1 Democracy and participation 9

9781398388093.indb 9 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 ● Second, it is usually the case that one single party governs in the UK, which is
Topic link rare compared with many of the democracies across Europe. There have been
The concepts of mandates exceptions: between 2010 and 2015, when a coalition ruled; and from 2017 to
and manifestos are 2019, when the Conservatives formed a minority government with support from
key parts of election (but not coalition with) the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), a small party that
campaigns and are represents the unionist side of the political debate in Northern Ireland. However,
explored more fully in the norm is for single-party government. Since the 80-seat majority secured by
Chapter 3. the Conservatives in December 2019, the UK has returned to its more ‘normal’
position of single-party government.

Key term Government representation

The people are also represented by the elected government. As we shall see again
Pluralist democracy A
below, it is a mark of a true democracy that the winning party or parties should
type of democracy in
govern on behalf of the whole community and not just those sections of society that
which a government makes
typically support it. While it is true that there is a tendency to support some groups
decisions as a result of the
more than others, this does not alter the fact that the elected government represents
interplay of various ideas
the whole nation.
and contrasting arguments
from competing groups
and organisations.
Pressure groups
Pressure groups in the UK are representative bodies in two main ways:
1 Some groups have a formal membership and represent their ‘section’ of society
by promoting policies that benefit them. This applies to sectional pressure groups
such as the British Medical Association (BMA) and the National Farmers’ Union
(NFU).
Useful terms 2 Other groups are engaged in causal representation. Here they represent a set of
beliefs, principles or demands that they believe will benefit the whole community,
Civil society A collective
such as Friends of the Earth (environmental causes) and Liberty (human rights
name for all the various
campaigning).
associations, including
parties, pressure groups, All pressure groups represent people in various ways. Having pressure groups is part
religions, voluntary of a pluralist democracy and a healthy civil society. The role of pressure groups
organisations, charities, in the UK is explored more fully later in this chapter.
etc., to which citizens
belong and in which they How democratic is the UK?
may become active. Civil If we are to attempt an assessment of democracy in the UK, we need to establish what
society acts as a vital we mean by the term ‘democracy’. More precisely, we should ask two questions:
counterbalance to the
power of government. 1 What constitutes a democratic political system? A word of caution is needed
before this assessment. Democracy is a contested term. There is no single,
Liberal democracy A
perfect definition. Therefore, the elements described below add up to a guide, a
system of government
collection of the most commonly accepted features of a democracy by western,
which accepts majority
liberal standards.
rule through elections,
2 What constitutes a democratic society? This is a broader question and is explored
and which focuses on
below.
individual rights that
an elected government
cannot easily or randomly The UK’s system of liberal democracy
remove. Power and rights When we talk about democracy in the UK, we are often referring to the concept of
are usually defined by an a liberal democracy. This goes back to the seventeenth century and thinkers like
official constitution. John Locke, who believed that governments ruled by the consent of the governed
and that a social contract existed between the people and those in power. This was

10 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 10 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 a radical idea for the time as it rejected the idea of absolute monarchy and the divine
right of kings, which suggested leaders only answered to God. Instead, leaders should
answer to the people. In addition to this, to help to ensure the people would be free
to live their lives and to prevent the government from becoming too powerful, a
series of limitations should exist to restrict the power of the government in order to
create a free society. This liberal form of democracy provides the key features of the
UK’s democratic system today, given below (summarised in Figure 1.2).

Peaceful
transition
of power
An Free
independent elections
judiciary

A Fair
constitution elections

Liberal
democracy

Widespread
Freedom of
participation
association
in politics

Protection of Freedom of
rights and expression and
liberties information
The rule
of law

Figure 1.2 The features of a liberal democracy

The peaceful transition of power

This is a feature that is often taken for granted in democracies, but it is not guaranteed
in many societies. It means that those who lose power by democratic means accept
the authority of those who have won. If they do not, politics breaks down and
non-peaceful conf lict is likely to ensue. This helps to ensure that democracy can
hold governments to account and ensures the legitimacy of those who have won an
election.
Useful term
Free elections Universal suffrage The
Elections are a cornerstone of democracy. Without them it is impossible to imagine idea that all people who
democracy working in any meaningful way. Indeed, it is probably the first thing are recognised as adults
we look for when assessing whether or not a system is democratic. The description have the right to vote,
‘free’ means that all adults (however that is defined) are free to vote and to stand for regardless of any social or
office. This is described as ‘universal suffrage’. If significant groups are excluded, economic considerations.
then elections are not truly free and democracy is f lawed. Elections also need to be

1 Democracy and participation 11

9781398388093.indb 11 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 free to ensure that everyone can exercise their right to vote without fear, threats or
Useful terms intimidation. One way of achieving this is through the secret ballot, while rights
Secret ballot The practice to vote must be strictly enforced by the courts in order to ensure people are not
of voting being private and unfairly denied the right to vote. If a secret ballot and a strict adherence to these
done away from public rights are not in place, votes can be bought and sold and voters can be coerced into
view so that no one will voting a certain way, or not voting at all.
know how an individual
cast their vote. Fair elections
Ballot rigging The process This is a more difficult criterion. In the strictest sense, this means that everyone has
of fixing an election one vote and all votes are of equal value. It also suggests that there are safeguards in
to ensure a particular place to avoid electoral fraud and ballot rigging. However, what fairness means is
outcome. This can be open to some debate; what may appear fair to some will appear unfair to others. A
done by stuffing ballot candidate who wins the most votes can be said to have won the election fairly, but if
boxes with extra votes, they gained only 25 per cent of the total votes cast, then it could be seen as unfair as
losing ballot boxes or 75 per cent of voters did not choose that candidate. Such debates surround the UK’s
miscounting them. various electoral systems and whether or not they are fair systems. These different
interpretations are explored more fully in Chapter 3, but it is worth remembering
that they underpin the very concept of democracy in the UK and why there are so
many debates over how democracy works in the UK.

Widespread participation in politics

It is important for the health of a democracy that a large proportion of the population
participates in politics. A well-informed and active population can prevent
government becoming too dictatorial, and without the people participating in the
political process there is a breakdown in communication between the government
and the governed. This is why the issue of political participation is so important and
will be explored later in this chapter.

Freedom of expression and information

One of the fundamental features of a democracy is the right of the people to express
their opinions and criticise the government. This is known as a civil liberty and
means that people cannot be arrested or persecuted for expressing negative opinions
of those in power, their policies, or their competence. There should also be free
Study tip access to public information to enable the people to check the government and
Many people loosely consider how well it is governing. Few governments enjoy being criticised or
describe general elections scrutinised, but this is what marks out a democracy compared with a dictatorship,
in the UK as ‘free and fair’. where public discussion and evaluation of the government are banned or restricted.
However, while they may This requirement implies free media and no government censorship or interference.
be free, many argue they The development of the internet has helped as it allows free access for all, though
are not fair. So be careful whether or not the information provided is accurate leads to questions about its
not simply to run the two validity. This issue has become more stark in recent years with the rise of fake
terms together uncritically. news and growing popularity of conspiracy theories, which have made it harder for
people to take publicly expressed views as being based on fact or truth.

Topic link Freedom of association

The issue of elections, Linked to freedom of expression is freedom of association. In terms of politics,
and exactly how free and this means the freedom to form parties or pressure groups, provided their aims
fair they are in the UK, is and methods are legal. Parties and pressure groups are such vital vehicles for
explored fully in Chapter 3. representation that if they did not exist, or were suppressed, democracy would be
almost impossible to sustain.

12 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 12 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Protection of rights and liberties
Linked to freedom of expression and association is the idea that the rights and Study tip
liberties of citizens should be firmly safeguarded. This implies that there should Be careful not to confuse
be some kind of enforceable ‘Bill of Rights’ or ‘Basic Laws’ to protect rights and the European Court of
liberties in such a way that the state cannot erode them. The European Convention Human Rights (ECHR),
on Human Rights (ECHR) is just such an example, as is the US Bill of Rights, the which is not an EU
first ten amendments of the USA’s Constitution. In the UK, the Human Rights Act institution and continues to
performs this role, while the Equalities and Human Rights Commission operates in have authority over the UK,
England and Wales to promote and protect human rights. with the European Court of
Justice, which is, and which
The rule of law enforces or interprets EU
The rule of law is the basic principle that all citizens should be treated equally under law and no longer holds
the law and that the government itself should be subject to the same laws as its any authority over the UK.
citizens. It is linked to the concept of limited government and ensures that no one,
even those in power, can break the law and if they do, they will be held to account Synoptic link
on the same basis as anyone else.
Constitutions, discussed in
Chapter 5, are inherently
Independent judiciary
bound up with democracy.
The existence of the rule of law implies one other feature: an independent judiciary.
Any democratic reforms
It is a key role of the judiciary in a democracy to ensure that the rule of law is
would also be constitutional
upheld. For this to happen, the members of the judiciary (the judges) must be
reforms and most
independent from government and the process of politics. In this way they ensure
constitutional reforms have
that all individuals and groups in society are treated equally under the law and that
an impact, for better or
the government does not exceed its authority. It also means, of course, that the
worse, on how democracy
rights and liberties of citizens are more likely to be upheld.
operates in the UK.

A constitution
Democracy is at risk if there are not firm limits to the power of government. Study tip
Without these, there is a possibility that government will set aside democratic There is no right or wrong
principles for its own purposes. We accept this may happen in times of warfare answer to the question of
and emergency, but not normally. The usual way to set the limits of government how democratic the UK
power is to define them in a constitution that is enforced by the forces of law. This political system is, but you
is known as constitutionalism and all democracies have a constitution. will need to look at the
arguments and consider
How democratic is the UK political system? what your judgement might
Having established the features that make the UK a democracy, we are now able to be and why, as this is what
assess the extent to which the UK political system is democratic and then to consider you will need to explain in
how it might be reformed. your exam-style answers.

Table 1.5 shows a ‘balance sheet’ considering whether the UK has a healthy democratic
Key term
political system. However, there remain a few serious f laws. Collectively, these are
described as a ‘democratic deficit’. The main examples of the UK’s democratic Democratic deficit A
deficit can be summarised as follows: flaw in the democratic
process where decisions
● The first-past-the-post (FPTP) electoral system for general elections produces
are taken by people who
disproportional results, renders many votes wasted and elects governments with
lack legitimacy, due to not
a relatively small proportion of the popular vote. It discriminates against small
having been appointed
parties with dispersed support.
with sufficient democratic
● The House of Lords has considerable inf luence but is an unelected body.
input or not being subject
● The sovereignty of Parliament, in theory, gives unlimited potential power to the
to accountability.
government.

1 Democracy and participation 13

9781398388093.indb 13 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Is the UK in need of democratic reform?
Generally, the UK system of democracy is working, but there are arguments that it Study tip
could be made to work better and that some of the traditional elements should be Although each reform
updated to ref lect a more modern, diverse society. Individual reforms relating to may improve democracy
Parliament, the judiciary, devolution, elections and parties will be considered in in some way, it would
detail in the relevant chapters, but reforms in all these areas will have an impact on also raise other questions
democracy. Table 1.6 provides a summary of some of the potential reforms that and issues that might
could be considered. These are explored in more detail below. make the reform less
desirable. Make sure you
Table 1.6 Potential democratic reforms for the UK
are able to explain whether
Potential reform Advantages Disadvantages the benefits of reform
Replace the It would remove an unelected, What replaced it might cause outweigh the negatives.
House of Lords unaccountable body from the greater rivalry with the House of
with an elected UK’s democratic process Commons, leading to gridlock in the
chamber political process
The expertise in the Lords could Knowledge check
potentially be replaced by career
politicians Identify four things
Replace the It would remove the negative Proportional systems make that make the UK a
first-past-the- features of FPTP, such as safe coalitions more likely and harder to representative democracy.
post (FPTP) seats, minority constituencies, hold to account. The systems are
electoral system unfair representation and more complex and risk losing the
with a more governments with a minority of close MP–constituency link that
proportional one support currently exists
Codify the UK It would clarify the processes A codified constitution might prove
Constitution of the UK political system and too rigid and there are questions
provide a higher law that would about who would write it and how it
be entrenched, rather than the would be implemented
flexibility of the current uncodified It would raise questions over the Discussion point
constitution location of sovereignty Evaluate the view that
It would give more power to the UK is in need of
unelected judges
democratic reform.
Create a It would solve the West Lothian England is too large a single entity
devolved English question (where MPs from to work within a devolved system, Three questions you may
Parliament devolved areas can vote in but regional devolution has been wish to consider are:
to equalise measures that no longer affect rejected by voters
1 Although democratic
devolution their constituents, covered
more fully in Chapter 5) and reform might be
create a more equal level of desirable, is it
representation across the UK essential?
(see Chapter 5) 2 Is there a significant
Introduce full It would allow politicians to focus The process of fundraising helps demand for such
state party on their main job rather than to keep politicians and parties
reforms?
funding fundraising connected to voters
3 Would these reforms
It would, potentially, remove the Questions would be raised over
need to acquire money from how funding would be allocated and potentially create
powerful groups and vested whether taxpayer money should be more problems than
interests that donate for their own given to parties that some may find they solve?
ends, not the national interest objectionable
Introduce It would increase turnout in all Forcing people to vote may not
compulsory elections, helping improve the improve public engagement in politics
voting legitimacy of elected officials
Knowledge check
The right to vote also includes the
right not to vote Identify three problems
Replace the It would remove an unelected The monarchy is popular and, being or issues with the UK’s
monarch with an figurehead and replace them with neutral, can act as a unifying figure system of representative
elected head of an elected and accountable figure in a way an elected politician cannot
democracy.
state (president)

1 Democracy and participation 15

9781398388093.indb 15 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Political participation in the UK
The term ‘participation’ covers a variety of forms of political activity. Most citizens
participate in politics in one way or another. However, there are two variables involved:
● What kind of participation?
● How intensive is that participation?
The first question can be answered by detailing the various ways in which it is
possible to participate in political processes. The second can be answered by placing
these forms of participation into some kind of order that expresses the degree to
which they require intense activity. They are described below in order of intensity.
1 Standing for public office This is the most intensive. Many local councillors
are part-time, but they do have to give up a great deal of their lives to attending
meetings, campaigning, meeting constituents, reading information and making
decisions. It goes without saying that full-time politicians have to immerse
themselves in the job. Even those who stand for office unsuccessfully have to
devote a considerable amount of time to the effort of trying to get elected.
2 Active party membership Many people join political parties, but only a
minority of these are active members, also called ‘activists’. Activists are fully
engaged with the party they support. This may mean attending local meetings of
the party, voting for officers, campaigning in the community and canvassing at
election time to try to ensure as many party supporters vote as possible.
3 Active pressure group membership Like party activists, these pressure group
supporters may be full members, helping to raise both money and awareness
of the cause they support. Often this means attending or even organising
demonstrations and other forms of direct action.
4 Passive party or group membership This means being enough of a supporter
to join the party or pressure group, but taking relatively little active part. Such
members often confine their activities to helping at election times or maybe
signing a petition.
5 Digital activists Since the growth of social media and the internet, this has
become a common form of participation. It requires only that the individual
takes part in campaigns and movements that happen online. In other words,
participation is possible without leaving one’s home. It normally involves such
activities as signing e-petitions, joining social media campaigns, expressing
support for a cause on social media, etc.
6 Voting Voting is the most fundamental and yet the least taxing form of political
participation. It has become especially convenient with the growing use of postal
voting. Even with local, regional and national elections, plus referendums, most
citizens have to vote only once a year at most.
We have seen above that high levels of participation in political processes are essential
to a healthy democracy. If citizens are passive and do not concern themselves with
politics, the system becomes open to the abuse of power. In other words, popular
political participation helps to call decision-makers to account and to ensure that
they carry out their representative functions.
The ways in which people participate are changing. Some also claim that political
participation is in decline, especially among the young. Both these phenomena are
examined below. The way in which participation has changed has consequences for
how democracy operates in the UK, while a decline in participation can undermine
the very practice of democracy itself.

16 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 16 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Changing forms and levels of participation
The 2001 general election saw a turnout of only 59.4 per cent, a historic low, 12 per cent
Key terms
below what it had been in 1997 and 18 per cent below that of 1992. Coupled with declining Participation crisis A
membership of political parties, this led to a concern that the UK was experiencing a lack of engagement with
‘participation crisis’. This may have reflected a situation where New Labour was so the political process by
dominant that there was little real competition, or it may have been an early indication a significant number of
that methods of participation were changing. Nevertheless, as widespread participation is citizens, by choosing
so integral to the functioning of a healthy democracy, any sense that there might be a crisis not to vote or not to join
could lead to a democratic deficit where the legitimacy of those in power and the ability of or become members of
the public to hold them to account are seriously undermined, leading to accusations of an political parties or not to
elective dictatorship. As such, issues with participation need to be carefully considered. offer themselves for public
office.
Political parties Elective dictatorship
In the 1940s and 1950s membership of all political parties rose to over 3 million, mostly A government that
Conservatives. If one were to add trade union members affiliated to the Labour Party, dominates Parliament,
this figure would be several million higher. Of course, those high figures did not mean usually due to a large
that the mass memberships were politically very active, but they gave an indication of mass majority, and therefore has
engagement with politics at some level. Since that time, there has been a steady decline. few limits on its power.
Figure 1.3 demonstrates this decline, while Table 1.7 shows party memberships in 2022.
Conservative Labour Liberal Democrat Green Party SNP Plaid Cymru
4%

3%

2%

1%

0%
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Figure 1.3 The decline in party membership (% of electorate)
Note: figures for the SNP and Plaid Cymru, respectively, show the percentage
of the Scottish and Welsh electorates only.
Source: House of Commons Library briefing SN05125

Table 1.7 Party memberships in 2022

Party Membership size As a percentage of the UK electorate
Conservative 172,000 0.4%
Labour 432,000 0.9%
Liberal Democrats 74,000 0.1%
SNP 104,000 0.2% (2.5% of the Scottish electorate)
Green 54,000 0.10%
Plaid Cymru 10,000 0.02% (0.4% of the Welsh electorate)

Source: data from ‘Membership of political parties in Great Britain’, research briefing by M. Burton and
R. Tunnicliffe for the House of Commons Library, published 30 August 2022

1 Democracy and participation 17

9781398388093.indb 17 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 It is clear that parties are no longer the main vehicle by which most people wish to
Discussion point participate in politics. There are, however, exceptions:
Evaluate the extent to
● There was a surge in Labour Party membership in 2015 when, under new rules
which the UK is suffering
established by the then leader, Ed Miliband, it was possible to join the party for
from a ‘participation crisis’.
just £3 (normal subscriptions to a party are much higher). This was to enable a
Three points you may wish wider section of Labour supporters to vote in leadership elections.
to consider are: ● Following the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence, membership of the
1 What is the meaning of Scottish National Party (SNP) surged, and it claimed to have over 100,000
the word ‘crisis’? members in a population of only just over 5 million.
2 Is what is described in ● There was an increase in membership of the UK Independence Party (UKIP) in
this section a crisis or the run-up to the 2015 general election. Nearly 50,000 had signed up to the party
an issue that would be by the time of the election, making UKIP the fourth-largest party in the UK in
nice to reform? terms of membership, though since 2016 UKIP as a party has collapsed. After the
3 Would any potential 2015 election and in the run-up to the 2017 and 2019 elections, membership of
reforms resolve all the Liberal Democrat and Green parties rose.
elements of the ‘crisis’?
These three examples that buck the trend of declining party membership suggest
that people still see parties as a vehicle for political action if they are proposing some
kind of radical change or alternative. When it comes to more conventional politics
and established parties, however, membership is continuing to decline, especially in
years without a general election.

Voting
The act of voting, in an election or a referendum, is the least intensive form of
participation and the most infrequent, yet it is also the most important for most
citizens. The level of turnout (what proportion of registered voters actually votes) is
therefore a good indicator of participation and engagement with politics. If we look
at general elections, the trend has been mixed in recent years. Figure 1.4 shows the
turnout at general elections since 1979.
100
Turnout (%)

95
90
85
80 77.7
76.0 75.3
75 72.7
71.4
70 68.7
66.1 67.3
65.2
65
61.3
59.4
60
55
50
1979 1983 1987 1992 1997 2001 2005 2010 2015 2017 2019
Year
Figure 1.4 Turnout at UK general elections, 1979–2019

We can see that there is a general trend of falling turnout, though there has been
a recovery since the historic low of 2001, a trend that was extended into the 2017
general election, but fell back slightly in 2019. The figure of two-thirds could be
viewed as disappointing, but also not serious in terms of democratic legitimacy.
It is useful to compare turnout in the UK with that of other democracies.
Figure 1.5 shows figures for recent general elections in other countries.

18 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 18 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Australia (2022) 89.8
Belgium (2019) 88.4
New Zealand (2023) 78.2
Germany (2021) 76.6
Israel (2022) 70.6
India (2019) 67.4
UK (2019) 67.3
USA (2020) 66.6
Spain (2023) 66.6
South Korea (2020) 66.2
South Africa (2019) 66.1
Italy (2022) 63.9
Canada (2021) 62.3
Japan (2021) 56.0
France (2022) 47.5
USA (2022) 46.8
Switzerland (2019) 45.1
Nigeria (2023) 26.7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage turnout
Figure 1.5 Comparative general election turnouts

Figure 1.5 shows that the UK stands a little above the middle of the ‘league table’.
This ref lects the wider picture. While it is interesting that the USA displays some of
the lowest turnout figures in this selection, and one of the lowest in the democratic
world, it is worth remembering that in its figures the USA includes all possible
voters, while in the UK turnout is based only on those who have registered to vote.

Discussion point
Evaluate the view that the level of participation in UK general elections is a problem for UK
democracy.
You may wish to consider the following issues:
1 Why participation in elections is important in a democracy.
2 The possible reasons for a decline in election turnout.
3 How far issues with participation have affected the workings of government (if at all).

Topic link
Discussion point
The reasons for variations
Evaluate the view that turnout in UK general elections suggests there is a participation crisis.
in turnout, as well as the
Three questions to consider are: impact on the outcome
1 How does the figure from 2019 compare to the pre-2001 historic average? of elections, are explored
2 How does the figure from 2019 compare to the historic low of 2001? in Chapter 4 on voting
3 How does the UK compare to other democracies? behaviour.

Turnout in referendums is rather more volatile in the UK. Table 1.8 shows turnout
in a number of key referendums.

1 Democracy and participation 19

9781398388093.indb 19 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Table 1.8 Referendum turnouts in the UK
Year Subject of referendum Turnout (%)
1997–98 Devolution to:
Scotland 60.4
Wales 50.1
Northern Ireland 81.0
1998 Should London have an elected mayor? 34.1
2011 The introduction of the AV electoral system 42.2
2014 Scottish independence 84.6
2016 British membership of the EU 72.2

We can see that referendum turnouts vary from 34.1 per cent concerning local
government in London, up to 84.6 per cent in the Scottish independence referendum.
Turnout is, of course, a ref lection of how important voters consider an issue to be.
Voters are certainly becoming more used to having a say on single issues and it is
noteworthy that in the two most high-profile referendums, EU membership and
Scottish independence, turnout was higher than in recent general elections.

Should compulsory voting be introduced?

One potential reform to the democratic process would be to make voting compulsory.
Compulsory voting exists in about a dozen countries, though in many it is possible
to ‘opt out’ of voting before the election and so avoid a fine. In some countries the
government does not enforce compulsory voting, though it exists in law. In Australia,
compulsory voting is enforced and a fine can be levied. Voters there do not have to
vote for any candidate(s) but must attend the polling booth and mark a ballot paper in
some way. Some ‘spoil’ the ballot paper to avoid a fine. The turnout in Australia, not
surprisingly, is above 90 per cent, and it is 90 per cent in Belgium for similar reasons. In
Italy, voting was compulsory until 1998 when turnout was typically close to 90 per cent,
but since voting has been no longer compulsory turnout has fallen (63.9% in 2022). So,
there can be no doubt that compulsory voting has a dramatic effect on turnout. The
relatively low turnouts at UK elections, especially at local and regional levels, have led to
calls for compulsory voting. The arguments for and against are well balanced.

Debate
Should the UK introduce compulsory voting?

Arguments for Arguments against

● It may force more voters, especially the young, to make ● It is a civil liberties violation. Many argue it is a basic right
themselves more informed about political issues. not to take part.
● By increasing turnout, it would give greater democratic ● Many voters are not well informed and yet they would be
legitimacy to the party or individual(s) who win an election. voting, so there would be ill-informed participation.
● By ensuring that more sections of society are involved, ● It would involve large amounts of public expenditure to
decision-makers would have to ensure that policies administer and enforce the system.
address the concerns of all parts of society, not just those ● It would favour larger parties against small parties. This is
who typically vote in larger numbers. because less-informed citizens would vote and they may
● It can be argued that voting is a civic duty so citizens have heard only of better-known parties and candidates.
should be obliged to carry out that duty.
Consider the idea of ‘should’ and whether compulsory voting ‘should’ be introduced to help steer you to your overall
evaluative judgement about which side is more convincing. Remember that in making your judgement you should address the
question asked, not just give an assessment of good and bad ideas from each side.

20 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 20 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Attention tends to centre on young voters in the UK because they typically vote in
smaller numbers than older people. Turnout figures at UK general elections among
the 18–24 age group are typically about 35 per cent, while over 80 per cent of
the over-60s tend to vote. This may result in governments favouring the older
generation against the young when setting policy. However, civil rights campaigners
are against compulsory voting, while the Conservative Party is unlikely to support it
as, currently, younger people tend to be more left-wing than older people, so forcing
the young to vote would favour Labour and other left-of-centre parties.

Digital democracy
E-petitions are a fast-growing form of participation, gaining greatly in popularity
Useful term
since official government petitions were introduced with the requirement that e-democracy A name used
any petition gaining 10,000 signatures would receive a government response and to describe the growing
any receiving 100,000 signatures would be considered for a parliamentary debate. tendency for democracy
Indeed, they have become so common that the term ‘e-democracy’, which also to be carried out online in
covers remote or online voting, has come into use. Such petitions are part of the the form of e-petitions and
wider spread of digital democracy, where campaign groups use social media and the other online campaigns.
internet to promote their causes.
E-petitions have the advantage of requiring little effort and it is immediately
apparent how much support a particular issue may have. Combined with the use of
social media, they can very rapidly build interest in an issue, causing a bandwagon
effect. They are often criticised as a form of participation as it requires so little effort
to take part and there is no guarantee that participants know much about the issue.
Nevertheless, they are becoming an established part of modern democracy and do,
from time to time, have some inf luence, perhaps most notably when they led to
the re-opening of the investigation into the Hillsborough football stadium tragedy.
Mostly though, they fail to achieve more than a debate.
Table 1.9 includes some of the most important e-petitions of recent times, and
demonstrates how much impact they have had.
Table 1.9 E-petitions in the UK
Year Subject Signatures Outcome Platform
2007 Against a plan to introduce charges 1.8 million The government dropped the plan Downing
for using roads Street site
2011 Calling for the release of all 139,000 Following a parliamentary debate, the papers Downing
documents relating to the were released, and a new inquest was Street site
Hillsborough football disaster of 1989 launched
2016 Should there be a second EU 3.8 million A parliamentary debate was held on the Parliamentary
referendum? issue but no second referendum was allowed site
2019 ‘Don’t put our NHS up for 169,836 The government responded by saying, ‘The Parliamentary
negotiation’ Government has been clear: the National site
Health Service (NHS) is not, and never will
be, for sale to the private sector.
The Government will ensure no trade
agreements will ever be able to alter this
fundamental fact’
2020 End child food poverty — no child 1 million Debated in Parliament but the aim of Parliamentary
should be going hungry expanding lunch provisions during the school site
holidays failed. However, in response, the
government did announce over £400 million in
funding for the next 12 months to support low-
income families with the cost of food and bills

1 Democracy and participation 21

9781398388093.indb 21 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 The importance of social media is also growing. A campaign on a current issue
can be mounted in just a few hours or days. Information about various injustices or
demands for immediate action over some kind of social evil can circulate quickly,
putting pressure on decision-makers and elected representatives. Sites such as 38
Degrees and Change.org help to facilitate such social movements. Typical campaigns
concern proposed hospital closures, opposition to road-building projects, claims of
miscarriages of justice in the courts and demands for inquiries into the behaviour
of corporations.
In party politics, social media has become a particularly important tool for
campaigning in elections. While political adverts appearing on radio and television
are prohibited in the UK, there is no such regulation on social media platforms that
operate internationally, so there has been a rise of party campaign videos and adverts
that can be shared on social media to inf luence voters, circumventing the controls in
place in the UK and allowing parties with more resources to advertise more freely.
Parties also use data gathered from social media accounts to help target specific
voters with specific issues that resonate with them. They focus on key voters in key
constituencies, wasting fewer resources on voters who are unlikely to vote or who
will not be persuaded, though also ignoring large sections of the population. Social
media is therefore changing the way in which political parties campaign and speak
to voters, in ways that might be more democratic, as it allows more personalised
campaigning that is relevant to key voters, but also in ways that are likely to benefit
the wealthier parties and avoid the scrutiny of the Electoral Commission in trying
to ensure elections are fair (covered in more detail in Chapter 3).

Pressure groups
Activity
As membership of and activism in political parties have declined, they have been
Access the 38 Degrees partly replaced by participation in pressure groups. Many millions of people have
and/or the Change.org site formed pressure groups. Groups like trade unions and professional associations have
and select two local and been particularly prominent. For many, such participation may be minimal, but
two national campaigns some are activists in these organisations and help with political campaigning. The
included on the site. position with promotional groups, on the other hand, is changing. These groups rely
● Describe the nature of on mass activism. In other words, they rely on mass active support rather than a large
the campaigns. but passive membership. This kind of participation is growing in the UK. The range
● Describe the methods and activities of pressure groups are explored later in this chapter.
being used to further
The conclusion we are likely to reach is that political action is more widespread
those campaigns.
than ever before. It may be less intensive, and it may place less of a burden on
people’s time, but the fall in voting turnout and party membership has been largely
overtaken by the growth of alternative forms of political participation. Therefore,
far from being in ‘crisis’, participation is simply evolving and adapting to modern
Key term society.

Franchise/suffrage
Franchise and suffrage Suffrage
both refer to the ability/
right to vote in public
The term ‘suffrage’ refers to the right to vote in free elections, also referred to as
elections. Suffragettes
the ‘franchise’. The question of how people without the right to vote are able to
were women campaigning
persuade those in power to give them the right to vote is a fascinating one, most
for the right to vote on the
famously embodied by the campaigns to secure equal voting rights for women.
same terms as men.
During the nineteenth century, fearing the violence that had erupted in the French
Revolution of 1789, British governments gradually extended the franchise to more

22 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 22 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 groups, from property owners, to skilled men, to most men, to all men and some
women, until finally in 1928 all men and women aged over 21 got the right to vote
on the same basis, or universal suffrage was achieved. In 1969 the age requirement
was lowered to 18 to ref lect changing expectations of adulthood in the UK. The
main stages in the extension of the franchise in the UK are shown in Figure 1.6.
Third Reform Act 1884 Representation of the People Act 1948
The franchise is extended to most Until this Act some universities returned their own MP.
working men. About 60% of all adults This meant some people, who were members of the
(over 21) have the right to vote. universities, had two votes — one for the university
member and one for the constituency where they
lived. So the principle of ‘one person, one vote’ is
Second Reform Act 1867 Representation of the
now finally established in the UK.
This Act extends the right to vote People Act 1918
again, though it only doubles the Most adult men are given the
electorate to about 2 million. right to vote, plus women over Representation of the
Women, the propertyless and 30 who are either married or a People Act 1969
tenants of very cheap properties property owner in their own The voting age in the UK is
are excluded. right or a graduate. reduced from 21 to 18.

Ballot Act 1872 Representation of the People Scottish Elections (Reduction

This introduces the secret ballot. The main Act (Equal Franchise Act) 1928 of Voting Age) Act 2016
result is that votes can no longer be This extends the franchise to all In 2014, for the first time in UKhistory,
bought by corrupt candidates and voters adults over 21, including 16- and 17-year-olds are allowed to vote
are free to make up their own minds. women. in the referendum on Scottish independence.
Under the 2016 Act, this is extended to all
Great Reform Act 1832 elections in Scotland, but not to UK general
A limited but symbolically important development. The franchise is extended to new elections or referendums. The Welsh Senedd
classes of people including shopkeepers and small farmers and anyone whose property introduced similar rules in Wales in 2020.
attracts a rent of at least £10 per annum. The proportion of the adult population granted
the franchise is now nearly 6%, a rise from about 4%. Women are not allowed to vote.

Figure 1.6 Timeline of the expansion of suffrage in the UK

The last great struggle over suffrage was to

give women an equal right to vote with men.
The first petition to give women the right to
vote was presented to Parliament in 1866 but
was largely ignored. At the same time, the
Manchester Society for Women’s Suffrage was
established, which inspired other local societies
to form across the UK. These local movements
would unite in 1897 under the leadership of
Millicent Fawcett as the National Union of
Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), also
known as the Suffragists.
The NUWSS was open to all and was
internally democratic, practising peaceful
campaigning to put pressure on those in
power through letter-writing, producing
material for publication, organising petitions
and holding peaceful marches and protests. Suffragettes protesting in London in 1912 as part of the campaign to win
By 1914 the NUWSS had 100,000 members women the right to vote

1 Democracy and participation 23

9781398388093.indb 23 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 across 400 branches. Even after women aged over 30 got the right to vote in 1918,
the NUWSS, renamed as the Fawcett Society, continued to campaign for equal
rights to vote between men and women, which was achieved in 1928.
Despite the work of the NUWSS, some women felt the pace of change was too slow,
Useful term leading to the creation of the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), or the
Suffragettes Campaigners Suffragettes, in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters, Christabel and
in the early part of Sylvia, inspired by the Suffragette movement in the USA. Initially it was based in
the twentieth century Manchester, but in 1906 moved to London. Unlike the NUWSS, the WSPU was
advocating votes for only open to women, was not internally democratic, and was focused on ‘deeds, not
women, who used both words’, using violence and illegal methods to publicise the issue of female suffrage
parliamentary lobbying and to put external pressure on those in power (see Table 1.10 for a comparison of the
and civil disobedience as two groups). Methods would include members disrupting political party meetings,
their methods. chaining themselves to railings, attempting to blow up buildings, destroying letters
in post boxes and going on hunger strike while in prison. They also sold badges,
games and posters to help draw attention to their cause and adopted the three colours
of purple, white and green to create an early form of branding for the movement.
The violence adopted by the WSPU certainly drew attention to the cause and the
government response to suppress them did win some public sympathy. However, the
violence also cost them support, with some believing that giving women the right
to vote would suggest the government had given in to terrorist actions, and that the
violence somehow proved women were incapable of sensible thought. This alienated
many moderate supporters, both men and women.
It was the work of women during the First World War and the fear of a resumption
of the violence of the WSPU that ultimately persuaded Parliament in 1918 to give
women over the age of 30 the right to vote. This was enough for the Pankhursts,
and they disbanded the organisation soon after.

Knowledge check
What were the key differences between the Suffragettes and the Suffragists? What methods did
each group use?

A protest for women’s rights, showing the legacy of the Suffragettes, with their purple, white and
green colour scheme still in use

24 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 24 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Table 1.10 Suffragists and Suffragettes compared
Activity
Suffragists Suffragettes
The Fawcett Society
Membership open to all Membership for women only
continues today to
Internally democratic Run by the Pankhursts only
champion women’s rights.
Peaceful methods of protest Violent and illegal methods
Visit its website and
Attempted to work with the government Attempted to intimidate the government
compare the aims and
A national organisation of committees London-centred (after 1906)
methods it uses today
with those of the original
Modern campaigns for suffrage NUWSS. Make a list of its
Although the UK has had universal suffrage since 1969 for everyone over the age of current aims to compare
18, there are still some groups that are excluded from voting: with its aims in 1918.

● those under 18 (although 16- and 17-year-olds can now vote in local elections in
Wales and Scotland)
● prisoners (although Scotland now allows some prisoners to vote in Scottish elections)
● those sectioned under the Mental Health Act 1983
● peers currently serving in the House of Lords (peers not sitting in the Lords are
permitted to vote).
In addition, the homeless are effectively prevented from voting as they lack a
permanent address. Following the Elections Act 2022, there has also been a debate
about whether the requirement to provide a photo ID when voting has effectively
disenfranchised those who do not hold a valid ID, or did not realise one was needed.

Votes at 16
Although 16- and 17-year-olds were given the right to vote in Scottish elections
after 2014 and to vote in elections to the Welsh Senedd in 2020, the issue has not
been settled in the UK overall. It seems inevitable that 16- and 17-year-olds will one
day gain the right to vote. However, this may have to wait until a party comes to
power that feels it will benefit from younger people having the vote.

Debate
Should 16- and 17-year-olds be given the right to vote?

Some might say yes because they Some might say no because they
think … think …
● With the spread of citizenship education, young people are ● Sixteen- and 17-year-olds are too young to be able to make
now better informed about politics than ever before. informed decisions and are now required to be in some
● Voting turnout among the 18–24-year-old age group is very form of education until 18.
low. This may encourage more people to vote and become ● Many issues are apparently too complex for younger people
engaged with politics. to understand.
● The internet and social media now enable young people to ● Not all people in this age group pay tax so they are seen to
be better informed about politics. have a lower stake in society.
● If one is old enough to serve in the army or pay tax, one ● Younger people can be excessively radical as they have not
should be old enough to vote. had enough life experience to consider issues carefully.
● The radicalism of younger people could act as a useful
balance to the conservatism of some older voters.
When considering this debate, really focus on the idea of ‘should’ and why 16- and 17-year-olds really must be given the
right to vote (or not). While there may be many good reasons for giving 16- and 17-year-olds the right to vote, this is not quite the
same as judging whether or not it needs to happen.

1 Democracy and participation 25

9781398388093.indb 25 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Case study
A modern campaign to extend ● Before the 2019 election, seven Conservative MPs publicly
endorsed lowering the voting age to 16 (though five of
the franchise: Votes at 16 those no longer sit in the Commons).
Votes at 16 is a coalition of a number of different groups ● The voting age for elections to the Scottish and Welsh
that believe the franchise should be extended to 16- and parliaments has now been lowered to 16.
17-year-olds across the UK in all elections. It was officially ● In 2014, the voting age was lowered to 16 for the Scottish
founded in 2001 under the direction and coordination of independence referendum.
the British Youth Council. As of August 2023, the group had ● In 2018, an All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) was
3015 registered supporters and worked with organisations founded to support lowering the voting age.
such as the British Youth Parliament, the Electoral Reform
The history of the campaign shows gradual but steady
Society and the National Union of Students (NUS) to lower
progress, moving towards lowering the voting age to 16. As
the voting age.
a modern campaign, it has benefited greatly from the wider
The campaign uses a variety of methods, including: range of elected bodies in the UK and the increased use of
● producing and publishing information through its website, referendums, certainly when compared with the campaign
including a manifesto outlining its aims and reasons for women’s suffrage in the early twentieth century. This has
● providing templates and advice on how to email local MPs allowed the campaign to persuade different parties that hold
to raise the issue in Parliament real power and has seen a lower voting age implemented in
● providing information and advice on how to raise parts of the UK, which has helped prove the ability of 16- and
awareness and campaign locally, in schools and 17-year-olds to vote appropriately.
universities
The campaign has also been hindered by politics; with age
● providing advice on how to lobby MPs
now the main dividing line in UK elections (see Chapter 4),
● organising an initiative called ‘adopt a peer’ to encourage
the addition of about 1.5 million young voters who are
members to contact and lobby specific members of the
overwhelmingly anti-Conservative could provide a significant
House of Lords.
boost to the more left-leaning parties that endorse the campaign.
Although the overall aim of lowering the voting age to 16 has However, this makes it less likely that a Conservative government
not yet been achieved for general elections, the campaign has will favour such reform, so it is unlikely national reform will be
seen some success in moving the opinion of some political achieved until after the next general election at the earliest.
supporters and gaining wider support:
In many ways, the work of the campaign is in facilitating
● Lowering the voting age to 16 was official party policy in
and enabling those who wish to campaign, by providing the
the 2019 manifestos for Labour, the Liberal Democrats, the
necessary advice and strategy guidance to run a successful,
SNP, Plaid Cymru and the Green Party.
individual campaign, rather than running a large national
● A 2019 Westminster Hall debate was held to discuss the
campaign itself. In this way, the campaign relies on an active
issue thanks to a Private Members Bill, though a vote was
membership to achieve its goals.
not held.

Study tip
You are required to know the work of a modern campaign to extend the franchise, and you may
be required to reference this as an example in an exam answer.

Activity
To help develop your knowledge and understanding of the Votes at 16 campaign, spend some
time visiting the group’s website and reading its manifesto, as well as reading the ‘Votes at 16
Debate’ published in Parliamentary Affairs in June 2021.

26 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 26 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Group activity
Pressure groups
A pressure group can be defined as a membership-based association whose aim is to
inf luence policy-making without seeking power. Pressure groups have a variety of
aims and employ different methods, but they all have in common a desire to inf luence
government without becoming government themselves. If a pressure group decides
it wishes to exercise power, it becomes a political party. This happened when the
trade union movement helped to form the Labour Party in the early twentieth
century and when UKIP began to put up candidates at parliamentary elections after
1993.
The functions of pressure groups are as follows:
● To represent and promote the interests of certain sections of the community who
feel they are not fully represented by parties and Parliament.
● To protect the interests of minority groups.
● To promote certain causes that have not been adequately taken up by political
parties.
● To inform and educate the public about key political issues.
● To call government to account over its performance in particular areas of policy.
● On occasions to pass key information to government to inform and inf luence
policy.
● To give opportunities to citizens to participate in politics other than through
party membership or voting.
In addition, pressure groups are a vital part of democratic and pluralist society,
ensuring an active and informed citizenry, offering the public choices and options
that may not be recognised by the political parties, and raising awareness of issues to
Useful terms
ensure all sections of society are heard and considered in the political process.
Causal group An
Classifying pressure groups association whose goal
It is usual to classify pressure groups into two main types to help us understand how is to promote a particular
they operate. These are causal groups and sectional groups. cause or set of beliefs or
values. Such groups seek
to promote favourable
Causal groups
legislation, prevent
Causal groups seek to promote a particular cause, to convert the ideas behind the
unfavourable legislation or
cause into government action or parliamentary legislation. The cause may be broad,
simply bring an issue on to
as with groups campaigning on environmental or human rights issues, or narrow,
the political agenda.
as with groups promoting local issues such as the protection of green spaces or
opposition to hospital closures. Prominent examples of causal groups operating in Sectional group An
the UK include: association that has an
identifiable membership
● Greenpeace or supporting group. Such
● Friends of the Earth groups represent a section
● Liberty of society and are mainly
● Unlock Democracy concerned with their own
● People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) interests.
● Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND).

1 Democracy and participation 27

9781398388093.indb 27 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Sectional groups
These groups represent a particular section of the community in the UK. Sectional
groups are self-interested in that they hope to pursue the interests specifically of
their own membership or of those they represent.
Some sectional groups may be hybrid in that they believe that by serving the interests
of their own members and supporters, the wider community will also benefit. For
example, unions representing teachers or doctors argue that the interests of their
members are also the interests of all of us. Better-treated and better-paid teachers
and doctors and medical staff mean better education and health for all, they argue.
Prominent examples of sectional groups are:
● Age UK
● British Medical Association (BMA)
● Taxpayers’ Alliance
● The National Education Union (NEU)
● The MS [Multiple Sclerosis] Society.
The features of causal and sectional groups are summarised in Table 1.11.
Table 1.11 Features of pressure groups
Causal groups Sectional groups
They are altruistic in that they serve the They are largely (not always) self-interested
whole community, not just their own in that they serve the interests of their own
members and supporters members and supporters
They tend to concentrate on mobilising Although they seek public support, they
public opinion and putting pressure on tend to seek direct links with decision-
government in that way makers (insider status)
They tend to favour public demonstrations, They often take the parliamentary route to
internet campaigns and sometimes civil influence
disobedience
They seek widespread support They usually have a formal membership

Insiders
We can also classify pressure groups as ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’. This distinction tells
us a good deal about their methods and status. Insider groups are so called because
they have especially close links with decision-makers at all levels. The main ways in
which insider groups operate include the following:
● They seek to become involved in the early stages of policy- and law-making.
This means that they are often consulted by decision-makers and sometimes can
offer expert advice and information.
● Some groups employ professional lobbyists whose job it is to gain access to
decision-makers and make high-quality presentations of their case.
● Government at different levels uses special committees to make decisions about
policy. Some groups may find themselves represented on such bodies and so
have a specially privileged position. The National Farmers’ Union (NFU) and
the Institute of Directors (IOD) have advised government on these committees,
as have trade unions and professional bodies representing groups of workers and
members of the professions.

28 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 28 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 ● Sectional groups may be called to testify before parliamentary committees, both
select and legislative. Although they attend mainly to give advice and information,
it is also an opportunity to have some long-term inf luence.

Outsiders
Outsiders are those groups that do not enjoy a special position within governing
circles. This may be because decision-makers do not wish to be seen to be too
close to them or because a group itself wants to maintain its independence from
government. More radical groups, such as the Animal Liberation Front, which has
a history of using illegal or violent protests to raise awareness of its aims, may find
governments do not wish to be associated with them. The typical characteristics of
outsider groups are listed below.
● They are usually, but not always, promotional groups. Sectional groups with
identifiable memberships and support groups are a useful ally in policy-making, Useful term
but promotional groups have less certain legitimacy. Promotional group A form
● Their typical methods include public campaigning, in recent times often of pressure group that
using new media to reach large parts of the population very quickly. They seeks to promote a cause
seek to inf luence not through direct lobbying or ministerial contacts, but by or issue, usually one that
demonstrating to government that public opinion is on their side. is not of personal benefit.
● Outsiders do not need to follow standards that the government will find
acceptable, so have greater freedom in the choice of methods they use and are
more likely than insider groups to use measures like civil disobedience, mass
strikes and publicity ‘stunts’.

Study tip
Though it is useful when studying groups to categorise them, most groups do not fit neatly into
these definitions and there is often a degree of overlap, or their status may change depending
on the government or issue at hand. As such, when using these categories, try to refer to them
as ‘usually’ or ‘often’ rather than in absolute terms.

Methods used by pressure groups Useful term

Access points and lobbying
Lobbying An activity,
The ways in which groups seek to promote their cause or interests depend to some
commonly used by
extent on the access points they have available to them. Insiders who are regularly
pressure groups, to
listened to by decision-makers sit on policy committees at local, regional, national
promote causes and
and even international level, such as through the United Nations (UN). Even at the
interests. Lobbying
local level, groups seek to foster special relationships with councillors or with the
takes various forms,
mayoral office to help provide them with opportunities for lobbying those with
including: organising large
power. Of course, if groups do not have such access points available to them, they
gatherings at Parliament
must look elsewhere for their methods.
or council offices;
seeking direct meetings
Public campaigning with decision-makers,
Groups without direct access to government tend to mobilise public demonstrations including ministers and
of support to convince the government to listen to them. Public campaigning ranges councillors; and employing
from organising mass demonstrations, to creating and publicising e-petitions, to professional organisations
using celebrities to gain publicity, to acts of civil disobedience. Some examples of to run campaigns.
such campaigns are described in Table 1.12.

1 Democracy and participation 29

9781398388093.indb 29 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Table 1.12 Campaigning methods
Group Aim(s) Methods
Just Stop Oil To prevent the UK government from Blockading oil facilities
issuing new licences for fossil fuel Members gluing themselves to public places, including the M25,
production and throwing soup at portraits in the National Gallery
Disrupting major sporting and cultural events, such as the British
Grand Prix and the Chelsea Flower Show
Slow marches in London
British To demand an increase in pay to In 2023, junior doctors voted for a five-day strike, followed by a
Medical compensate for an effective real 48-hour strike by consultants, which took place in January 2024
Association value loss in wages of between 27%
and 35% since 2008
The Stop the To demonstrate public hostility A large-scale public walk through London and speeches held in
War Coalition towards the proposed invasion of Iraq Hyde Park denouncing the proposed action
(2003)
The Fawcett To legislate an end to the gender pay Publishing a report into legislation to deal with the gender pay gap
Society gap in October 2020
Publicising a national ‘Equal Pay Day’ each year
Persuading key politicians to wear a ‘This is what a feminist looks
like’ T-shirt
The Players To limit or overturn proposed 2023 Encouraging people who registered on its site to write to their MP
Panel legislation to introduce tighter voicing their opposition to the proposed measures, using a template
restriction on gambling in the UK and targeting specific aspects of the proposed White Paper

Other methods
Synoptic link These can include the following:
Examples of the use of
● It is common for groups to make financial grants to political parties as a means of
judicial review by pressure
finding favour for their cause or interest. Trade unions have long financed the Labour
groups can be found in
Party. Many business groups and large companies send donations to all parties, but
Chapter 8.
mostly to the Conservative Party. In this way they hope to influence policy.
● Some groups gain personal support from a member of Parliament. Most MPs and
Study tip peers promote the interests of one group or another, raising issues in debate or
lobbying ministers directly. They are sometimes able to influence the content of
When answering questions legislation, proposing or opposing amendments, if they sit on legislative committees.
about pressure groups, ● Media campaigns can be important. Groups may hope that the press, TV or radio
use real-world examples. will publicise their concerns. Although the broadcast media in the UK is politically
Be sure to learn the neutral, some programming may publicise an issue to the benefit of the cause. For
characteristics, experience example, the ITV drama Mr Bates vs the Post Office focused government attention
and aims of a range of on the wrongful prosecution of post office workers in a way not achieved by other
groups and try to ensure methods. Press advertising can also be used.
they are as recent as ● Groups use direct action to try to inf luence government, such as public
possible: the Suffragettes demonstrations or strikes that are officially organised but cause mass disruption.
may be a great example, An example is the threat of strikes by the National Union of Rail, Maritime and
but they stopped operating Transport Workers (RMT) over the proposed use of driver-only trains.
100 years ago! ● Some groups have resorted to illegal methods. This is often a last resort when all
else has failed, but they are also useful as a means of gaining publicity. Just Stop
Oil has gained much publicity by disrupting high-profile sporting events and
forcing road closures on motorways.
● On some occasions a pressure group can pursue an issue through the courts
by requesting a judicial review if it feels government or a state body has acted
contrary to the rule of law and has discriminated against a group in society.

30 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 30 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 England’s Ben Stokes (centre) grabs a Just Stop Oil protester while Jonny Bairstow (right) carries
another protester off the field during the second Ashes test match at Lord’s, 28 June 2023

Factors in the success and failure of pressure groups

Why are some pressure groups more successful than others? This is an important question
because it can go some way to explaining the direction of policy. To some extent the
fortunes of pressure groups change with time and with changes in government, but
there are also several permanent factors, which are considered in Table 1.13.
Table 1.13 Factors affecting the success and failure of pressure groups
Factor Success Failure
Size of The more supporters a group has, the more Smaller groups can be overlooked or ‘drowned
membership pressure it can place on decision-makers. Politicians out’ by the campaigns of larger groups. They find it
do not like to fly in the face of public opinion harder to raise funds and achieve their goals with
because they regularly face the need for re-election fewer participants.
Finance Wealthy groups can afford expensive campaigns, Groups with less funding struggle to organise
employ lobbyists, sponsor political parties and effective campaigns, hire lobbyists and fund the
purchase favourable publicity production of leaflets, websites and other research,
and therefore struggle to make their voices heard
The strategic A group that is seen as important to the economy Groups that are not seen as important can easily be
position of or a key service can put greater pressure on the ignored, especially if they are competing against a
a particular government. Companies and industrial groups have strategically important group; the Occupy movement
sectional a great deal of leverage because they are vital to failed in part because it was up against the
group the economy, as do NHS workers strategically important finance sector
Public mood The combination of public sentiment and strong Public mood can turn politicians against certain
campaigning can be successful in bringing an issue groups, either for the issue they champion, such as
to the attention of decision-makers as politicians prisoner or terrorist rights, or because the methods
are more likely to support a popular cause they use alienate public opinion
Attitude Groups are far more likely to achieve success if the If the government of the day is determined to follow
of the government of the day is sympathetic to their cause a particular course of action that a group opposes,
government and position it is very unlikely that they will be able to change the
government’s decision, notably seen in the failure of
the 2003 Stop the War Coalition

1 Democracy and participation 31

9781398388093.indb 31 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Case study
ASH ● health warnings on cigarette packs
● persuading government to increase tax on tobacco to deter
Name of group consumers
● restricting point-of-sale advertising and promotion
Action on Smoking and Health (ASH)
● campaigning for the law banning smoking in public places
Founding and objectives ● persuading government to develop a law banning smoking
in cars carrying children
● Founded in 1967 by academics and interested parties.
● persuading the government to consider adding messages
● Its objectives include the spreading of knowledge about the
to quit smoking inside packets of cigarettes.
harmful effects of tobacco use and pressing governments
to adopt policies and laws to reduce tobacco use. Failures
Methods ASH would like to go further on smoking bans and is now
concerned about the effects of vaping. As yet, it has not
ASH conducts research and shares existing research into
succeeded in changing government policy in these areas.
the effects of tobacco with governments and the public. For
example, it has sponsored research into the effects of passive Why is it successful?
smoking and also e-cigarettes. It is largely an insider group,
It helps government to make policy by providing evidence and
concentrating on lobbying law-makers and governments. It
information. It acts responsibly and has built up a network of
mainly uses scientific data to underpin its case.
supporters within government and Parliament.
Successes
There are many examples of success, including:
● restrictions on advertising tobacco products and tobacco
sponsorship

Case study
RMT of the RMT in key sectors, such as Tube drivers in London. The
RMT also runs its own credit union to help support its members
Name of group financially. Mostly affiliated with the Labour Party, the RMT has,
in the past, put up candidates for election and endorsed other
National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT)
parties that it feels better represent its members’ interests.
Founding and objectives
Successes
● Founded in 1990 through the merger of two groups: the
National Union of Railwaymen (NUR) and the National There are many examples of successes, including:
● In 2016, the RMT secured a £500 consolidation payment
Union of Seamen (NUS) to create a single transport-
industry trade union. to all operational staff following the introduction of the
● Its objectives include the promotion of better pay and Night Tube service.
● The RMT has helped members bring legal cases following
conditions for its members, including shorter hours and
safer working environments. injury and wrongful termination, including a £55,000
payment to a member who lost the tip of an index finger in
Methods an industrial accident.
The RMT negotiates contracts with major transport companies ● Securing bonus payments for workers during the 2012

(e.g. Transport for London) on behalf of its members. It lobbies Olympics.

governments for better legislative protections and workers’ safety. ● Improving safety standards on offshore oil platforms, as

It also organises and conducts strikes to pressure employers to well as on trains and ferries.
meet its demands, which can be effective due to the dominance

32 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 32 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Failures During 2023, the RMT carried out a number of strikes to see
Despite long-running campaigns against the closure of many improved pay awards, but did not receive an improved offer.
ticket offices on the Tube network, the offices have been
Why is it successful?
closed. The government remains committed to removing
The RMT is the main union representing workers on the London
guards from trains, which the RMT has vehemently opposed
Underground, a strategically important transport network.
on the grounds of safety. In addition, not all its campaigns for
Strikes can have a direct impact on the economy as well as
higher wages and better conditions meet with similar levels
potentially embarrassing the government of the day, for example
of success, particularly in areas away from London where
the threat of strikes during the 2012 Olympics, which would have
the transport network is not such an integral part of the local
led to major disruption and possible international ridicule.
economy.

Pressure groups, society and democracy

The UK is a representative democracy. Political parties, social
media and pressure group activity are the main components of
a pluralist democracy. This term refers to the idea that there are
multiple means by which different groups and sections of society
can have their voices heard and that they have opportunities to
inf luence government at all levels.
Pressure groups also form an important channel of
communication between government and the governed.
Citizens often feel that their inf luence through elections,
referendums and political parties is too weak. Parties cannot
represent a wide enough range of interests and causes, while
elections and referendums are relatively infrequent. It is,
therefore, important that there are alternative means by
which citizens can constantly communicate with government.
Pressure groups supply that link. Without them, citizens might RMT general secretary Mick Lynch at Euston Station,
feel powerless and ignored, which is a dangerous situation for London, during a rail workers’ strike in June 2023
a democracy.

Debate
Do pressure groups enhance or threaten democracy?

Ways in which they enhance Ways in which they may threaten

democracy democracy
● Pressure groups help to disperse power and influence more ● Some pressure groups are considered elitist and tend to
widely. concentrate power in too few hands.
● Pressure groups educate the public about important ● Influential pressure groups may distort information in their
political issues. own interests.
● Pressure groups give people more opportunities to ● Pressure groups that are internally undemocratic may
participate in politics without having to sacrifice too much not accurately represent the views of their members and
of their time and attention. supporters.
● Pressure groups can promote and protect the interests and ● Finance is a key factor in political influence, so groups that are
rights of minority groups. wealthy may wield a disproportionate amount of influence.
● Pressure groups help to call government to account by ● The use of civil disobedience, particularly illegal actions,
publicising the effects of policy. can undermine the freedoms and rights of other citizens.
Make a clear judgement about which side of the argument has more weight. Pressure groups can both enhance and threaten
democracy, but you must consider which side of the debate is more convincing and why.

1 Democracy and participation 33

9781398388093.indb 33 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Key terms Other collective organisations
Pressure groups are not the only external inf luence on decision-makers. ‘Think
Think tank A body of
tanks’, lobbyists and corporations (large businesses) are organisations that seek to
experts created with
inf luence policy and decisions. Although these organisations may adopt some of the
a deliberate political
methods of regular pressure groups, they tend to act in slightly different ways and
purpose or ideological
operate in ways that mark them out as separate from ordinary pressure groups.
leaning to investigate
and offer solutions to
economic, social or Think tanks
political issues. Their work The term ‘think tank’ originated during the Second World War as a military term
and ideas reflect this to describe bodies that developed strategy and ideas. Today they are considered
intention. public policy research organisations. Their main role is to carry out research and
develop policy ideas that can then be adopted by political parties and governments.
Lobbyist A member
In this sense, think tanks carry out one specific role of a pressure group in order
of a professional
to inf luence those in politics. Think tanks are usually founded to research and
organisation paid by
develop ideas in specific areas, such as education, healthcare, social justice or
clients to try to influence
economic matters. Usually, they are funded by endowments from wealthy patrons
the government, MPs,
or businesses, but they may also be funded by public donations or be affiliated to an
members of the House of
academic institution, such as a university.
Lords and civil servants
to act in their clients’ In carrying out the work of policy research, think tanks have replaced one of the
interests, particularly traditional roles carried out by political parties. This is advantageous as it means
when legislation is under policies can be considered and developed away from public scrutiny and can be tested
consideration. before a party might adopt them as official policy. It also saves the party time and
resources as it can ‘delegate’ the role of policy formulation. Of course, many think
tanks are founded with a clear aim or objective in mind, and so may produce research
to support a particular point of view that may not be in the public interest. Indeed,
think tanks often produce research to help support the demands of their donors.
One example of this is the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA), a free-market think
tank with close links to the Conservative Party — Liz Truss, Priti Patel, Kwasi
Kwarteng and Dominic Raab were all former employees and Kwarteng’s failed mini-
budget of 2022 was heavily in line with the ideas of the IEA. The IEA is critical of
government measures to reduce or restrict harmful activities, such as smoking bans,
sugar taxes and restrictions on fast-food advertising, and has also called for the NHS
to be replaced by a private, insurance-based system. One of its main donors is British
American Tobacco, which raises questions about whether or not the public policy
research being carried out is in the interests of the public or of the donors.
However, think tanks can play an important role in a democratic society. In February
2020, the National Institute of Economic and Social Research scrutinised the
government’s Budget, raising questions about the viability of its growth targets that were
widely reported in the media. The competing views and range of ideas and opinions
publicised by think tanks help to promote a pluralist and well-educated society.
Some prominent examples of think tanks are listed below.
Neutral think tanks:
● ResPublica — general policy issues
● Chatham House — international affairs
● Centre for Social Justice — policy on welfare issues
● Demos — current political issues
● National Institute of Economic and Social Research — economic issues

34 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 34 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 ‘Left-wing’ think tanks:
● Fabian Society — issues concerning social justice and equality
● Institute for Public Policy Research — various left-wing policy ideas
‘Right-wing’ think tanks:
● Adam Smith Institute — promoting free-market solutions to economic issues
● Institute of Economic Affairs — another free-market group with close ties to the
current Conservative Party
● Centre for Policy Studies — promoting ideas popular in the premiership of
Margaret Thatcher
‘Liberal’ think tanks:
● Centre for Reform — dedicated to promoting the values of the Liberal Democrats
● Reform — concerned with policies on welfare, public services and economic
management

Lobbyists
‘Lobbying’ is the act of trying to persuade those in power to follow a particular
course of action. In a sense, anyone in the UK can lobby, by writing to their MP,
signing a petition or demonstrating, to try to persuade those in power of the validity
of their views. In this way the act of lobbying is fundamental to a democratic society.
‘Lobbyists’, however, are distinct organisations or individuals that sell expert
knowledge of the political process to those who can afford to hire them. Lobbyists
and lobbying companies, sometimes referred to as public relations groups, usually
employ people with close relationships with those in power (often former advisers
or staff for politicians) and with expertise in which bodies, committees and groups
they target. They create strategies for their clients to access the political process. In
this sense, they are selling insider status.
At a basic level, lobbyists provide clients with a ‘map’ giving them advice to follow in
order to achieve their goals, effectively providing clients with a political blueprint to
help put pressure on those in power. This could be anything from a charity seeking
additional government funding or trying to persuade the government to adopt a new
strategy, to businesses trying to secure exemptions from certain laws or taxes that might
affect them. For example, in January 2022, following a government announcement to
introduce tougher gambling restrictions, ‘The Players Panel’ was set up. This was an
initiative launched by Entain (the corporation that owns betting company Ladbrokes)
in conjunction with CT Group, a political consultancy (lobbyist firm) run by Lynton
Crosby, former advisor to prime ministers Theresa May and Boris Johnson. In response
to a 2023 government White Paper proposing to increase restrictions on gambling for
greater safety, ‘The Players Panel’ launched a campaign encouraging those who had
registered on their website to write to their MPs opposing these restrictions. The group
offered templates and advised its members to target the culture secretary, Lucy Frazer.
Although this was condemned by Carolyn Harris, chair of the cross-party parliamentary
group on gambling harm, it demonstrates the way in which lobbyists work for the
interests of those that have hired them in order to influence parliamentary legislation.
At a more advanced level, lobbyists arrange events for their clients to have an opportunity
to meet with those in power, often through corporate hospitality, for example offering
political figures free tickets to sporting or cultural events at which they will be sat next
to clients who have paid for the privilege. At the highest level, lobbyists attend private

1 Democracy and participation 35

9781398388093.indb 35 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 meetings on behalf of their clients to try to directly persuade those in power. This is
why people with direct personal contact or high status are often hired by lobbyists to
help gain this access. During the Covid-19 pandemic, former prime minister David
Cameron was hired by Greensill Capital to lobby then chancellor Rishi Sunak to
change the rules around access to a government loan scheme, which would then enable
Greensill to join the Covid Corporate Financing Facility. Although unsuccessful, it
highlights how former politicians can be used as lobbyists.
Lobbyists gain access and help their clients achieve their goals. While they try to
persuade, they are not always successful, and politicians consider many factors before
making decisions. In fact, sometimes by helping organisations access those in power,
lobbyists can improve legislation by offering advice and perspectives that may otherwise
have been missed. However, the perception remains that lobbyists, in selling their
services, benefit those with money, often at the expense of the public interest, which
undermines the concept of a pluralist society. It also undermines confidence in politics
in general and raises questions about who politicians serve, especially as organisations
spend an estimated £2 billion a year on lobbying in the UK.
Prominent examples of lobbyists in the UK and the areas they represent include:
● The Cicero Group — financial services, infrastructure companies, energy and transport
● Frédéric Michel — News International
● Adam Smith — former special adviser (SpAd) who lobbies for the gambling
company Paddy Power
● PLMR — PR and marketing agency specialising in political lobbying and media
relations
● CT Group — run by former political adviser Lynton Crosby
● Hanbury Strategy — specialises in political communication for anyone who
faces a current political risk or issue, though the client list is not made public

Corporations
Large corporations such as Google, Starbucks, Virgin, Meta (formerly Facebook) and
Amazon are so big and inf luential that they qualify as a kind of sectional pressure
group on their own. In several cases, these corporations have an income far larger
than many countries and can use this financial power, together with their importance
to consumer demand, employment and taxation, to resist government demands and
put pressure on governments to achieve their goals. Since 2021 Facebook has, for
example, lobbied to resist changes proposed by the UK government to enable the
police to access personal information in order to identify and prosecute those using
the platform for illegal activity. In this instance, Facebook claims to be defending
individual freedoms, but critics argue it is providing a platform that enables and
protects serious criminal behaviour. Major corporations also seek to emphasise the
positive role they play in the national economy, using this to gain rebates or assurances
from the government. This has been a major activity for Nissan and Ford, which have
used their position as major employers in key parts of the country to gain assurances
over trade and other protection from the government. As they employ high numbers
of people and account for a large proportion of economic activity, corporations have
a strategically important place in the economy. This gives them great insider inf luence
and they effectively have their own ‘in-house’ think tanks and lobbyists (usually their
public relations department), thereby avoiding the need to hire lobbying companies.
One example of the success of corporations in lobbying the government is successful
resistance to calls for such companies to pay more in UK taxes on their profits

36 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 36 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 (Starbucks, Google and Microsoft being prominent examples). Elsewhere, alcoholic
drinks manufacturers have campaigned against price controls proposed to reduce
Useful terms
excessive drinking. In a similar way, the confectionery industry has resisted and toned Civil liberties The rights
down attempts by the government to reduce the sugar content of its products in an anti- and freedoms enjoyed by
obesity drive. Though the government was able to introduce an additional levy on soft citizens that protect them
drinks containing sugar, soft drinks manufacturers have been able to resist growing from unfair and arbitrary
demands for other restrictions, such as a higher levy or restrictions on advertising. treatment by the state and
Meanwhile, major gambling companies, such as Ladbrokes, have used their wealth government. They are also
to establish the Players’ Panel think tank, in order to create a public debate around those freedoms that are
potential restrictions on gambling and use this to pressurise the government. guaranteed by the state
and the constitution. Civil
The power and importance of corporations is such that their representatives are
liberties are sometimes
often called to give evidence to select committees and attend hearings on matters of
referred to as ‘civil rights’,
national importance, giving them clear access to political power and opportunities
especially in the USA.
to defend their actions or promote their own interests.
Civil rights Those rights
and freedoms that
Rights in context are protected by the
government, meaning the
state must take an active
Human rights, civil rights and civil liberties role in ensuring people
Human rights, covering the two different concepts of civil liberties and civil rights, are protected and allowed
have a long tradition in the UK, though a wider international aspect was developed to carry out these rights
in response to the horrors of the Second World War and the establishment of the UN freely and equally.
Declaration on Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights. The
terms ‘civil liberties’ and ‘civil rights’ are often used interchangeably, but they mean
slightly different things, focused on the role of the state.
● Civil liberties refer to the protections citizens have against government and the state.
● Civil rights refer to those rights that are guaranteed by the state. In other words,
they are rights and freedoms in relation to the state itself.
Prominent examples of each are listed in Table 1.14.
Synoptic link
Table 1.14 Civil rights and civil liberties in the UK
The development of
Civil liberties Civil rights rights within the UK
Freedom of speech Right to life has also led to conflict
Freedom of assembly Freedom from discrimination between the judiciary
Freedom of the press Right to exercise your vote and the legislative and
Right to trial by jury Right to equal treatment executive branches of
Freedom of religious worship Right to an education government. This is an
important constitutional
check and has altered the
Human rights combine both civil rights and civil liberties and should be:
relationship between these
● absolute — meaning they cannot be compromised or diminished in any way branches of government,
● universal — meaning they are applied to everyone which are covered in
● fundamental — meaning they are an essential part of life and cannot be removed Chapter 8.
for any reason.

The development of rights and formal equality in the UK

Early rights
The first set of civil liberties introduced to the UK was in 1215 in Magna Carta. This
was the first attempt to limit the power of the monarch (the government of its day)

1 Democracy and participation 37

9781398388093.indb 37 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 and ensure protections against arbitrary rule. Magna Carta included the right to trial
Useful term
by jury and that the monarch could only impose taxes with the consent of the people.
Common law Traditional
In 1689, under the inf luence of key thinker John Locke, Parliament drafted a Bill of
conceptions of how
Rights, another set of civil liberties designed to protect the people of England from a
disputes should be
potential military dictatorship when they offered the throne to William of Orange.
settled and what rights
It ensured that the monarch could not take England into a foreign war without its
individuals have. Common
agreement and that the people were free from ‘cruel and unusual punishments’.
law is established by
judges through judicial Common law rights
precedents when they The traditional status of rights in the UK has been that every citizen was assumed
declare what traditional, to have rights unless they were prohibited by law. These rights were sometimes
common law should be. It referred to as residual rights or negative rights. For example, it was assumed that
is sometimes described as people had freedom of movement unless there was some legal obstruction, such as if
‘judge-made law’. a person was convicted of a crime and sentenced to custody.
In addition, rights were sometimes specifically stated as a result of a court case when
rights were in dispute. In these cases a judge would decide what was the normal or
Study tip traditional way in which such disputes would be settled. Having made this decision,
Remember that the the judge would declare what they understood people’s rights to be. In doing so the
European Convention on judge was declaring common law.
Human Rights (ECHR) Let’s take the example of a married or cohabiting couple. If they were to split up, there
has nothing to do with might be a dispute as to how to divide their possessions, in other words what rights
the European Union. It is the couple had against each other. If there were no statute law to cover the situation,
a product of the Council a judge would have to state what the common law was. Once a judge had declared
of Europe. Therefore, the what the common law was under a particular circumstance, they had created a judicial
ECHR continues to apply in precedent. In all similar cases, judges had to follow the existing judicial precedent. A
the UK. great body of common law and common law rights was created over the centuries.
The Human Rights Act 1998
Synoptic link The main terms and status of the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) are described in Chapter
5; here we offer a brief description. The HRA brought into effect the European Convention
The Human Rights Act, on Human Rights, which was established by the Council of Europe in 1950. The UK
which brought the rights helped to draft the Convention but did not accept it as binding on its government until 1998.
enshrined under the
European Convention
Traditionally, the UK relied on a series of negative rights, meaning people were allowed
on Human Rights into
to do anything as long as it was not expressly forbidden by law. This meant these rights
statute law that could be
existed in the absence of law and were therefore very difficult to enforce and people’s
addressed by UK courts,
protections were limited. With the introduction of the Human Rights Act, which came
establishes many essential
into force in 2000 by making the European Convention on Human Rights a statute law,
rights (e.g. the rights
these negative rights were supplanted by positive rights that had to be legally protected
to life, family life and
and respected, giving the courts an important means of protecting the rights of citizens
education, and the right
and the ability to act as a check on the government. This marked, perhaps, the most
not to be tortured) that
significant development in the long history of the development of rights in the UK.
are intended to restrict the The HRA establishes a wide range of rights to replace the patchwork of statute and
actions of the government common law rights in the UK. It is binding on all public bodies other than the UK
in relation to the people. Parliament (and it is politically binding on Parliament even if not legally binding;
Such restrictions, which Parliament will rarely ignore it). It is also enforced by all courts in the UK, so that
have been challenged by laws passed at any level should conform to its requirements.
governments in recent
years, are considered
The Freedom of Information Act 2000
more fully in Chapter 8.
Historically, citizens in the UK had no right to see information held by public bodies,
whether it related personally to them or not. By the end of the twentieth century,

38 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 38 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 however, it was clear that the UK was out of step with much of the modern democratic
world in this respect. In many countries, including the USA, legislation had been passed,
first to allow citizens to view information held about them — for example, by the tax
authorities, or social security or schools — and then to let them view information held
by these bodies that it would be in the public interest to see. Governments were too
secretive, it was widely contended, and this was a barrier to making them accountable.
The Labour government that came to power in the UK in 1997 therefore decided to
redress this situation through the Freedom of Information Act 2000.
Since the Act was passed it has proved an invaluable tool for social and political
campaigners, for MPs and for the media, allowing them to discover information that
was never available in the past. It has helped to improve such services as the health
service, the police, the civil service and educational establishments by shedding light
on their activities and helping to promote reform. Perhaps most famously, it was
through a Freedom of Information Act request that the Daily Telegraph was able to
reveal and publicise the MPs’ expenses scandal of 2009.
The Equality Act 2010
There had been two parliamentary statutes prior to the Equality Act that established
formal equality in the UK. The Race Relations Act 1965 outlawed discrimination
of most kinds on the grounds of a person’s race or ethnicity. The Equal Pay Act
1970 required employers to offer equal pay to men and women doing the same
job. Important though these developments were, they failed to establish equality Useful term
in the full sense of the word and missed out important groups in society who Formal equality Simply
have suffered discrimination, notably those with disabilities and members of the means legally established
LGBTQ+ community. Therefore, under the management of Harriet Harman, a equality.
Labour minister at the time, the Equality Act was passed in 2010.
The Equality Act requires that all legislation and all decision-making by government,
at any level, must take into account formal equality for different sections of society.
Put another way, the Act outlaws any discrimination against any group. Equality is
required and discrimination is outlawed on the following grounds:
● Age ● Race
● Disability ● Religion or belief
● Gender reassignment ● Sex
● Marriage and civil partnership ● Sexual orientation
In theory, any kind of discrimination is unlawful under the Act, but in practice it
tends to apply to the following circumstances:
● Employment and pay ● Housing (sales or renting)
● Government services (local, regional, ● Education
national) ● Financial services
● Healthcare (physical and mental) ● Policing and law enforcement
Equality of the kind described above is especially important in relation to group
politics and a healthy pluralist democracy. By establishing equality, both formal and
informal, between different groups and sections of society, it is more likely that their
demands and interests can be taken into account.

Rights and responsibilities

Rights in the UK
In law, within the UK, all citizens have equal rights. This was a principle of UK
law long before the 2010 Equality Act, but the Act consolidated it. This means

1 Democracy and participation 39

9781398388093.indb 39 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 that no individual and no group can be discriminated against as far as the law
Activity is concerned. As a result of the Act, people can now go through the courts to
Research the UK bring a case if they feel they have been discriminated against in any way, providing
government’s Rwanda greater access to rights protections in the UK, thereby helping to develop the UK’s
Asylum Plan and rulings democratic system.
by the European Court
Having these rights only matters if they are effectively protected, however. While
of Human Rights and
the Human Rights Act, the Equality Act and the Freedom of Information Act
government reactions to
have made rights enforceable, there are also weaknesses. The main issue is that
them. Outline what it reveals
the UK Parliament remains sovereign. In practice this means that Parliament has
about the following issues:
the ultimate power to create rights or to take them away. In other words, it is not
● The ability of the court
possible in the UK to create a codified set of rights that is binding on successive
to protect rights from
Parliaments. Furthermore, the rights pressure group Liberty has pointed out that
government actions.
legislation alone does not guarantee rights. It is ultimately up to Parliament to
● The potential limits of
ensure they are protected.
rights protections under
the UK political system. The passage of the Human Rights Act did appear to establish binding rights in the
UK, but this was an illusion. The UK Parliament can, and occasionally has (for
example, over anti-terrorism laws), ignored the European Convention on Human
Knowledge check Rights (ECHR). That said, Parliament remains reluctant to contradict the ECHR
What rights were and all other public bodies must abide by its terms. It must also be said that the UK
established by the retains an international reputation for respecting human rights. Compared with
Freedom of Information many countries in the world, the UK is seen as a haven for citizens’ rights.
Act 2000? It is also true that rights in the UK can be suspended under special circumstances.
All countries have such a provision, as it is necessary in times of crisis or emergency.
Useful term Perhaps the best example occurred in the 1970s when the UK government introduced
internment in Northern Ireland. Internment is the imprisonment, without
The Troubles A period trial, of suspected terrorists. This was done in Northern Ireland in response to
of violent conflict in The Troubles. In the early part of the twentieth-first century, too, Parliament
Northern Ireland involving allowed the government to hold suspected terrorists for long periods without trial
paramilitary groups (though not indefinitely) as a result of the Islamist terrorist threat after 9/11. More
operating along sectarian recently, in 2020, for public health reasons, various rights relating to associating
lines, the British armed with other people, meeting with family members and freedom to move around the
forces, the Royal Ulster country were suspended and restricted by law to help combat the Covid-19 pandemic.
Constabulary and activist
groups. It lasted from
Table 1.15 compares the strengths and weaknesses of rights protection in the UK.
the 1960s until the Table 1.15 Rights in the UK: strengths and weaknesses
signing of the Good Friday
Strengths Weaknesses
Agreement in 1998.
There is a strong common law tradition Common law can be vague and disputed. It can
also be set aside by parliamentary statutes
Study tip The UK is subject to the European Parliament remains sovereign and so can ignore
Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) the ECHR or can even repeal the Human Rights Act
It is vital to understand the The judiciary has a reputation for being There is increasing political pressure on
relationship between rights independent and upholding the rule government to suspend laws or ignore rulings
and the sovereignty of the of law, even against the expressed relating to a variety of political issues, such
UK Parliament. Full and wishes of government and Parliament as terrorist behaviour or the rights of asylum
seekers
equal rights can never be
permanently guaranteed in The principle of equal rights is clearly What equality means can be subject to
established interpretation and see some groups coming
the UK because Parliament
into conflict over the enforcement of their
is sovereign and can rights, for example, religious groups and
amend or remove them. LGBTQ+ groups

40 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 40 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Civil liberties groups
The UK also has a variety of civil liberties groups that seek to champion and defend
Activity
civil rights and liberties in the UK and internationally. In many ways, such groups Research the following two
act like pressure groups, allowing members to join and participate in demonstrations cases:
and activities which they believe in and support. Such groups tend to go beyond ● A v Secretary of
the traditional pressure group model and also work as think tanks and lobbyists, State for the Home
conducting research into rights issues, producing evidence and reports about rights Department (2004)
abuses, trying to persuade those in power to champion a particular case or amend (also known as the
legislation, or even speaking up in support of an issue on the international stage and Belmarsh case)
bringing legal challenges on behalf of those who have had their rights denied. ● Steinfeld and Keiden
v Secretary of State
Such groups have existed for a long time in the UK, but the introduction of the
for International
Human Rights Act and other key pieces of legislation have given them important
Development (2018)
tools with which to promote and defend civil rights and liberties in the UK. The
growth of judicial review in the twenty-first century has allowed these groups to What do these two cases
become even more inf luential as well as helping to promote the wider rights culture reveal about the strength of
that they desire. Sometimes, the decisions, actions and organisation of these groups rights protection in the UK?
can become controversial, but generally they are seen as a positive force for promoting
and defending civil rights and liberties, as the following case studies show.

Case study
Liberty Human Rights Act. As well as media campaigns, Liberty
regularly organises petitions (increasingly online), protests
Name of group and public demonstrations to raise awareness of issues and
to demonstrate public support, and it offers pledges to help
National Council for Civil Liberties (NCCL), rebranded as
develop a rights-based society.
Liberty in 1989.
Successes
Founding and objectives
There are many examples of success, including:
● Founded in 1934 with the aim of challenging government
● In July 2023, Liberty was part of a group of 290
measures to restrict freedoms in the UK and combat the
organisations that signed a Joint Civil Society Statement
rising threat of fascism.
on the Illegal Immigration Act 2023, explaining why it
● Its objectives are to fight to protect and uphold civil rights
believed the Act was in violation of key human rights.
and liberties across the UK and to develop a wider ‘rights
● In June 2023, Liberty launched a legal challenge to the
culture’ across society.
home secretary’s use of secondary legislation to introduce
Methods new powers to restrict protests.
● In 2022, Liberty provided a briefing on the Bill of Rights
Liberty uses a number of methods. It carries out research and
to advise MPs during the Second Reading stage in the
investigations into rights abuses and restrictions and seeks
House of Commons. In 2023, the government announced
to publicise these through media campaigns. It uses both
it was not going to move forward with the proposed Bill of
mainstream traditional media and social media to spread
Rights.
awareness and develop support. It also supports and brings
● In 2020, Liberty brought a case under the Human Rights
legal challenges against rights abuses, challenging what it
Act to successfully pressurise Bournemouth, Christchurch
regards as unfair or unjust laws that restrict civil liberties, such
and Poole (BCP) Council into removing parts of the Public
as a recent legal challenge to lockdown restrictions, as well as
Spaces Protection Order that had been used to criminalise
providing legal advice and support to cases of discrimination
rough sleepers and beggars.
against LGBTQ+ rights, women’s rights and disability rights.
● In August 2020, Liberty won a Court of Appeal ruling
Liberty also works with the government and Parliament against the legal framework used by South Wales Police
to advise on legislation and ensure they comply with the when employing facial recognition technology.

1 Democracy and participation 41

9781398388093.indb 41 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Failures Why is it successful?
● Liberty has failed, so far, in its campaign to achieve a Liberty is both a non-profit organisation that operates like
ban the use of facial recognition across the UK, which is a think tank, and a membership association, like a causal
still used by many security organisations, including the pressure group. That, and the fact that it is well established,
Metropolitan Police. gives it a large membership base, which it can call on when
● Despite organising online petitions and campaigns against organising campaigns and demonstrations while also employing
lockdown restrictions in 2020 and 2021, the government legal expertise and experience to bring legal challenges to the
continued to impose such restrictions on people’s courts. Since 2000, it has been able to use the Human Rights
freedoms in the name of public health. Act to bring legal challenges in UK courts. From 2003 to 2016
● In October 2019, the Court of Appeal rejected an it also benefited from a charismatic leader, Baroness Shami
application by Liberty to bring a legal case that would have Chakrabarti, who had close ties to the Labour Party and was
prevented a no-deal Brexit from the European Union. able to raise the public profile of the group.

Case study
Amnesty International Today, the group uses email and Twitter (currently known
as ‘X’), such as the hashtag #FreeNazanin, which it used to
Name of group pressurise the British and Iranian governments into releasing
the British-Iranian author Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe. Amnesty
Amnesty International
International gives advice and produces template letters and
Founding and objectives emails for people to fill in themselves to add their voice. It also
organises petitions, public demonstrations and vigils to raise
● Founded in London in 1961 by barrister Peter Benenson,
awareness and put pressure on governments, and carries out
who claimed he was inspired by an account of two
extensive research and publishes reports to highlight issues
Portuguese students who had been sentenced to seven
and educate the public as well as public officials. Perhaps
years in prison for drinking a toast to liberty.
its most important method is in coordinating its 7 million
● Amnesty International operates as a global campaign
members to ensure its campaigns are focused and targeted to
group or an international non-governmental organisation
increase pressure.
(INGO). It protests wherever it believes justice, freedom,
truth and liberty have been denied. In addition to exposing
and ending abuses, it aims to educate society and mobilise
the public to create a safer society.

Methods
Amnesty International’s main focus has been on raising public
awareness of human rights abuses and other infringements
of civil liberties, while also mobilising public support to
put pressure on government to act and support reform.
Traditionally this would be done through a letter-writing
campaign — local branches and smaller groups are tasked
with writing to an ‘at-risk individual’ to show support as well
as writing letters to the government concerned or to other Messages of support for Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe painted
governments in the hope that they will pressurise the offending on stones and laid outside the Iranian embassy in London,
government into taking action. June 2019

42 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 42 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Successes producing reports and using petitions and its status to persuade
There are many examples of success, including: Parliament to reject the Bill on the grounds that it would give the
● In March 2022, Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe was freed from
police too many powers to restrict the right to protest.
Iranian imprisonment and returned to the UK. Alongside ● Despite Amnesty arranging 38,000 members in an online
other organisations, Amnesty had long used its campaign action and repeated calls for the international community
methods to secure her release. to do something, Amnesty has been unable to prevent the
● In 2020, Amnesty may have contributed to changes to
Chinese government from detaining Uighur, Kazakh and
Covid-19 lockdown laws by having supporters petition other Muslim groups living in Chinese territory.
the government to ensure emergency laws protected the ● Following two suicides in 2018 by Amnesty International
most vulnerable, including those living in poverty, with employees, both citing work-related issues, a 2019 report
disabilities or with abusive partners. revealed that Amnesty had a toxic workplace culture, with
● In 2018, the UK Supreme Court declared Northern Ireland’s
multiple reports of racism, sexism, bullying and harassment.
near total ban on abortion services incompatible with the ● By October 2019, five of the seven board members had
Human Rights Act. Amnesty’s Northern Ireland office gathered resigned with ‘generous’ redundancy packages, further
evidence from those impacted by the ban, facilitated the ruling undermining the integrity of the organisation.
and applied pressure on the UK government to act and impose
Why is it successful?
reforms on abortion laws if the Northern Ireland Assembly did
Amnesty International is successful due to its large
not. After legal challenges, the UK government went ahead with
international membership base and close relationship with
this in June 2022. Amnesty worked by keeping the issue in the
other international organisations and governments. Its role
public domain and mobilising its supporters to put pressure
in coordinating targeted efforts helps facilitate those who
on the government, as well as by providing reports regarding a
wish to fight for human rights in a way that is more likely to
‘postcode lottery’ in Northern Ireland due to the failure of new
achieve success. The organisation also has strong financial
laws to be implemented across the region.
resources, which enable it to carry out detailed research
Failures and produce respected and recognised reports, as well as
● Although Amnesty International has continued to employing full-time staff across the globe to investigate and
produce reports and raise public concerns about the UK run its campaigns. Despite recent controversies, Amnesty
government’s plans for the Illegal Immigration Bill, the also benefits from strong global recognition, having developed
government remains committed to passage of the Bill. strong ties to many western governments, including the UK,
● The UK Public Order Act 2022 was passed despite Amnesty’s and as a result of winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977. It
opposition to it. Amnesty had been critical of this legislation, also enjoys considerable celebrity support.

Responsibilities of citizens
With rights come responsibilities. The responsibilities of citizens have never been
codified in the UK, but there is no doubt that they exist. With the increasing
amount of immigration into the UK, the issue of what duties or obligations citizens
should have, especially new or aspiring citizens, has become more acute. It has been
argued that rights can only be earned if they are matched by responsibilities, though
this principle has never been firmly established. We can, however, identify a few
citizens’ responsibilities that are widely accepted, and responsibilities that may exist
but could be disputed. These are shown in Table 1.16.
Table 1.16 Citizens’ responsibilities
Clear citizens’ responsibilities Disputed citizens’ responsibilities
To obey the laws To serve in the armed forces when the country
is under attack
To pay taxes To vote in elections and referendums
To undertake jury service when required To respect the rights of all other citizens
To care for their children To respect the dominant values of the society

1 Democracy and participation 43

9781398388093.indb 43 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 It should be noted that the clear responsibilities are enshrined in law. If a citizen does not
Useful terms accept those responsibilities, they run the danger of prosecution. The responsibilities
Collective rights Those that are in dispute may well be enforceable, but many citizens will question them.
rights held by, and
designed to protect, a Collective versus individual rights
group or collective, rather
Although today it is widely acknowledged that the establishment and protection of
than an individual.
individual rights are vital in a modern democracy, it also has to be accepted that the
Individual rights Those community as a whole has rights too, as do various sections of society. Problems can
rights that directly impact arise where the rights of individuals clash with the collective rights of the community
an individual, designed or sections of the community. Very often there is no solution to these conf licts, but
to protect that individual politicians are called upon to adjudicate. Occasionally, too, such conf licts may end up
from abuses of power. in the courts for resolution. Table 1.17 shows some examples of these kinds of clashes.
Table 1.17 Individual rights versus collective rights
Individual rights Conflicting collective rights
Synoptic link Freedom of expression The rights of religious groups not to have their
The role of the Supreme beliefs satirised or questioned
Court in protecting rights, The right to privacy The right of the community to be protected from
as well as its relationship terrorism by security services that may listen in
to private communications
with other branches of
government, is explained The right to own private property, Public rights, enjoyed by ramblers, to walk across
including land and access private property on public trails
and analysed in Chapter 8.
The right to demonstrate in public The right of the community to their own freedom
There are also important
places (rights of association and free of movement
examples of key rights movement) and thus cause disruption
cases in Chapter 8.
The right to strike in pursuit of pay The right of the community to expect good service
and employment rights from public servants who are paid from taxation

Case study
Campbell v Mirror Group News Initially the High Court ruled in favour of Campbell. However,
the Court of Appeals overturned the decision, ruling that the
Ltd, 2004 photographs did not breach the right to privacy. This led to
In 2001, the Mirror newspaper published pictures of the case being settled in 2004 by the Law Lords, at that time
supermodel Naomi Campbell leaving a clinic that dealt with sitting in the House of Lords.
narcotic addictions. This triggered a legal case that decided
The Law Lords had to balance the demands of Article 8 of
whether the right to privacy outweighed the newspaper’s right
the Human Rights Act (the right to privacy) with Article 10
to freedom of expression.
(freedom of expression). They had to consider both aspects
Campbell did not deny the allegations made by the paper that and the potential impact of the ruling. First, they had to
she was a drug addict or that she was seeking treatment, but determine whether the right to privacy had been breached by
chose to sue the owners for publishing the photographs, on the the publication of the photographs and, if the right to privacy
grounds that these breached her right to privacy. She stated it had been breached, whether ruling against their publication
drew attention to the location of the clinic and would act as a would have been detrimental to the Mirror ’s freedom of
deterrent to her, and others, using the clinic for future treatment. expression. In a divided opinion, the Law Lords ruled, 3:2, that
in this case, the right of Naomi Campbell to privacy outweighed
The Mirror Group claimed it had the right, under freedom of
the Mirror Group’s right to freedom of expression, so resolving
expression, to publish the pictures as they helped to illustrate
a conflict that had arisen between differing rights contained
the published article and that, as Campbell had previously
within the Human Rights Act.
denied taking drugs and was a public figure, it was in the
public interest to publish the supporting evidence.

44 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 44 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Summary
Having read this chapter, you should have knowledge and understanding of the following:
➜ What democracy is and how democracy in its various forms works in the UK
➜ The distinctions between direct and representative democracy and their relative advantages
and disadvantages
➜ The extent to which the UK is truly democratic and whether or not it is in need of reform
➜ The nature of political participation in the UK, whether there is a participation crisis and
possible ways in which it could be combated
➜ The nature of representation in the UK
➜ The nature of suffrage, how it developed in the UK and the issues surrounding changes to
the franchise
➜ The nature and activities of pressure groups and other organised groups in the UK
➜ Issues concerning the operation of pressure groups and other organised groups in the UK
➜ The general nature of political influence in the UK
➜ The nature of rights in the UK and how they are protected
➜ The conflicts between collective and individual rights

Key terms in this chapter

Democratic deficit A flaw in the democratic process where decisions are taken by people
who lack legitimacy, due to not having been appointed with sufficient democratic input or not
being subject to accountability.
Direct democracy All individuals express their opinions themselves and not through
representatives acting on their behalf. This type of democracy emerged in Athens in classical
times and direct democracy can be seen today in referendums.
Elective dictatorship A government that dominates Parliament, usually due to a large
majority, and therefore has few limits on its power.
Franchise/suffrage Franchise and suffrage both refer to the ability/right to vote in public
elections. Suffragettes were women campaigning for the right to vote on the same terms as men.
Legitimacy The rightful use of power in accordance with pre-set criteria or widely held
agreements, such as a government’s right to rule following an election or a monarch’s
succession based on the agreed rules.
Lobbyist A lobbyist is paid by clients to try to influence the government and/or MPs and
members of the House of Lords to act in their clients’ interests, particularly when legislation is
under consideration.
Participation crisis A lack of engagement with the political process by a significant number
of citizens, by choosing not to vote or not to join or become members of political parties or not
to offer themselves for public office.
Pluralist democracy A type of democracy in which a government makes decisions as a
result of the interplay of various ideas and contrasting arguments from competing groups and
organisations.
Representative democracy A more modern form of democracy, through which an
individual selects a person (and/or a political party) to act on their behalf to exercise political
choice.
Think tank A body of experts brought together to collectively focus on a certain topic(s):
to investigate and offer solutions to often complicated and seemingly intractable economic,
social or political issues.

1 Democracy and participation 45

9781398388093.indb 45 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Further reading
Websites ● Just Stop Oil
● National Union of Students
The most important think tank and campaign organisation
concerning democracy in the UK is possibly Unlock Civil liberties groups to research include:
● Amnesty International
Democracy. Its site contains discussion of many issues
● Freedom Association Ltd
concerning democracy: www.unlockdemocracy.org
● Liberty
The main rights pressure group is Liberty. Its website
● The Prison Reform Trust
discusses current issues concerning rights: www.
● Stonewall
libertyhumanrights.org.uk
● Stop the Traffik
The two main websites for campaigning on local and national
issues are: On the issue of rights in the UK, other than the groups listed
● 38 Degrees: http://home.38degrees.org.uk
above, it is worth looking at the website of the UK Supreme
● Change.org: www.change.org
Court: www.supremecourt.uk
There is also the website of the Constitution Unit, which Books
includes reports and research into democracy and rights in the
Cartledge, P. (2016) Democracy: A life, Oxford University Press
UK, including a report by a citizens’ assembly into democracy
Cole, M. (2006) Democracy in Britain, Edinburgh University Press
in the UK: www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/
Crick, B. (2002) Democracy: A very short introduction, Oxford
research/deliberative-democracy/democracy-uk-
University Press
after-brexit/citizens-assembly-democracy-uk
Eatwell, R. and Goodwin, M. (2018) National Populism: The
This is a selection of interesting pressure groups (websites can
revolt against liberal democracy, Pelican
be easily accessed through a search engine):
Hazell, R. and Morris, B. (eds) (2021) The Role of Monarchy in
● Action on Smoking and Health (ASH)
Modern Democracy, Hart
● Age UK
Runciman, D. (2017) The Confidence Trap, Princeton University
● British Medical Association
Press
● Friends of the Earth
Runciman, D. (2019) How Democracy Ends, Profile Books

Practice questions
1
Source 1
A
Our democratic system is in urgent need of renewal. Power is too far away from people.
We need the power to make changes in our lives and our communities. But too often
we don’t know who can help. Parliament and elections are stuck in the past. Under the
current electoral system too many voters are simply ignored. No one knows what the
rules of our democracy are. They should be set down properly, so that everyone can
understand and follow them. Today, we’re all connected, but our democratic system lags
far behind the technology and its promise of participation.
Adapted from a letter published in the Guardian online, 4 November 2019, entitled ‘A plan
to fix Britain’s broken democracy’, by Dr Wanda Wyporska, Jonathon Porritt, Neal Lawson
and nine others, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/nov/04/a-plan-to-fix-britains-broken-
democracy

B
Although there are critics of the UK’s democracy, there is actually much to be proud
of in the way the UK conducts itself. Every 5 years, at least, there are free and fair
elections to the House of Commons, as well as a whole host of second-order elections

46 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093_CH01.indd 46 07/03/24 4:24 PM

 to devolved bodies and local government institutions, providing strong accountability
and offering choice to voters.
The growth of the media and ease of access – thanks to the expansion of the internet
and increasing opportunities to broadcast on television – have created a host of
competing platforms that contribute to lively and better-informed political debate.
Despite some legal restrictions, the freedom of assembly and right to protest is well
respected and protected by laws, while the recent increase in strikes shows that the
power of trade unions and other organisations to put pressure on those in power is far
from limited. Compared to many democracies around the world, this puts the UK in
pretty strong shape.
A political commentator writing in 2024

Using the sources, evaluate the view that the UK system of democracy is not
fit for purpose.
In your response you must:
– compare and contrast different opinions in the sources
– examine and debate these views in a balanced way
– analyse and evaluate only the information presented in the sources. (30)
2
Source 2
We feel dissatisfied with how democracy is working in the UK today because there is
a lack of honesty and integrity in politics, combined with a lack of clear and unbiased
information from both the government and the media.
We feel frustrated about how democracy is working in the UK today because there is a
disconnect between people and the system. We do not feel listened to and there is no
clear way to have influence. We need to feel that change can happen and that different
voices are taken into account.
We feel disappointed with how democracy is working in the UK today because there are
not enough ‘ordinary people’ in parliament and government, and no matter which party
is in power, a big part of the population is likely to be dissatisfied due to the nature of
the current voting system.
We feel hopeful about how democracy is working in the UK because there are laws that
protect our rights to vote and be represented.
We feel hopeful about how democracy is working in the UK today because it is a democracy
and we do have a vote. Because of this, governments do change and come to an end.
We feel optimistic about how democracy is working in the UK today because our
democratic system is better than in many other countries. Here we can all participate
in, and talk freely about, our democracy without fear of facing consequences. Also,
everyone can influence change via voting, standing for Parliament, joining a political
party of their choice, initiating petitions, etc.
Adapted from a selection of statements made by participants in the Citizens’ Assembly
on Democracy in the UK as part of the Second Report of the Democracy in the UK after
Brexit Project, published by the Constitution Unit and Involve, April 2022, www.ucl.ac.uk/
constitution-unit/sites/constitution_unit/files/report_2_final_digital.pdf

1 Democracy and participation 47

9781398388093_CH01.indd 47 07/03/24 4:24 PM

 Using the source, evaluate the view that there is more to be hopeful
of than concerned about in the UK’s current democratic system.
In your response you must:
– compare and contrast different opinions in the source
– examine and debate these views in a balanced way
– analyse and evaluate only the information presented in the source. (30)
3 Evaluate the view that the UK is suffering from a serious voter
participation crisis.
You must consider this view and the alternative to this view in a
balanced way. (30)
4 Evaluate the view that organised groups provide more harm than
benefit to the UK political system. In your answer you must refer
to at least three different types of organised groups.
You must consider this view and the alternative to this view in a
balanced way. (30)
5 Evaluate the view that the right to vote in the UK requires no further
need of reform. In your answer you must refer to at least one campaign
to extend the franchise.
You must consider this view and the alternative to this view in a
balanced way. (30)
6 Evaluate the view that rights are not effectively protected in the UK.
You must consider this view and the alternative to this view in a
balanced way. (30)
Answer guidance available online: www.hoddereducation.com/EdexcelUKPolitics7E

48 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 48 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 2 Political parties

In January 2019, a new political party was launched, the Brexit Party. Its aim
was to ensure that Brexit would be delivered by the government. It organised
members, provided an organisation for a membership that felt the political parties
in Westminster were not delivering on the referendum result of 2016, and fielded
candidates in all levels of elections, winning the most seats in the 2019 European
Parliamentary election, and fielded candidates in 273 seats in the 2019 general
election. Following Brexit, and when the UK officially departed from the EU
in 2020, the party changed its name to the Reform Party, then in 2021 it was
rebranded as Reform UK. Reform UK is a recent example in a long list of political
parties that have arisen in UK politics over the centuries to organise supporters,
represent different groups within society, recruit members, contest elections and Reform UK leader Richard
field candidates. As such, Reform UK, like all political parties, helps to ensure that Tice (centre) and joint deputy
the UK continues as a functioning democracy. All parties in the UK rely on the leaders Ben Habib (left)
strength of their leadership to develop policy ideas, seek office in council elections and David Bull (right) at the
and devolved bodies, as well as trying to secure MPs to Parliament, and these ideas party’s annual conference,
will be explored throughout this chapter. October 2023

2 Political parties 49

9781398388093.indb 49 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Parties are integral to the functioning of democracy in the UK, yet they are also
controversial, seen as undermining the national interest as competing groups seek
to promote the interests of party politics above reasoned and democratic debate.
Rivalries between parties can lead to democratic debate and discussion, with
competing ideas presented to the public to offer genuine choice based on ideological
commitments to make the nation all that it can be. However, partisan rivalries
can also descend into something like a sporting fixture, with the goal becoming
winning for the team rather than presenting a vision for the nation. While political
parties may create problems, it may be more accurate to say that party politics is
what enables politics to happen in the modern world with a functioning democracy.
Objectives
In this chapter you will learn about the following:
➜ The nature of political parties and what their functions and features are
➜ How to distinguish between the terms ‘left-wing’ and ‘right-wing’
➜ How parties are funded and the nature of the political controversy over party funding,
including proposals for reform
➜ The origins of the Conservative, Labour and Liberal Democrat parties and the core beliefs
of the three parties
➜ The current policies of the three parties
➜ The nature and impact of emerging and minor parties in the UK
➜ The nature of the term ‘party system’ and other party systems that exist within the UK
➜ Factors that affect party success

Principles of political parties

Features of parties
At its most basic level, a political party is an organisation of people with similar
political values and views, which develops a set of goals and policies that it seeks
to convert into political action by obtaining government office, or a share in
government, or by inf luencing the government currently in power. It may pursue
its goals by mobilising public opinion in its favour, selecting candidates for office,
competing at elections and identifying suitable leaders.
Although we might argue about this definition, or add to it, it is a good enough
summary that describes most organisations that we consider to be parties.
This definition also helps us to identify the features of political parties in the UK
(see Figure 2.1):
● The members of parties share similar political values and views.
● Parties seek either to secure the election of their candidates as representatives or
to form the government at various levels (local, regional, national).
● They have some kind of organisation that develops policy, recruits candidates
and identifies leaders.
This is not a long list as the nature of political parties can vary in different parts of the
democratic world. Typical variations in the features of parties include the following:
● Some are mass membership parties with many members (UK Labour Party);
others may have a small leadership group who seek supporters rather than
members (the main US parties).

50 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 50 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 ● Some parties may be highly organised with a formal permanent organisation
(German Christian Democrats); others have a loose, less permanent organisation
Activity
(US parties that only organise fully during elections). Research the organisation
l Some parties may have a very narrow range of values and views and are of the UK Conservative and
intensely united around those views (the former Brexit Party); others have a very Labour parties. Outline
broad range of views and values, and so may be divided into factions (the UK the main features of their
Conservative Party). structure and identify the
● Some parties focus on gaining power (main parties in the UK); others recognise main differences.
they will not gain power but seek to inf luence the political system (Green parties).

Parties aim to
gain power by winning
political office
through
elections

Membership
Parties have a of parties tends
broad focus across Key features to share a common
many different areas of established ideology (such as
(such as health, parties conservatism,
education, socialism or
finance, etc.) liberalism)

Figure 2.1 The key features of established political parties in the UK

Functions of parties
Topic link
Parties used to create policy themselves, but increasingly they have delegated this role to think
tanks, as outlined in Chapter 1.

Making policy
Perhaps the most recognisable function of a political party is the development of policy
and political programmes. This is a role that becomes especially important when a Useful term
party is in opposition and is seeking to replace the government of the day. Opposition Policy A set of intentions
parties are, therefore, in a fundamentally different position from the party in power. or a political programme
developed by parties or
When a ruling party controls the government, its leadership is the government; there
by governments. Policies
is virtually no distinction between the two. Therefore, the policy-making function
reflect the political
of the ruling party is the same as the policy-making function of the government.
stance of parties and
It involves not only political leaders but also civil servants, advisory units and
governments.
committees, and private or special advisers (SpAds). Of course, the rest of the party,
backbench MPs and peers, local activists and ordinary members, have some say
through policy conferences and committees, but their role remains very much in the
background. Most policy in the ruling party is made by ministers and their advisers.

2 Political parties 51

9781398388093.indb 51 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Boris Johnson promoting the 2019 Conservative manifesto
Useful terms In opposition, the leadership of a party is not in such a pre-eminent policy-making
Aggregation A process, position. True, the leadership group will have most inf luence, the leader especially,
undertaken by political but it is when in opposition that the general membership of the party can have most
parties, of converting input into policy-making. Through various conferences and party committees, the
policies, demands and membership can communicate to the leadership which ideas and demands they
ideas into practical would like to see as ‘official’ policy and that therefore could become government
policy programmes for policy one day. This kind of inf luence occurs at local, regional and national level.
government. This involves The policy-formulating function is also sometimes known as aggregation. This involves
eliminating contradictions identifying the wide range of demands made on the political system by the party membership,
and making some the mass of individuals in society and many different groups, and then converting these
compromises. into programmes of action that are consistent and compatible. Aggregation tends to be
Populism A political undertaken by the party leadership group as these are the people who may one day become
movement and way of ministers and will have to put the policies of the party into practical government.
campaigning that appeals
to people’s emotions and Representation
prejudices by telling them Parties claim to have a representative function. Many parties have, in the past, claimed
what they want to hear to represent a specific section of society. For example, the UK Labour Party was
and that tends to find developed in the early twentieth century to represent the working classes, especially
supporters among those trade union members. The Conservative Party of the nineteenth century largely
who feel their concerns existed to protect the interests of the landed gentry and aristocracy. Today, all the
have been ignored by more main parties argue that they represent the national interest and not just the interests
established groups. It is, of specific classes or groups. So, when we suggest that parties have a representative
by nature, a reactionary function, we mean that they seek to ensure all groups in society have their interests
movement that seeks to and demands at least considered by government. In reality, though, we understand
go back to a more popular that parties tend to be prejudiced towards the interests of one section of society or
idea of the past, rather than another, based on their core values and ideologies.
a progressive movement
looking for change. One new phenomenon that has emerged, and which needs to be considered as
far as representation is concerned, is the emergence of populist parties. Populist

52 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 52 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 Topic link
Policy-making as a
function should be
studied in conjunction
with Chapter 4 on factors
affecting elections and
voting behaviour, as
political parties and their
policies are key elements
of the electoral process.

Sir Keir Starmer, in opposition, launching his ‘Five Missions for a Better Britain’ policy agenda
in 2023

parties tend to emerge rapidly (and often disappear equally quickly). Typically,
they represent people who feel they have been ignored by conventional parties,
in other words that they are not represented at all. The appeal of populist parties
is usually emotional or visceral and plays on people’s fears and dissatisfactions.
They generally take root among low-income groups, who feel they have been
left behind. Generally, populist movements tend to be defined by what they are
opposed to (rather than what they favour) and often focus on opposition to big
government, taxation, big business and established politics, such as the Reclaim
Party (established in 2020).
We are also seeing the rise of ‘issue parties’ that represent a particular cause. Green
parties are the best example, but increasingly we are also seeing new parties dedicated
to advancing women’s rights in parts of Europe. Having said this, most contemporary
parties in modern democracies still lay claim to representing the national interest.

Selecting candidates
Parties spend a great deal of their time and effort selecting candidates for office at all
levels. They need to find prospective local councillors and elected mayors in those
localities where such a position exists (notably London and other major cities), and
members of the Welsh and Scottish parliaments, the Northern Ireland Assembly and,
most prominently of all, the UK Parliament. This is mostly done at local and regional
level, through party committees staffed by activists. The national party leaderships do
have some say in which candidates should be chosen, but it is in this role that local
constituency parties have the greatest part to play.

Identifying leaders
Parties need leaders and, in the case of the main parties, this means potential government
ministers. They therefore have procedures for identifying political leaders. It is here
that the established party leaders play a key role. For the ruling party, the prime

2 Political parties 53

9781398388093.indb 53 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 minister completely controls the appointment of ministers. In opposition parties, the
leader chooses a smaller group of ‘frontbench’ spokespersons who form the leadership.
But despite the dominance of party leaders in this field, potential leaders cut their
teeth to some extent in internal party organisations and committees. The formal
organisations of parties give opportunities for members to be ‘trained’ as leaders.
The issue of political leadership was thrown into focus within the Labour Party in
2015–16 and the Conservative Party in 2022. Following the Labour Party’s 2015
election defeat, the former leader, Ed Miliband, resigned. This left behind a power
vacuum. In finding a successor, the party ran into a huge controversy. The party
membership voted overwhelmingly to elect Jeremy Corbyn. However, Corbyn’s
political views were far to the left of most of the Labour MPs and peers. He was
the party leader until 2020, but many of the Labour MPs in Parliament refused to
Activity acknowledge him as their leader.
Research the Conservative
In 2022, the Conservative Party also faced controversy. After a series of scandals, and
leadership elections of
having been undermined by members of his own government, Boris Johnson felt
2022 and consider:
obliged to resign under pressure from his own MPs, despite his popularity among
● Why did the leadership
the party membership. The party membership then elected Liz Truss over Rishi
elections take place?
Sunak to be the new Conservative leader and prime minister. After just 49 days as
● Were there any
prime minister, Truss had lost the support of her MPs and stepped down. She was
controversies
to be replaced by Sunak, without the membership having a vote, raising questions
concerning the selection
about the role of the party members in choosing their leader.
of both Liz Truss and
then Rishi Sunak? Examples of key features of the three main parties are provided in Table 2.1, with
some of these features being dealt with in more detail later in the chapter.
Table 2.1 Key features of the three main parties as of 2023
Feature Conservative Party Labour Party Liberal Democrats
Leader Rishi Sunak Sir Keir Starmer Sir Ed Davey
Current pledges Halve inflation and ease the Make the UK a ‘clean Provide mortgage grants of
cost of living crisis energy superpower’ £300 a month
Reduce the national debt to Secure the highest Cut household energy bills by
secure public services sustained growth in the G7 taxing oil and gas companies
Reduce NHS waiting lists and Reform the justice system Tax water companies to clean
speed up access to treatment up sewage spills
Number of MPs 349 198 15
Number of peers 269 175 80
Number of MSPs (Scotland) 31 22 4
Number of MSs (Wales) 16 30 1
Number of London 9 11 2
Assembly Members
Number of local councillors* 5588 6460 2984
Party membership in 1979** 1,120,000 666,000 145,000
Party membership in 1992 500,000 280,000 101,000
Party membership in 1997 400,000 405,000 87,000
Party membership in 2005 258,000 198,000 73,000
Party membership in 2019 180,000 485,000 115,000
Party membership in 2023 172,437 399,195 90,000

* Figures cover the total number of county, district, metro, London and unitary authority councillors from the whole UK
** The Liberal Democrats did not exist in 1979, so figures are for the Liberal Party
Source: House of Commons Library

54 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 54 08/03/24 3:55 PM

 The Liberal Democrats use a slightly different system that involves more of
the grassroots party membership in the nomination process. In the leadership
elections of 2019 and 2020, candidates had to be an MP and were required to
have the support of 10 per cent of Liberal Democrat MPs (which essentially
meant one other MP in the two most recent contests) and the support of at
least 200 members spread across at least 20 different local parties, to ensure
widespread support across the party for any candidate. Once nominations
close, the candidates campaign and are elected by all members of the party
on a one member, one vote basis.
The Liberal Democrats use the alternative vote system, which should ensure
a majority. However, in 2019 and 2020, the contests were between just two
candidates anyway ( Jo Swinson and Ed Davey in 2019, and Ed Davey and
Layla Moran in 2020, after Jo Swinson lost her seat in the 2019 general
election). In both contests the choice was between the two sides of the party,
as Davey represented the more centrist, ‘Orange Book’ group of Liberal
Democrats (see Table 2.10), while Swinson and Moran represented the more
socially liberal and progressive wing of the party.
Ed Davey, leader of the Liberal
Democrats
Contesting elections
At election time parties play a critical role. Apart from supplying approved candidates,
the party organisations form part of the process of publicising election issues, Synoptic link
persuading people to vote and informing them about the candidates. Without the In the UK, to become the
huge efforts of thousands of party activists at election time, turnout at the polls would head of government, the
be lower. Representatives of the parties are also present when the counting of votes prime minister, you also
takes place, so they play a part in ensuring that the contests in elections are fair and need to be party leader.
honest. Therefore, the support
of the party is crucial in
Knowledge check maintaining the power of
● Who is the current leader of each of these UK parties? the prime minister. This
– SNP idea is explored in more
– Green Party detail in Chapter 7.
– DUP (Northern Ireland)
● What is unique about the Green Party leadership and how does the party justify this?
l How many female UK party leaders are there currently?
● How many people of colour have been party leaders in the UK?

Topic link
The way in which parties contest and promote elections is explored in Chapter 4.

Political education
It is not only at election time that parties have an educative function. They are also
continuously involved in the process of informing people about the political issues of
the day, explaining the main areas of disagreement and outlining their own solutions
to the problems they have identified. Part of this process involves educating the public
about how the political system itself operates. This can most clearly be seen in the way
the Green Party raised awareness about environmental issues, while UKIP made the
role and position of the EU a source for debate. Labour also raised awareness of the

2 Political parties 55

9781398388093.indb 55 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 issues of the cost of living crisis and zero-hours contracts, which have introduced these
ideas to members of the public who are not directly affected by them.
This function is becoming less important. To some extent the media and think
tanks have taken over in supplying information to the public, but the growth of
the internet and social media has also marginalised the parties. Pressure groups,
too, play an increasing role in informing the public. Even so, parties do present the
electorate with clear choices in a coherent way.

Reinforcing consent
Finally, parties also have a ‘hidden’ function, but a vital one, nonetheless. This
can be described as ‘the mobilisation and reinforcement of consent’. All the main
parties support the political system of the UK, which is parliamentary democracy.
By operating and supporting this system, parties are part of the process that ensures
the general population consents to the system. If parties were to challenge the nature
of the political system in any fundamental way, this would create political conf lict
within society at large. Parties that challenge the basis of the political system are
generally seen as extremists and only marginal elements in the system.

The funding of UK political parties

How parties are funded
The position on party funding is a complex one. This is because UK parties have
multiple sources of finance. The main ways in which parties are funded are as follows:
● Collecting membership subscriptions from members
● Holding fundraising events such as fetes, festivals, conferences and dinners
l Receiving donations from supporters
l Raising loans from wealthy individuals or banks
l The self-financing of candidates for office
l Up to £2 million per party available in grants from the Electoral Commission
(see below for details)
● Money granted to opposition parties in the Commons and Lords
It is immediately apparent that the larger parties have better access to funds than
their smaller counterparts. While the Conservative Party attracts large donations
from wealthy individuals and businesses (other parties do too, but on a much smaller
scale), Labour receives contributions from trade unions. These amounted to nearly
60 per cent of the party’s total income in 2014–15. This figure, though, has reduced
as the rules for union donations changed, essentially making it easier for individual
union members to opt out of contributing to the party. In 2017, Labour saw its share
of funds from trade unions drop to just over 11 per cent of its total income. They
have started to rise again since 2019 to more than a third (Electoral Commission).
Study tip
Smaller parties, by contrast, usually have no such regular sources of income. Add to
When answering questions this the fact that they have small memberships and we can see their disadvantage. It
on parties, do not confuse is understandable that donors are less likely to give money to parties whose prospects
features with functions. of ever being in power are remote. Those donors who do give to small parties are
Features are the main essentially acting out of idealism rather than any prospects of gaining inf luence.
characteristics of parties,
while functions concern The funding of parties was regulated by the Political Parties, Elections and
their roles and objectives. Referendums Act 2000. Among other regulations, this made the following
stipulations:

56 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 56 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 ● People not on the UK electoral roll could no longer make donations (so reducing
foreign inf luence).
● Limits were placed on how much could be spent on parliamentary elections.
l Donations over £500 had to be declared.
● Donations over £7500 were to be placed on an electoral register.
This regulation stressed transparency rather than any serious limits on the amounts
being donated. State funding was rejected as a solution at that time, and election
spending controls were extremely generous.
These regulations were further developed in the wake of the MPs’ expenses scandal
with the Political Parties and Elections Act 2009, which gave the Electoral
Commission the power to investigate and impose fines, restricted donations from
non-UK residents and imposed tighter regulations in the run-up to elections.

Why party funding is controversial

Before looking at the issues surrounding party funding, we should consider how
much parties actually receive. Table 2.2 shows the income of significant UK parties.

Table 2.2 Party funding in the first quarter of 2023 for significant UK parties
Total reported Donations accepted Public funds Total accepted
Party (£) (excl. public funds) (£) accepted (£) (£)
Conservative and Unionist Party 12,277,478 12,143,082 134,396 12,277,478
Green Party 215,704 168,926 46,778 215,704
Labour Party 5,893,841 4,407,459 1,435,826 5,843,285
Liberal Democrats 1,669,749 1,335,433 302,044 1,637,477
Plaid Cymru — The Party of Wales 30,467 0 30,467 30,467
Scottish National Party (SNP) 291,339 4000 287,339 291,339
Total 20,378,578 18,058,900 2,236,850 20,295,750

Source: Electoral Commission

The figures in Table 2.2 illustrate clearly that funding favours the two biggest parties,
putting small parties at a great disadvantage when it comes to fighting elections, so
creating political inequality. Beyond this, the question of party funding has a number
of issues that are even more serious. The controversies include the following:
● Funding by large donors represents a hidden and unaccountable form of political
inf luence. Parties are not allowed to change specific policies or propose legislation
as a direct result of donations, but donors must expect some kind of political
return for their investment. This might be true of trade unions and the Labour
Party, and of business interests and the Conservatives.
● Aspects of funding may well verge on being corrupt — morally, if not legally, at
least. Some donors may expect to receive an honour from party leaders, such as a
peerage or knighthood, in return for their generosity. This is sometimes known
as ‘cash for honours’. It cannot be proved that it exists, although between 2006
and 2007 the issue was investigated by police. While it was not taken further by
the Crown Prosecution Service, suspicions remain.
● The steady decline of party memberships has meant that parties are even more
reliant upon donors, which further opens up the possibility of corruption and the
purchasing of political inf luence.

2 Political parties 57

9781398388093.indb 57 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 The Electoral Commission, which monitors the income of political parties in the UK,
has reported examples of large donations to parties. Some interesting examples are these:
● In the first quarter of 2023, the Conservatives received a single donation of
£5 million from billionaire Mohamed Mansour. The total donations reached
more than £12 million.
● In the same time period, Labour raised £5.8 million for all donors, with its single
biggest donation coming from the Unite Union, for £725,250.
l In the final quarter of 2022, Labour outraised the Conservatives, attracting just
over £5 million in donations, £2 million of which was a single donation from
billionaire Lord Sainsbury.
l Also in 2022, Peak Scientific (a gas producing company) donated £200,000 each
to Scottish Labour and Scottish Conservatives with the express aim of helping
them to defeat the SNP.
l In 2021, the Conservatives received 39 of the top 50 donations, but the single
largest donation was £1.5 million, donated by Jeremy Hosking to Lawrence
Fox’s new Reclaim Party.
● Between the 2017 and 2019 general elections, total party donations were over
£201 million, but between the 2019 election and the end of 2021, total party
donations were just over £31 million.
So, such individual donations are not only seen as undemocratic forms of inf luence,
but often carry some other kind of controversy. Similarly, trade union donations to
Labour have been criticised on the grounds that members of unions are not given
a clear enough choice as to whether their subscriptions should be spent in that way,
though this may be a less valid criticism than before the rule change in 2017. It is
also said that Labour is unduly inf luenced by union leaders because so much of its
income comes from them.

Former prime minister Gordon Brown pictured with Lord Sainsbury (right), who donated a total of
£16 million to the Labour Party between 1996 and 2007

58 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 58 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Alternative funding structures and restrictions
There is a strong case for saying the way in which parties are funded in the UK is
undemocratic and in need of reform, a conclusion reached by the Phillips Report of
2007 entitled ‘Strengthening Democracy: Fair and Sustainable Funding of Political
Parties’. The report suggested that state party funding based on vote share or
membership size would make party politics in the UK fairer and more democratic.
The problem, however, is that there is no agreement about what to do. There are
four basic solutions:
1 Impose restrictions on the size of individual donations to parties. To be effective,
the cap would have to be relatively low.
2 Impose tight restrictions on how much parties are allowed to spend. This would
make large-scale fundraising futile.
3 Restrict donations to individuals, i.e. outlaw donations from businesses, pressure
groups and trade unions.
4 Replace all funding with state grants for parties, paid for out of general taxation.

Case study
Being held to account
In 2016, Labour was fined £20,000 by the Electoral Commission for breaching finance
Activity
rules. The investigation was launched after £7614 was found to be missing from the party’s Do some research into the
election return for the costs of Ed Miliband’s stone with his policies carved into it, dubbed 2019 general election.
the ‘tombstone’ by his opponents. The investigation went on to identify 24 other undeclared Were any accusations
election expenses, totalling £109,777. made or fines imposed
over party funding or
At the time, Bob Posner, the Commission’s director of party and election finance, said: ‘The
spending?
Labour party is a well-established, experienced party. Rules on reporting campaign spending
have been in place for over 15 years and it is vital that the larger parties comply with these
rules and report their finances accurately if voters are to have confidence in the system.’
In a statement, the Commission said it was pushing the government for an increase in the
Study tip
maximum £20,000 penalty available to it for a single offence ‘to an amount more in proportion
with the spending and donations handled by large campaigners’. When you are asked about
party funding, make sure
In 2017, following some rule changes, the Conservative Party was fined £70,000 for breaches
your examples are referring
in its expenses reporting for the 2015 general election. The Commission found that the
to donations made to the
Conservatives had failed to correctly report £104,765 of campaign expenses and incorrectly
party itself and not to
reported a further £118,124. Commission chairman Sir John Holmes said the Tories’ failure to
individual politicians. Many
follow the rules ‘undermined voters’ confidence in our democratic processes’ and said there
recent scandals have been
was a risk that political parties were seeing such fines as ‘a cost of doing business’.
about gifts to individuals for
The Conservative Party was also fined again in December 2021. The fine of £17,800 was their personal campaigns,
for failing to fully report a donation from Huntswood Associates Limited, which included not to a party for the
£52,801.72 towards the costs of refurbishing 11 Downing Street. organisation’s activities.

2 Political parties 59

9781398388093.indb 59 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 As we have seen, there already is some state funding of parties in the UK. All main parties
Useful terms receive funds from the Electoral Commission. These are called policy development
Short money Named after grants (PDGs) and can be used to hire advisers on policy. Over £2 million is available
Ted Short, the politician for this purpose. Table 2.3 gives the figures for allocation of PDGs in 2021.
who introduced it, Short
Table 2.3 Policy development grants, 2021
money refers to funds
given to opposition Party Value of grants (£)
parties to facilitate their Conservative Party 490,000
parliamentary work Democratic Unionist Party 155,000
(research facilities, etc.). Labour Party 451,000
The amount is based on Liberal Democrats 451,000
how many seats and votes Plaid Cymru 151,000
each party won at the
Scottish National Party 182,000
previous election.
Social Democratic and Labour Party 84,000
Cranborne money Named
Total 1,964,000
after Lord Cranborne, this
refers to funds paid to Source: Electoral Commission
opposition parties in the In addition there is Short money, which is distributed to all opposition parties to
House of Lords to help fund their parliamentary work in the House of Commons, and Cranborne money,
with the costs of research which does the same for opposition peers in the House of Lords. The aim of this
and administration in order money is to help fund opposition parties in their role of scrutiny, as the government
for them to scrutinise the of the day has the support of the civil service to help prepare for parliamentary
work of the government. statements.
Short money heavily favours large parties because it depends upon how many seats
parties have won at previous elections as well as how many votes they received.
Thus, in 2022–23, Labour received more than £6.5 million, while the SNP only
received £1.1 million (see Table 2.4 for a fuller breakdown). So, state funding of
parties already exists. The real question, though, is whether full state funding should
replace private donations altogether.
Table 2.4 Short money allocations, 2022–23
Synoptic link Party Total (£)
One of the key functions Democratic Unionist Party 200,000
of Parliament is to Green Party 180,000
scrutinise the work of the Labour Party* 6,800,000
government. Cranborne Liberal Democrats 930,000
money and Short money
Plaid Cymru 100,000
help opposition parties
Scottish National Party 1,100,000
to carry out this function
Social Democratic and Labour Party 110,000
more effectively, as
Sinn Féin 170,000
covered in Chapter 6.
* Labour’s total includes £904,000 funding for the office of the leader of the opposition
Source: House of Commons, HR and Finance

Much of the debate about party funding relates to state financing. This remains the
only solution that could create more equality in the system. As long as funding is
determined by ‘market forces’, it is likely that the large parties will be placed at a
significant advantage. However, although several political parties favour state funding,
there is little public appetite for it. Taxpayers are naturally reluctant to see their taxes
being used to finance parties at a time when attitudes to parties are at a low ebb.

60 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 60 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Therefore, while there are merits to the idea of introducing full state party funding,
it seems unlikely that this will arrive in the UK in the near future. The other popular
policy idea is to eliminate the abuses in the system. This involves full transparency,
limits on how much business and union donors can give, and a breaking of any
link between donations and the granting of honours. The limitation of individual
donations is a strong possibility. Greater transparency has largely been achieved,
but the problem of ‘cash for honours’ or the suspicion that large organisations can
gain a political advantage through donations persists. Action may well centre on a
‘deal’ between Labour and the Conservatives. Labour might sacrifice some of its
trade union funding in return for caps on business donations. However, the Liberal
Democrats, with their unwavering support for state funding, are likely to have to
remain on the sidelines for the time being.

Debate
Should UK parties receive full state funding?

Arguments for Arguments against

● It would end the opportunities for the corrupt use of ● Taxpayers might object to funding what can be considered
donations. ‘private’ organisations or parties with views they find
● It would end the possibilities of ‘hidden’ forms of influence offensive.
through funding. ● It would be difficult to know how to distribute funding.
l It would reduce the huge financial advantage that large Should it be on the basis of past performance (in which
parties enjoy and give smaller parties the opportunity to case large parties would retain their advantage) or on the
make progress. basis of future aspirations (which is vague)?
● It would improve democracy by ensuring wider participation l Parties might lose some of their independence and would
from groups that have no ready source of funds. see themselves as organs of the state.
● State funding might lead to excessive state regulation of
parties.
Having considered the merits of the arguments, you need to decide which side is more convincing. This may be because the
single most convincing argument is on one side, or because of the overall weight of the arguments on one side.

Established political parties

Right-wing and left-wing politics
The terms ‘left wing’ and ‘right wing’ should be treated with some caution.
Although they are commonly used in everyday political discussion to describe an
individual’s or a group’s political stance, they are not very precise expressions.

Key terms
Left wing A widely used term for those who desire change, reform and alteration to the way in
which society operates. This can involve radical criticisms of capitalism made by modern liberal
and socialist parties.
Right wing Reflects support for the status quo, little or no change, stressing the need for order,
stability and hierarchy. It can involve support for capitalism by modern conservative parties.

2 Political parties 61

9781398388093.indb 61 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Activity
Visit the website www.politicalcompass.org and answer the questions given in the test. This
will help you identify where you stand on the political spectrum and where you are in relation to
the political figures of today and throughout history.

It is usually best for the sake of clarity to avoid using these terms, because they
are so vague. It should also be noted that left and right descriptions of politics (see
Figure 2.2) vary considerably from one country to another.

Communism Socialism Liberalism Conservatism Fascism

Figure 2.2 The political spectrum, from left wing to right wing

Nevertheless, we can construct a scheme that gives a reasonable picture of the left–
right divide in the context of UK politics. Many issues do not fall easily into a left–
right spectrum, such as environmental issues, but we can usefully consider economic
issues and social issues to illustrate the distinctions. These are shown in Table 2.5.
The spectrum could refer to any dividing issue in politics, but typically we tend to
use it to refer to the role of the state, with the left preferring a larger role for the state
and the right preferring a smaller role.
Table 2.5 The left–right divide in UK politics
Left Centre-left Centre Centre-right Right
Economics State economic Elements from Largely free-market Elements from Strong support for
and trade planning and both centre economy with some both centre and totally free markets
nationalisation of all and left state regulation right No state intervention in
major industries Pragmatic approach the economy
State regulation of to government
large industries that borrowing to
exploit consumers or stimulate economic
workers growth
Relaxed approach
to government
borrowing; much
state investment in
infrastructure
Income and Redistribution of Elements from Pro-free trade Elements from Very low levels of
employment income to create both centre Mild redistribution of both centre and taxation
more economic and left income, with some right Avoidance of excessive
equality poverty relief government borrowing
Strong trade unions Pro-EU and in favour to stimulate growth
and protected rights of the so-called ‘soft Protectionism for
for workers Brexit’ option domestic industries
Protectionism for Free labour markets,
domestic industries with weak protection
Anti-EU for workers
Anti-EU and in favour
of the so-called ‘hard
Brexit’ option

62 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 62 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Left Centre-left Centre Centre-right Right
Social Strong support for Elements from Welfare state to Elements from A more limited welfare
issues the welfare state both centre concentrate on the both centre and state, with caps on
Stress on equal and left most needy right the total amount of
rights and protection Support for benefits available to
for minority groups multiculturalism families and tougher
Positive attitude to Mixed attitudes to criteria for the claiming
same-sex marriage crime — typically a of benefits
and surrogate liberal attitude to Anti-immigration —
motherhood minor crime but a support for strict
Liberal attitude hard line on serious controls
to crime and its crime Opposed to
remedies The state multiculturalism
should promote Traditional attitude
individualism to moral issues and
relationships
Stress on patriotism
and national interest

The origins and development of the Conservative Party

Conservatism in the UK has its origins in the conf lict that raged during the
seventeenth century over the monarchy. Those who supported royal authority (as
opposed to Parliament) were known as royalists, but eventually came to be known
as ‘Tories’. During the seventeenth century, it became clear that the supporters of
Parliament and democracy in general (mostly known as ‘Whigs’) were gaining the
upper hand over royalists. However, a new conf lict began to emerge as the Industrial
Revolution gathered pace during the nineteenth century. Key terms
With industrialisation and the growth of international markets, the capitalist middle One nation A paternalistic
classes began to grow in size and inf luence. Their rise challenged the traditional approach adopted by
authority of the aristocracy and the landed gentry, the owners of the great estates conservatives under the
whose income was based on rents and the products of agriculture. The middle classes leadership of Benjamin
were represented largely by the Whigs and the landed gentry by the Tories, who Disraeli in the nineteenth
were beginning to be described as ‘conservatives’. They resisted the new political century and continued
structures that were growing up and wished to ‘conserve’ the dominant position of by David Cameron and
the upper classes they represented. Theresa May in the twenty-
first century, that richer
As the nineteenth century progressed, conservatism began to develop into something
people have an obligation
closer to the movement we recognise today. Sir Robert Peel (prime minister 1834–
to help poorer people.
35 and 1841–46) is generally acknowledged as the first Conservative Party prime
minister. He and Benjamin Disraeli (prime minister 1868 and 1874–80) formed the New Right There are two
party, basing it on traditional conservative ideas which then evolved over the next elements — (i) the neo
century towards the modern Conservative Party. The party’s main objectives were (or new) conservatives
to prevent the country falling too far into inequality, to preserve the unity of the who want the state to
kingdom and to preserve order in society. It was a pragmatic party, which adopted take a more authoritarian
any policies it believed would benefit the whole nation. approach to morality and
law and order, and (ii) the
The political background to the Conservative Party is best understood by considering neo-liberals who endorse
two traditions. The first is often known as ‘traditional conservatism’, dating from the free-market approach
the origins of the party in the nineteenth century, which would develop into ‘one- and the rolling back of the
nation conservatism’. The other tradition emerged in the 1980s. It is usually given state in people’s lives and
one of two names — ‘New Right conservatism’ or ‘Thatcherism’, after its main businesses.
protagonist, Margaret Thatcher (prime minister 1979–90).

2 Political parties 63

9781398388093.indb 63 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Traditional conservatism leading to one-nationism
Originating in the late part of the eighteenth century, traditional conservatism
developed as a reaction against the newly emerging liberal ideas that were the
inspiration behind the revolutions in North America (1776) and France (1789).
Conservative thinkers such as Edmund Burke (1729–97) became alarmed at the
rise of ideas such as freedom of the individual, tolerance of different political and
religious beliefs, representative government and a laissez-faire attitude towards
economic activity (that is, the state avoiding significant interference in the way
in which wealth is distributed in society). Conservatives believed that such a free
society, with so little control by government, would lead to major social disorder.
Thereafter, conservatives continued to consistently oppose the rise of any new
ideology, so, later in the nineteenth century, the rise of socialism was opposed. This
anti-socialist position remained in place until the 1980s, when it reached its height
under Margaret Thatcher.
However, conservatism is not merely a reaction to any dominant ideology; it
acknowledges that society must evolve and conserve the best elements of the past.
In this sense the Conservative Party looks to enact limited reforms to release the
pressure building for a major upheaval or radical movement, as occurred during the
French Revolution. The key principles of the one-nation conservatives are outlined
in Figure 2.3.

Strong law and

order to
control society

Faith in
property and
home ownership The preservation
as a means to of tradition
creating an
ordered society

Key principles
of one-nation
conservatism
Useful terms
Noblesse oblige Those of Pragmatic, An organic
a higher social standing rather than society with people
ideological, on higher and lower
(i.e. the nobility) have a
responses to incomes bound
moral duty or ‘obligation’ issues to each other
to help those of a lower
social standing who,
The theory of
through no fault of their
noblesse oblige
own, have fallen on hard
times or found themselves
in a difficult situation.
Figure 2.3 The key principles of one-nation conservatives

New Right conservatism (Thatcherism)

The term ‘New Right’ was used to describe a set of political values and ideas, largely
emerging in the USA in the 1970s and 1980s, which were adopted by many conservatives
throughout developed economies. The New Right is actually made up of two competing

64 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 64 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 strands, neo-conservatism, which believes in a strong and traditional state, and neo-
liberalism, which believes in free market economics. These two strands were, in many Study tip
ways, a reaction both against the socialist ideas gaining ground in countries across It is important to
Europe, Asia and South America, and against traditional conservative values that were distinguish between
seen as too weak to deal with contemporary economic and social policies. Although the conservatism as a
neo-conservative idea of a strong state and the neo-liberal support for free markets may political tradition and the
seem contradictory, Margaret Thatcher created an amalgamation of the two, leading to Conservative Party. The
what has been termed ‘Thatcherism’, which has been described as ‘free markets: strong best way to distinguish
state’ and is different from other instances of the New Right around the world. between the two is to put
a capital letter in front
As the New Right is made up of two aspects, which most, but not all, conservatives
of members of the party
of the New Right subscribe to, it is important to understand the key principles
(Conservatives), but to
behind each strand.
use a lower case ‘c’ for
people who simply tend to
Principles of neo-liberalism support conservative ideas
Neo-liberalism is associated with the economic and social philosophers Friedrich (conservatives).
Hayek (Austrian, 1899–1992) and Milton Friedman (American, 1912–2006). The
main beliefs of neo-liberalism are outlined in Figure 2.4.

The state should

disengage from
political
management

High taxation is
Markets should
a disincentive to
not be regulated
work and
by the state
productivity
Key principles
of neo-liberalism

Welfare
Trade unions
benefits are
hinder economic
detrimental and
development,
produce a
making everyone
dependency
poorer
culture

Figure 2.4 The key principles of neo-liberalism

In practical terms, neo-liberal politicians within the modern Conservative Party

propose reducing direct taxes, privatising industries run by the state (such as
transport and energy), reducing welfare benefits so that they are only a ‘safety net’,
and curbing the powers of trade unions. In addition, they propose allowing the
economy to find its own natural level, even during recessions, rather than the state
actively trying to control economic activity.

Principles of neo-conservatism
Ironically, while neo-liberalism proposes the withdrawal of the state from economic
activity, neo-conservatism proposes a strong state, albeit a small one, yet both are

2 Political parties 65

9781398388093.indb 65 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 considered part of the same New Right movement. There is a tension between them
in that neo-liberalism proposes a very free society and this opens up the possibility
of disorder. Neo-conservatives, therefore, seek to maintain authority and discipline
in society. The main beliefs of neo-conservatism are outlined in Figure 2.5.

Belief in the
promotion and
advancement of
traditional moral
values to ensure
a stable society

Distrust of
multinational A requirement
organisations like the Key for strong forces
EU and UN, believing principles of of law and order in
that the pursuit of the neo- an authoritarian
national interest conservativism state to impose
should always take social morality
priority

Nationalism,
believing that
national pride
and unification are
the best way to
maintain a
stable society

Figure 2.5 The key principles of neo-conservatism

We can see that neo-conservatism has much in common with traditional conservatism in
Activity that it promotes traditional ‘national’ values and sees order as a key value to be maintained
Research the following by the state. However, while most conservatives accept that different lifestyles should be
people and outline what tolerated, neo-conservatives seek to impose a single national culture on society.
part they played in the
development of the Conservative ideas and policies today
New Right:
The economy
● Sir Keith Joseph
When the Conservative Party returned to power in 2010, it was faced with an economic
● Enoch Powell
crisis, specifically a huge, growing budget deficit arising from the bailout of banks in
● Sir Geoffrey Howe
2008 and the fact that successive governments had been spending considerably more than
their taxation receipts. The national debt was huge, standing at £1.13 trillion in March
2010. This led to the party adopting a rigorous approach to economic management.
Above all, its economic policy was dominated by the aim of eliminating budget deficits
(i.e. having a balanced budget) and reducing the national debt.
Under Theresa May, after 2016 the goal of a balanced budget was abandoned. It
was seen as unattainable and as inhibiting economic growth. However, party policy
remains pragmatic and cautious about the economy — public expenditure must
be kept under careful control, but not at the expense of social unrest or failing to
undertake necessary government action. This was why, in 2020, the Conservative
Party authorised unprecedented levels of national borrowing to fund the Covid-19
lockdowns. It was a pragmatic response to maintain stability and ensure businesses
and employment could survive.

66 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 66 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 The party retains a neo-liberal position in its attitude to markets. This was one
of the reasons for many neo-liberal figures in the Conservative Party supporting
leaving the EU, to end EU regulation of the UK economy, and the thinking behind
the ‘mini-budget’ of Liz Truss. The party believes government policy should always
promote free markets and free trade, though as economic policies under Rishi
Sunak have shown, not at the expense of a stable economy. To this end, it is also
determined to curb the power of trade unions to keep labour markets free.
The attitude of the Conservative Party to taxation is partly neo-liberal and partly one
nation. On the one hand, personal and company taxation should never be excessively
high as this inhibits enterprise and wealth creation (a neo-liberal view). The party seeks to
reduce corporate taxation as much as is feasible. On the other hand, the party recognises
that if taxation on lower incomes is too high, it risks creating higher levels of poverty
and dividing the nation (a one-nation view). Wage rises as a result of inflation mean that
more people than ever before are now in the 40% tax bracket, so taxation, in terms of
money generated from income, has actually reached the highest post-war levels under
the Conservative Party and the burden of tax has shifted towards middle-income groups.

Law and order

The party retains the view that prison and stern punishments are the best deterrent
against crime, and sentencing policy should be in the hands of an elected government
and not unelected judges. The party is opposed to ‘liberal’ ideas about crime and
punishment and opposes such proposals as the legalisation of drugs.
Conservatives stress the need for security and see it as the first duty of government
to protect its citizens. In the fight against terrorism, therefore, they accept that civil
liberties (privacy, freedom of movement and expression) may have to be sacrificed.
For this reason, in both the 2017 and 2019 Conservative Party manifestos, the party
pledged to alter the Human Rights Act to ensure it could deal with national threats
such as terrorism, prioritising social stability and safety above individual rights.
Between March 2020 and March 2021 the Conservative government also limited
various freedoms to ensure the success of lockdown measures during the Covid-19
pandemic, and then in 2022 it introduced the ‘Rwanda Plan’ to provide a strong
legal deterrent to migrants making illegal channel crossings.

Welfare
Modern Conservative policy concentrates on the need to ensure that welfare benefits
are not a disincentive to work. The government has introduced: a stricter system of
means testing to prevent unemployment being seen as a preferable option; a living
wage (or minimum wage) as a greater reward for work at lower levels of pay; and an
overall cap on total welfare benefits for families.
Party policy is committed to maintaining the welfare state, and safeguarding the
NHS and the education system. However, the party believes that these two services
should be subject to competition and market forces, and that private-sector enterprises
should become involved in the provision of services. This, it believes, can increase
efficiency so that services can improve without increasing expenditure on them.

Foreign affairs
Conservatives support the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the
UK’s close alliance with the USA. However, they also believe that the UK’s best
national interests lie in retaining an independent foreign policy. They believe that
the country should intervene in foreign conf licts if it is in the UK’s interests or if

2 Political parties 67

9781398388093.indb 67 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 there is a moral reason, as shown with the support given to Ukraine since 2022. The
party is committed to retaining the UK’s independent nuclear deterrent in the form
of Trident submarine-based weapons. After considerable internal conf lict, the party
decided to reduce the UK’s contributions to international aid.

External influences
The Conservative Party has had a long history of being the party of business. Groups
that represent business interests often exert a powerful inf luence over Conservative
Party policy-making and direction. Most notable are the Confederation of British
Industry (CBI), which works to promote British business interests, and the British
Banking Association (BBA), which notably persuaded the former Conservative
prime minister David Cameron not to impose fines and increased controls on banks
following the financial crash of 2008. Yet both the CBI and BBA warned against
Brexit, which shows the limits of external inf luences.
The Conservative Party also has a history of being inf luenced by major press barons,
dating back to the pre-war figures of Lord Beaverbrook and Lord Rothermere.
In the 1980s, Rupert Murdoch (then owner of News International, which owned
the Sun and the Times) was a key supporter of Margaret Thatcher and helped to
shape the anti-union stance of the Conservative Party as he fought the printing
unions. Meanwhile, in 2001, the then owner of the Daily Telegraph, Conrad Black,
was made a Conservative life peer having been nominated by then leader William
Hague, while Viscount Rothermere IV, owner of the Daily Mail, has continually
been an active supporter of the Conservative Party. It is therefore not surprising that
so much of the printed media in the UK supports the Conservative Party and the
press barons expect the party to support many, if not all, of their positions.
Table 2.6 summarises the current Conservative Party policies.

Table 2.6 Current Conservative policies

Policy area Right tendency Centre-right tendency
Economic Support for free trade and deregulation of The economy should be managed to ensure society
management business; lowering of taxation on all with trade does not become divided, nor the markets volatile, with
agreements negotiated on a bilateral basis support for furlough and lower rates of taxation for the
poorest
Social justice Support for a traditional, Christian-centred Ensuring the provision of a safety net during the
society based on individual value, and clear Covid-19 crisis, a desire to ‘level up’ society, the idea
hierarchies and social structures of social mobility
Support for more progressive ideas, such as same-sex
marriage
Industry Extensive privatisation of all areas Government investment in infrastructure, like HS2 and
Decrease union protections new airports to facilitate private industry
Limited government intervention Financial support for struggling businesses to prevent
economic hardship
Acceptance of some necessary state services that can
work with the private sector
Welfare Seeks to reduce, if not end, welfare provisions, Support for the NHS as part of the national identity
including proposals to privatise parts of the NHS The need for welfare provision, but with a purpose to
More stringent tests of welfare recipients encourage people into work for social stability
Law and order Support for strong law and order to ensure that Support for law and order, but also for individual
society operates in a traditional, well-ordered freedoms and liberties
way Law and order should not be imposed in a draconian way

68 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 68 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Policy area Right tendency Centre-right tendency
Foreign policy Focus on British nationalism, and opposed to Favours international cooperation to facilitate free
membership of supranational organisations like trade and to intervene in foreign disputes that may not
the EU directly impact UK interests, such as international aid
Support for a strong and independent military and peacekeeping services as part of supranational
capacity. organisations
Environment Opposition to environmental policies that may Support for environmental initiatives and a focus on
hinder business reducing the UK’s carbon footprint
At the extreme end, may be climate change
deniers
Constitutional Opposition to progressive reforms Seeks to ‘fix’ problems left over from previous
reform Support for traditional systems and laws, reforms, rather than removing those reforms
including the monarchy, the House of Lords and
the abolition of the Human Rights Act

Useful term
Conservative Party factions
Although we tend to think of political parties as being unified and cohesive, they Party faction A distinct
are often split into different party factions. This division could be over a principle group within a political
or political idea, such as the division between one-nation Conservatives and New party, whose views vary
Right Conservatives, or it may be over an issue, such as between Conservative pro- significantly from the
Europeans and Eurosceptics, particularly the European Research Group which held main party policies. Often
significant power under Theresa May and contributed to her parliamentary defeats factions are to the left
and eventual resignation in 2019. or right of the party’s
position. Some factions
Since 2019, we can also identify emerging factions, with a group of libertarian MPs have a formal membership
who voted against lockdown measures and other measures that restricted individual and organisation, while
choice and freedom, seeing it as part of an over-powerful state. Meanwhile, MPs others are loose and
from the ‘red wall’ constituencies have focused on pushing for government action represent little more than
in a ‘levelling up’ agenda. This highlights how factional divisions evolve as issues a policy tendency.
and circumstances change and explains why parties are continually evolving. Since
2022, divisions have seemingly centred on the personalities of leaders, with distinct
pro- and anti-Johnson figures remaining in the party.
The key Conservative Party factions are outlined in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7 Conservative Party factions
Faction Core ideas Key members
Cornerstone Traditional values: Christian, nationalist and focused Edward Leigh
on family values Jacob Rees-Mogg
Reactionary, opposed to social reforms such as
same-sex marriage and legal abortion
Conservative Thatcherite, neo-liberal Gerald Howarth
Way Forward Retention of free markets through low taxation and Liam Fox
deregulation
Opposed to trade union power and welfare provision
Tory Reform One-nation conservatives, seeking national unity and Ken Clarke (now
Group believing that too much economic inequality is divisive in the Lords)
European Euroscepticism and the removal of the UK from EU Past members
Research membership included Suella
Group (ERG) Braverman, Jacob
Rees-Mogg,
Michael Gove

2 Political parties 69

9781398388093.indb 69 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Discussion point
To what extent do current Conservative Party policies conform to the two main conservative
traditions of one-nation and New Right conservatism?
Consider the following issues in relation to each:
1 The role of the state in economic management and taxation
2 Attitudes to welfare
3 Foreign policy priorities
4 Law and order

The origins and development of the Labour Party

Until the twentieth century the working classes (many of whom did not gain the
right to vote until 1884) were largely represented by a collection of MPs and peers
from both the Liberal and Conservative parties. When trade unions became legalised
towards the end of the nineteenth century, however, the working class finally had
organisations to represent their interests. It was therefore logical that the unions
should begin to put up candidates for election to the UK Parliament. But the unions
were not a political party and did not seek power. A new party was needed. In fact,
two parties of the left emerged.

Creation of the Labour Party

The main Labour Party was created in 1900 and was very much an offshoot of
the trade union movement. It was funded by the unions and many of its members
were union leaders and members. Before that, in 1893, a socialist party had already
been founded, known as the Independent Labour Party (ILP). In 1906, the ILP
formed an agreement with the Labour Party. The two parties agreed not to put up
parliamentary candidates against each other in the same constituencies. However,
this agreement was short-lived and they began to go their separate ways.
The ILP was a genuinely socialist party, committed to the overthrow of capitalism
and its replacement by a workers’ state, albeit by peaceful, democratic means.
The Labour Party, by contrast, was a more moderate socialist party that simply
wished to improve the conditions of the working class and to control the excesses
of capitalism — the state would seek to reconcile the conf licting interests of the
working class with those of their employers. Labour was a more moderate form of
socialist party, generally known for democratic socialism — that is, socialism that
worked within a democratic framework. By 1970, the ILP had ceased to exist as a
separate party and since then it has acted more as a faction within the Labour Party.
Many of the characteristics of the early Labour Party can still be seen today. The
party continues to be financed largely by trade unions, and union leaders play a
major role in the party organisation. Many of the ILP faction were responsible for the
election of Jeremy Corbyn, a prominent left-winger, as party leader in 2015. Some
of them still promote the ideas that formed the basis of the ideology of the old ILP.

Labour since the Second World War

The 1945 general election was something of a turning point for the Labour Party
as it achieved full majority control of the Commons for the first time. From then
on Labour became the UK’s second major party and regularly competed with the
Conservative Party for power. However, in the 1980s the party suffered two huge

70 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 70 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 defeats at the hands of Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative Party. This ultimately
resulted in a party split. Some left to form a new party, the Social Democratic Party
(SDP); some, led by Michael Foot and Tony Benn, wished to return to Old Labour
values and move further to the left; others, led by Neil Kinnock and John Smith, saw
the future of the party lying in more moderate policies, towards the centre of politics.
Under the leadership of Kinnock and then Smith, the party began to be reformed.
Then, after John Smith’s sudden death in 1992, Tony Blair became leader, closely
supported by Gordon Brown, Robin Cook and Peter Mandelson. Under Blair, the
party was rebranded as ‘New Labour’ and its policies were characterised as the ‘Third
Way’. Blair led the party to three election victories, in 1997, 2001 and 2005.

Labour and the unions

As we saw above, the Labour Party was formed out of the trade union movement.
Until the 1960s, the Labour Party and the trade union movement were seen as
indistinguishable, or as two sides of the same coin, the party acting as a mouthpiece
or political arm for the unions. During this time, many Labour MPs had come to
politics through union support and union politics. The trade unions, by requiring all
members to enrol and pay a membership subscription to the Labour Party, exercised
considerable financial inf luence and control over the party. During the Attlee years
of 1945–51, the Labour government introduced many reforms that the unions
demanded and would help to establish the power of the unions in UK industry for
years to come, including legislation around strikes and pay.
However, during the 1960s, the differences between the trade unions and Labour
politicians began to grow. As the process of deindustrialisation occurred and the
UK economy began moving away from heavy industry, full employment became
much harder for politicians to achieve. Inf lation, caused in part by pay increases and
protections for UK industry, also made it difficult for the Labour Party to support all
the demands of the unions. Increasingly, the union leaders became political figures and
would challenge the Labour Party leadership. The question, asked by the Conservatives
throughout the 1970s, was who governs: the unions or the elected politicians?
Until the 1980s, Labour Party leaders were elected from among the MPs and only MPs
could vote, but the Labour Party Constitution and any Labour Party policy had to be
approved by the party itself. The union leaders had a block vote, meaning the leader
would cast the votes for all their members, so the leaders of the largest trade unions
dominated discussions and decisions on party policy. This made it increasingly difficult
for more moderate, social democrat members to exert influence. It was one reason for the
Labour Party moving to the left during the 1980s and maintaining its commitment to
nationalisation (covered in Clause IV of the Labour Constitution) and full employment,
at a time when the economy was changing and these ideas were becoming less popular.
In 1981, Labour also introduced an electoral college system for leadership elections,
which would allocate a third of the votes to the unions, with their leaders exercising
a block vote, a third to MPs and a third to party members. This meant some party
members received multiple votes (as MPs, members of a union and/or members). As
union members were also party members, this increased the control and power of the
unions in determining the party leadership and direction of the party and was one
reason for the social democrats leaving the Labour Party.
In the 1980s, as the power and reputation of the traditional unions declined, and the
Conservative government introduced tighter controls and regulations on unions, so
their membership and funds declined, reducing their overall inf luence. Following

2 Political parties 71

9781398388093.indb 71 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 the humiliating defeat of 1983, the Labour Party began to take on the unions, with
leader Neil Kinnock publicly chastising the worst excesses of union behaviour and
his successor John Smith removing the block vote. Tony Blair then persuaded the
membership to remove Clause IV from the Labour Constitution and sought new
forms of funding from business and other non-union sources. Although the unions
remained closely associated with the Labour Party, their strength and inf luence
during the New Labour era was substantially reduced.
Since 2010, despite Ed Miliband replacing the electoral college with a straightforward
one member, one vote system, the unions have seen an increase in their inf luence
over the post-New Labour party. Although they do not control the votes of their
members, an endorsement of a candidate for leadership or for particular policies can
have a powerful inf luence over their membership. Their support helped to secure
victories for Ed Miliband and Jeremy Corbyn over more centrist candidates. Keir
Starmer has had to work hard to win over union support since his election as leader
in 2020. Union funds have also played an increasingly important part in Labour
Party finances, while under Corbyn, union leaders, particularly of the powerful
UNITE union, worked closely with the Labour leadership and inf luenced policy
decisions and key appointments to the party hierarchy. Although Starmer has sought
to reduce union inf luence on party policy, some unions have threatened to withhold
funding, and he continues to have to try to gain their support, showing the unions
still play a key role in Labour Party politics.

Core values and ideas of the Labour Party

As we have seen, Labour’s story can be divided into two parts. The first, the Old
Key terms
Labour period, runs from the early days until the 1990s. The second, the New
Old Labour (social Labour period, runs from the early 1990s until the present, when the party may
democracy) Key Labour well be splitting once again.
principles embodying
nationalisation, Old Labour
redistribution of wealth Critics loosely describe the traditions of the Labour Party as ‘socialism’. This is an
from rich to poor and the illusion; Labour was never a socialist party. It did not propose a workers’ state and has
provision of continually never attempted to abolish capitalism. As mentioned above, it is better thought of as
improving welfare and state a democratic socialist party. The best way to understand the Old Labour tradition
services, which largely is to look at its general values and then at its actual policies, focusing on the period
rejected Thatcherite/free- from 1945 to 1983.
market reforms or a Blairite
approach.
Old Labour values
New Labour (Third Way) A
revision of the traditional ● An essential value is equality. Labour used to support redistribution of income to
Labour values and ideals reduce the worst inequalities. A better characterisation of equality for Labour
represented by Old Labour. is ‘social justice’. Labour has also always supported formal equality, i.e. equal
Influenced by Anthony treatment under the law.
Giddens, the ‘Third ● Old Labour supporters tend to see society in terms of class conflict, arguing that the
Way’ saw Labour shift in interests of the two great classes (working and middle class) cannot be reconciled,
emphasis from a heavy so governments must favour the interests of the disadvantaged working class.
focus on the working class l Recognising that total equality was not feasible, Labour championed equality of
to a wider base, and a less opportunity, the idea that all should have equal life chances no matter what their
robust alliance with the family background.
trade unions. l Collectivism is a general idea shared by socialists of all kinds. It is the concept
that many of our goals are best achieved collectively rather than individually. It

72 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 72 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 includes such practical applications as the welfare state, trade unionism and the
cooperative movement.
l Old Labour saw common ownership mainly in terms of public ownership of
major, strategic industries, run by the state on behalf of the people, with the idea
of nationalisation of key industries.
l Trade unionism is also important. Old Labour recognised that workers were weak
compared with employers. Support for powerful trade unions was, therefore,
vital in restoring the balance of power between employers and workers.
l Old Labour believed that the central state could play a key role in controlling
economic activity and in securing social goals. This may be described as statism.
By placing such responsibilities in the hands of the central state it ensured equality
of treatment for all.
● Finally, welfarism is important. This is the idea, associated with collectivism, that
every member of society should be protected by a welfare system to which all
should contribute.

Old Labour policies and actions

Old Labour had two main periods of power during which it could convert some of
its values into practical reforms. These were 1945–51 and 1964–79. In those periods,
at various times, Labour converted values into political action in the following
main ways:
● The welfare state, including the National Health Service, was created in the
1940s.
● Trade unions were granted wide powers to take industrial action in the interests
of their members.
l Major industries were brought into public ownership (nationalisation) and state
control in the interests of the community and the workers in those industries.
Among the industries nationalised were coal, steel, shipbuilding, rail and energy.
l Taxes on those with higher incomes were raised in order to pay for welfare and
to redistribute income to the poor.
l Comprehensive education was introduced in the 1960s to improve equality of
opportunity.
● Discrimination against women and minority ethnic groups was outlawed in the
1960s and 1970s. Equal pay for women was introduced.

New Labour
From 1994 to 2010, Tony Blair and his cohort of leaders, supported by the economic
philosopher Anthony Giddens, creator of the ‘Third Way’, developed a new set of
moderate policies, often described as New Labour.

New Labour values

New Labour was opposed to the ideas of Labour’s ‘hard left’ and sought instead to
find a middle way (the ‘Third Way’) between socialism and the free-market, neo-
liberal ideas of the Conservative Party under Margaret Thatcher. Its main values
were as follows:
● New Labour thinkers rejected the socialist idea of class conflict, arguing that all
members of society have an equal right to assistance from the state.
● The party accepted that capitalism was the best way of creating wealth, so markets
should remain largely free of state control.

2 Political parties 73

9781398388093.indb 73 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 l Nevertheless it was recognised that capitalism could operate against the interests
of consumers, so it should be regulated, though not controlled. The state should
be an enabling state, allowing the economy to create wealth and giving it support
where needed, but the state should not, on the whole, engage in production
itself.
l New Labour de-emphasised collectivism, recognising that people prefer to
achieve their goals individually. Individualism was seen as a fundamental aspect of
human nature.
l Equality of opportunity was stressed. Education and welfare would create
opportunities for people to better themselves.
l Communitarianism is the concept that although people are individuals with
individual goals, we are also part of an organic community and have obligations
and duties in return for our individual life chances. This is a weaker form of
collectivism.
● The party recognised that the UK was deeply undemocratic and that rights were
inadequately protected. It therefore was committed to political and constitutional
reform.

The Labour Party launches its ‘New Labour’ manifesto for the 1997 general election

New Labour policies and actions

New Labour was known as much for what it did not do as for what it did do.
Despite calls from trade unions to have their powers — largely removed in the 1980s
— restored, Labour governments refused. Similarly, pressure to bring privatised
industries back under state control was resisted. Blair and his chancellor, Gordon
Brown, also resisted the temptation to restore high taxes on the wealthy and on
successful businesses to pay for higher welfare, preferring to use public borrowing
to facilitate their policies. At first, when the UK experienced an economic boom in
the late 1990s and early 2000s, the extra spending could be sustained, but when the
economy slowed down after 2007 the debts mounted up.

74 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 74 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 New Labour’s political programme included the following policies:
● huge increases in expenditure on the NHS
● similarly large investment in education, especially early years education
l reductions in corporate taxation to encourage enterprise
l an extensive programme of constitutional reform including the Human Rights
Act, devolution, freedom of information and electoral reform in devolved
administrations
l through the tax and welfare system, various policies to reduce poverty, especially
child and older age poverty
● encouraging employment by introducing ‘welfare to work’ systems.

Labour ideas and policies today

Labour policy is still evolving following the dramatic split in the party in 2015–16
and the legacy of Jeremy Corbyn. It is therefore advisable to view party policy from
the point of view of the two wings of the party, the left and the centre-left. Table 2.8
explains the main tendencies in a number of key policy areas.
Table 2.8 Current Labour policies
Policy area Centre-left tendency Left tendency
Economic A pragmatic view including targets to reduce Expansionist: high public expenditure should
management public-sector debt be used to promote investment, improve public
services and create jobs
Social justice Some adjustments to taxation to promote mild Radical tax reforms to promote significant
redistribution of income from high- to low-income redistribution of income from rich to poor
groups
Industry Industry to remain in private hands and be Large infrastructure industries to be brought into
regulated by the state public ownership (nationalised)
Strong regulation of private-sector industries and
finance
Welfare Supports a strong welfare state and well-funded Strong support for the NHS and state education
health service and education Abolition of university tuition fees
However, welfare benefits to be capped to More generous welfare benefits to help
ensure work pays and prevent abuse of the redistribute real income
system
Law and order A mixture of authoritarian measures and ‘social’ Emphasis on social remedies to crime
remedies to crime
Foreign policy Retention of a UK independent nuclear deterrent Largely ‘isolationist’, favouring non-intervention
Strong support for NATO and the alliance with in world conflicts
the USA Abolition of the independent nuclear deterrent
Environment Strong support for environmental protection and The same as the centre-left
emissions control
Constitutional Some reforms are supported, including an More radical reforms, possibly including abolition
reform elected second chamber and a proportional of the second chamber and more independence
electoral system for local government

Knowledge check
Which policies of the current Labour Party may be considered as ‘Old Labour’ policies?

2 Political parties 75

9781398388093.indb 75 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Labour Party factions
As with the Conservative Party, the Labour Party is made up of various factions
that compete for control of the party. They have been particularly important when
it comes to leadership contests, as shown following Jeremy Corbyn’s resignation
in 2019. Under Jeremy Corbyn, the far left of the Labour Party came to dominate
at most levels of the party structure, and its 2019 election manifesto was heavily
inf luenced by this faction of the party. When it was rejected by the public in the
2019 general election, Corbyn chose to stand down as leader of the party.
In the ensuing leadership contest, the choice centred on the far-left candidate
Rebecca Long-Bailey and the soft-left candidates Keir Starmer and Lisa Nandy.
Starmer won the contest in April 2020 with 56.4 per cent of the vote.
As a soft-left Labour politician, Starmer falls somewhere between the far left and the
Blairite factions of the party. Starmer is believed to be someone who can steer Labour
more towards the centre ground of politics while attempting to retain the support
of the far left. In October 2020, he showed his willingness to tackle the issue of
antisemitism in the Labour Party by suspending his immediate predecessor as leader
of the party and figurehead of the left-wing, Jeremy Corbyn, for his reaction to the
Equalities and Human Rights Commission’s report into antisemitism in the party
during his leadership. Corbyn claimed in a statement that ‘the scale of the problem (of
antisemitism in the Labour Party) was...dramatically overstated for political reasons
by our opponents inside and outside the party, as well as by much of the media’.
The key Labour Party factions are outlined in Table 2.9.
Table 2.9 Labour Party factions
Faction Core ideas Key members
Momentum Far left wing, seeking wealth redistribution John McDonnell
through taxation, public ownership of key Rebecca Long-Bailey
industries and the abandonment of the
nuclear deterrent
‘Blairites’/Social Centrist, key supporters of New Labour and Yvette Cooper
Democrats the Third Way, as described above Hilary Benn
Stephen Kinnock
Blue Labour Focused on working-class issues and Maurice Glasman
employment Rowenna Davis
Socially conservative, believing in traditional Frank Field
‘British values’, anti-large-scale immigration,
pro-free markets, but with protection for UK
industry from foreign competition

The origins and development of the Liberal

Democrats
The Liberal Democrats as a party is the product of an amalgamation of two parties in
1988. These were the Social Democratic Party, which had split off from the Labour
Party and contained a group of moderate social democrats who felt that Labour had
moved too far to the left, and the Liberal Party, which was a century old at that time.

76 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 76 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 ● The Liberal Party had existed since 1877. It emerged as a coalition between
Whigs and radicals. Its first leaders were Lord Palmerston and William Gladstone.
The party was as important as the Conservatives until the 1920s, when it began
to decline. By the end of the Second World War it had been eclipsed by the
Labour Party. Until the 1990s it then played a very minor part in UK politics
and returned only a handful of MPs to the UK Parliament. Despite its period in
the political wilderness, the Liberal Party had become a home of radical political
ideas under the leadership of Jo Grimond from 1956 to 1967, many of which
were ultimately adopted by the two main parties.
● The SDP was formed in 1981. It soon began talks with the Liberal Party. The
problem for the two parties was that they were competing for the same voters. At
the 1983 general election the Liberals and the SDP made an electoral pact whereby
they would not put up candidates against each other. The pact was known as
the Alliance. However, the plan failed and the two parties won fewer than 30
seats between them at that election and again in 1987. The decision was taken,
therefore, to merge completely and the Liberal Democrats were born in 1988.
The Liberal Democrats reached the height of electoral success in 2005 when it won
62 seats. It was in 2010, however, that the real opportunity came. With no party
winning an overall majority, the Liberal Democrats had a choice of whether to join
with Labour (which had just been rejected by the voters), join the Conservatives
(which sat on the opposite side of the political spectrum on many issues) in a coalition,
or refuse to participate in the government, losing any opportunity to inf luence
events first-hand and leaving a vacuum of power at a time of major financial crisis.
With no ‘good’ options, the party’s leader, Nick Clegg, chose the Conservatives and
the Liberal Democrats found themselves in government for the next 5 years.

From left to right, Chief Secretary to the Treasury Danny Alexander, Prime Minister David
Cameron, Chancellor George Osborne and Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg attend a meeting at
10 Downing Street ahead of the coalition government’s first Budget, June 2010

During the coalition years, the Liberal Democrats argue that they were able to
act as a positive inf luence in government, injecting many of their own ‘green’

2 Political parties 77

9781398388093.indb 77 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 policies, introducing the pupil premium to support funding in schools and taking
millions of low-income people out of paying tax altogether, as well as preventing
the Conservative government from implementing, according to Liberal Democrat
supporters, more extreme and less acceptable policies. Despite these arguments
for success in the coalition era, what might have proved to be a resounding
breakthrough turned into a disaster for the party. The electorate decided to punish
the Liberal Democrats for broken promises (mainly over a commitment not to raise
university tuition fees, a commitment it dropped straight away) and working with
the Conservative Party, which alienated many ex-Labour supporters who had voted
Liberal Democrat to prevent a Conservative victory. As a result the party won only
eight seats at the 2015 election. Nick Clegg resigned as leader and was replaced by
Tim Farron, and the Liberal Democrats were once again a minor party, as it had
been for 60 years between the 1930s and the 1990s.
Early in 2019 it looked as though the Liberal Democrats might be recovering and
becoming a major force again in UK politics. Under the leadership of Vince Cable, in
the European Parliament election held in June 2019, the party secured 19.6 per cent of
the national vote and won 16 seats, second only to the Brexit Party and ahead of the
other main parties, with Labour securing 13.6 per cent of the vote and 10 seats, while the
Conservatives achieved 8.8 per cent of the vote and 4 seats. By October 2019 the Liberal
Democrats had increased their number of MPs to 21 thanks to gaining four seats in the
2017 general election and then accepting a slew of former Conservative and Labour MPs,
who had defected from their original parties. Despite this increase and claims from new
leader, Jo Swinson, that the Liberal Democrats could be the next party of government,
the party was again rejected when it came to the 2019 general election — it was reduced
to 11 MPs, with Jo Swinson losing her own seat to the SNP.

Knowledge check
Why did the Liberal Democrats lose so many seats in 2015?

Core values of Liberal Democrats

Key terms The Liberal Democrats are not just a liberal party. As the party’s title suggests, it
Classical liberals Classical also espouses social democratic values and ideas. Its values come, therefore, from
liberalism is a philosophy a mixture of the two traditions. The social democratic values are largely those
developed by early liberals described above in the section on New Labour. Here we look at the liberal side of its
who believed that individual position. The main liberal values adopted by the party include the following:
freedom would best be ● Liberty is the core liberal value. Of course, complete freedom is not feasible
achieved with the state in a modern society, so liberals confine themselves to believing that the state
playing a minimal role. should interfere as little as possible in people’s private lives. Privacy, freedom
Modern liberals Modern and individual rights must, they insist, be protected. The stress on liberty was a
liberalism emerged feature of nineteenth-century fundamentalist liberalism, often associated with
as a reaction against classical liberals. In the latter part of the nineteenth century and the twentieth
free-market capitalism, century, liberals expanded their ideas outside the protection of liberty and began
believing this had led to to accept a wider role for the state in promoting welfare and social justice. These
many individuals not being were known as new or modern liberals.
free. Freedom could no ● Liberals also pursue social justice. This means three things. First it means the
longer simply be defined as removal of unjustifiable inequalities in incomes in society, second it means
‘being left alone’. equality of opportunity, and third it means the removal of all artificial privileges
to which people might be born.

78 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 78 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 l Welfare is now a key liberal value. The liberal view is that people cannot be
genuinely free if they are enslaved by poverty, unemployment or sickness, or the
deprivations of old age. State welfare, therefore, sets people free.
l Liberals are highly suspicious of the power of government. They therefore believe
that the power of government should be firmly controlled. The main way in
which this can be achieved is by limiting the power of government via a strong
constitution. This is known as constitutionalism.
l Liberal Democrats are social reformers. They strongly support the rights of women,
people with disabilities, minority ethnic groups and the LGBT+ community.
They have also been strong supporters of same-sex marriage.
l The party has always been concerned with the causes of human rights and democracy,
so it has supported constitutional reform. This aspiration is often described as
liberal democracy.
l Multiculturalism is a key theme among liberal values. Different cultures and
lifestyles should be welcomed and granted special rights. This links to the liberals’
pluralist outlook on society.
● A modern value concerns the environment. Liberals believe that human life will
be enriched by a healthy physical environment and by biodiversity.
It should be stressed that many of these so-called liberal values are also held by
many members of other political parties, notably those on the centre-left. Indeed,
many of them have become core British values. For example, the ideas of John
Maynard Keynes in economic policy and William Beveridge in developing the
NHS and welfare state, both of whom were prominent Liberals in the middle of the
twentieth century, still exert a strong inf luence on many current politicians from
all parties, as well as the modern Liberal Democrats. What distinguishes liberalism
from other political traditions is that liberals place these values higher than all others.
For example, the rights and liberties of individuals are so precious that they should
be sacrificed only in exceptional circumstances.

Liberal Democrat ideas and policies today

The party is still trying to recover from its poor performances in the general
elections of 2015, 2017 and 2019, and the loss of its leader to electoral defeat. With
the Covid-19 pandemic, the Liberal Democrat leadership contest was delayed and
the party was run on a temporary co-leadership basis, leaving it in an uncertain
position with a lack of clear direction. At the end of 2020 Ed Davey was elected as
the leader and he has been attempting to steer the party in a new direction.

The economy
Liberal Democrat economic policy is not especially distinctive. However, it does
propose the rebalancing of the UK economy so that wealth and economic activity
are spread more widely round the country. On the whole, Liberal Democrats are
pragmatic about economic management. For example, government budget planning
should not operate in such a way as to favour one section of society over another.
Thus, in times of economic recession, the poor in society should be protected and
the wealthy should bear the brunt of tighter economic policies. Taxation should
always be fair, based on ability to pay, and should redistribute real income from rich
to poor. To this end, in 2019, the party introduced a policy of a 1p-in-the-pound
tax increase to help fund the NHS and a policy of free childcare for all two- to four-
year-olds.

2 Political parties 79

9781398388093.indb 79 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Law and order
Two principles characterise Liberal Democrat policy:
● Wherever possible, the law enforcement system, including prisons, should seek
to rehabilitate offenders as much as punishing them. Liberal Democrats believe
that most crime has social causes and these causes should be attacked.
● The system of law and order must not become so over-authoritarian that human
rights are threatened. There must be a balance between civil liberties and the
need for peace and security.

The European Union

The Liberal Democrats would have preferred the UK to stay in the EU. Despite
initially accepting the result of the 2016 referendum, although wanting the UK
to remain as part of the single market, in 2019 the party reversed its position and
pledged to revoke Article 50 and stop Brexit. Since then, the party has accepted the
fact of the UK leaving the EU but aims to improve relationships and make trade and
movement easier between the UK and EU.

Welfare
Education and health are key priorities for the Liberal Democrats. It believes
spending on both should be protected and increased whenever the quality of services
is threatened, leading to a 2019 pledge to increase the number of teachers in England
by 20,000. The party believes the benefits system should be designed to encourage
work and should be fair, favouring those who cannot support themselves. Poorer
older people and single parents should be especially supported.

Foreign policy
Though the Liberal Democrats support NATO and its aims, the party is suspicious
of excessive interference by the UK in conf licts abroad. It would abandon the
renewal of the Trident nuclear submarine missile system. It strongly supports the
use of international aid. Wherever possible, international conf licts should be settled
through the United Nations rather than through direct military intervention.

Liberal Democrat factions

It may seem odd to describe a party with only 11 MPs after the 2019 election as
having factions, but the Liberal Democrat party still had a membership of over
106,000 as of 2019, the largest in its history, and the factions that existed before 2015
still exist across the party and shape the leadership contests within Parliament. The
main factions are outlined in Table 2.10.
Table 2.10 Liberal Democrat party factions
Faction Core ideas Key members
Orange Book Traditional liberal values of free markets and the Ed Davey
Liberals withdrawal of the state from excessive interference
Focus on individual liberties
Social Policies concerning social justice, with wealth Tim Farron
Liberals redistribution from rich to poor through taxation and Jo Swinson
welfare provision Layla Moran
Focus on progressive social issues

80 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 80 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Discussion point Topic link
Look at Table 2.11. Consider the various policies of the three established parties and evaluate Manifestos are where party
how similar they are and how different they are on key areas. policies are set out and
presented and they are
You may wish to consider the following ideas:
usually created with a view
1 The extent of agreement between the main parties.
to helping a party win an
2 The differences that exist as a result of ideological belief.
election by targeting key
3 The differences that exist as a result of practical or political factors, such as targeting key
groups of voters, which will
groups.
be covered in Chapter 4.

Table 2.11 Key policies from the 2019 general election manifestos
Policy area Conservative Labour Liberal Democrat
Economy No income tax, VAT or national Raise minimum wage to £10/hour A penny income tax rise for the NHS
insurance rises Nationalise key industries Tax frequent flyers
Scrap charitable status for private Freeze train fares
schools Give zero-hours workers a 20% rise
Law and Hire an extra 20,000 police Restore prison officer levels to 2010 Legalise cannabis
order officers by 2022 levels
End private prisons in the UK
Welfare Increase the number of nurses Increase the health budget by 4.3% Free childcare
by 50,000 Stop state pension age rises Recruit 20,000 more teachers
Pensions to rise by 2.5% a year Introduce a national care service Build 300,000 new homes a year
Spend £6.3 billion on 2.2 Scrap Universal Credit
million disadvantaged homes Introduce free bus travel for under-25s
Continue the rollout of Build 100,000 council homes a year
Universal Credit
Create 250,000 extra childcare
places
Foreign Leave the EU in January 2020 Hold a second referendum on Brexit Stop Brexit
affairs Introduce a points-based Give EU nationals the right to remain Resettle 10,000 refugees a year
immigration system

Activity
Look at Table 2.11 and the key policies of the established parties at the 2019 general election.
Choose one of the mainstream parties and consider what these policies show about which
factions of the party were dominant and which groups of supporters were being targeted.

Emerging and minor UK political parties

The growth of other parties in the UK
Although UK politics is usually dominated by two main parties, other parties play
an important role in UK democracy. None of these other parties has managed to
break through like Labour did in the 1920s, but in their own ways they have all had Useful term
some inf luence in the British political system. From the creation and administration Co-option When the
of devolved institutions, to Brexit and the co-option of environmental ideas by the policies of a smaller party
more established parties, alternative parties have shaped and developed the political are adopted by one of the
debate in the UK. Perhaps most importantly, they exist to provide the electorate major parties.
with more choice during elections.

2 Political parties 81

9781398388093.indb 81 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Scottish National Party
As the fortunes of the UK’s traditional third party, the Liberal Democrats, have
declined since the 2010 general election, those of the Scottish National Party (SNP)
have blossomed. The SNP won enough seats in the 2007 Scottish parliamentary
election to form a government. The party has formed the government of Scotland
ever since. At Westminster, by contrast, it made little headway until 2015. Then, in
the 2015 general election, the SNP won 56 of the 59 Westminster seats on offer in
Scotland, partly due to the collapse in popular support for the Scottish Labour Party,
partly for its perceived success in running Scotland since 2007 and partly due to the
boost it received from the close independence referendum result in 2014.
Although it may be tempting to assume that the SNP, as a nationalist party, is right
wing, much of its success has been as a result of left-wing policies on social services
and key areas like the NHS and education, which enabled it to capture disillusioned
Labour voters in 2015. With questions emerging over the leadership, direction and
status of the party in late 2023 and early 2024, it will be interesting to see what
happens to the SNP in relation to Labour and other parties in future elections. It
was an extraordinary result. Scottish voters were disillusioned with the main UK
parties, while many were interested in greater autonomy or even independence for
Scotland. Perhaps the greatest achievement of the SNP was in persuading David
Cameron to allow a referendum on Scottish independence in 2014 and acquiring
greater levels of devolved responsibility in the Scotland Act of 2016. Although the
party lost 21 of its Scottish seats in the 2017 general election, it recaptured most of
them in 2019, returning to 48 seats and entrenching its position as the third major
party in Westminster as well as the dominant party of Scotland.

Synoptic link
The status and importance
of the SNP are directly
related to the issue of
devolution, covered in
Chapter 5.
Humza Yousaf, leader of the SNP

UK Independence Party
In politics, parties always need to be careful what they wish for. The UK
Independence Party (UKIP) was launched as a party in 1993, in reaction to the
development of the EU (see Chapter 8 for more on this process). Under the leadership
of Nigel Farage, UKIP made its great electoral breakthrough in the 2015 general
election. The party had already made progress in local elections and elections to
the European Parliament, but this was the first time it had made a major effort in a
general election. However, the outcome of its success was rather different from that
of the SNP. UKIP won 12.6 per cent of the popular vote, but because its support
was so dispersed, this was converted into only one parliamentary seat. Thus, UKIP
made an impact and took many votes away from the other main parties, but as a
group it remained on the fringes of the political system.

82 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 82 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 The public support and threat to the major parties were enough, however, to
convince David Cameron to pledge to an in/out referendum in 2016. UKIP not
Synoptic link
only got the referendum it wanted, but it also got the result it had been campaigning UKIP was bound up with
for. Yet, having achieved its greatest triumph, the party then lost its purpose. In the Euroscepticism. In order to
2017 general election the party’s vote slumped, it lost its only parliamentary seat, and understand its beliefs and
its leader, Paul Nuttall, resigned. The party seemed to be on the verge of extinction objections, you will need
and in 2019 sank to just 0.1 per cent of the vote share. After losing nearly all its local to have a good idea about
council seats, UKIP has pretty much ceased to exist as a political party. how the institutions of the
EU work and the nature of
The relative fortunes of the SNP and UKIP in 2015 are useful examples of the impact
sovereignty in the UK, both
of the FPTP voting system in giving an advantage to those parties with concentrated
of which are covered in
geographical support and a disadvantage to those that have widespread but shallow
Chapter 8.
levels of support. The importance of electoral systems is covered in Chapter 3.

Green Party
The Green Party had a similar experience to UKIP, though on a smaller scale. The
Green Party’s share of the vote rose from 1 per cent in 2010 to 3.8 per cent in 2015.
The party won just one seat, Brighton Pavilion, where Caroline Lucas, co-leader
of the party at the time, remains popular. Although the Green Party has failed to
make a major electoral breakthrough, Lucas has become a vocal and popular MP
who has given her party a major platform in Parliament, while the adoption of more
environmental policies by the major parties can, in part at least, be seen as a reaction
to the growing support for the Green Party.
Although Lucas is the most visible figure of the Green Party, she is not the current
leader, as the party tends to rotate its leadership often and practices a policy of shared
leadership, with Carla Denyer and Adrian Ramsay leading the party since October
2021. With Caroline Lucas’ 2023 announcement that she will not stand again, it
will be interesting to see if the Green Party continues to hold the constituency of
Brighton Pavilion.

Democratic Unionist Party

Due to its unique situation and history, Northern Ireland has developed its own
party system. The vote there is largely split between nationalist parties that want
Northern Ireland to join with the Republic of Ireland, and unionist parties that
want Northern Ireland to remain part of the UK. The existence of different parties
in Northern Ireland shows how different parties can allow different parts of the
UK to follow their own paths and deal with their own problems. These issues are
covered more in Chapter 5 on devolution.
On its own, Northern Ireland does not have enough MPs to make a crucial difference
in Westminster votes, but the fiercely unionist Democratic Unionist Party (DUP),
with 10 seats, was able to have tremendous inf luence in politics during Theresa
May’s time as prime minister as it made a supply-and-demand agreement that helped
her government to survive, for a time at least, and ensured its voice had to be heard.
Since 2019, the party has been reduced to 8 MPs and, despite vocal opposition to
the Northern Ireland Protocols, has seemingly failed to exert much inf luence over
national politics.
What does this reveal to us? While the UK remains dominated by the two main
parties, several other parties are now making an impact, in terms of running parts of
the UK through devolved institutions, parliamentary seats, votes or policy-making.

2 Political parties 83

9781398388093.indb 83 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 It is especially true that in the national regions voters are offered a greater choice of
party. In Scotland, for example, five parties have significance and offer a realistic
choice. These are the SNP, Labour, Conservative, Liberal Democrats and Green Party.
In Wales, four parties compete for significant inf luence, while in Northern Ireland the
electoral system guarantees that at least five parties have a share in government.

Policies of the SNP and the Green Party

SNP
The Scottish National Party is a centre-left party. Its main policies are as follows:
● There should be a second independence referendum with the overall objective of
complete independence for Scotland as a sovereign state within the EU.
● For as long as Scotland remains within the UK, there should be constitutional
reforms such as an elected second chamber, the introduction of proportional
representation for general elections and votes for 16-year-olds.
l The party is social democratic and supports social justice. It supports the idea of
the living wage and plans to close the attainment gap. It also aims to appoint a
‘Just Transition Minister’ and develop policies to make it easier for people who
identify as trans.
l The party is opposed to the UK retaining independent nuclear weapons and
favours the cancellation of Trident.
● The party has abolished university tuition fees paid by students within Scotland.
It sees education at all levels as a key component of equality of opportunity. It has
reintroduced the Educational Maintenance Allowance (EMA) for students above
the age of 16. This has been abolished in England.
l Environmental protection is a key policy. SNP policies are almost as strong as
those of the Green Party.
l The party supports the welfare state and would protect generous state provision
of health, education and social security benefits. In its 2021 manifesto, it pledged
to increase funding and recruitment of staff for the NHS as well as doubling
Scottish Child Payments.
● The party is also staunchly pro-EU and has been vocal in opposition to Brexit.

Green Party
The Green Party obviously has environmental concerns at the centre of its policies.
In other areas it has a left-wing stance. Among its radical policies in the 2019
manifesto were the following:
Study tip ● Large numbers of new, low-cost, environmentally friendly homes should be
Note that the impact of financed or built by government to solve the housing crisis.
small parties is not just felt ● There should be massive new investment in public transport.
in terms of parliamentary l University tuition fees for students should be abolished.
seats won, but in terms l There should be an extensive programme of constitutional reform to make the
of how many votes they UK more genuinely democratic.
may take away from more l There should be a wealth tax on the top 1 per cent of the income ladder, a living
established parties. This wage of £10 per hour and a special tax on large banks making excessive profits.
forces those parties to l In 2019, the party adopted a policy to introduce a universal basic income of £89
react by modifying their per week.
policies to prevent their l The party is opposed to the maintenance of Trident and the use of all nuclear
support leaking away. power.
● The party supports the legalisation of cannabis.

84 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 84 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Discussion point
Which UK party do you think is (a) the most left-wing and (b) the most right-wing?
You may wish to consider the following ideas:
1 Which factor most determines a position on the political spectrum.
2 How the policies stand as a combination.
3 What the ideology might be behind the policies.

UK political parties in context

Party systems
A party system describes the features of a political system in relation to the parties that
Key term
operate within it. The term ‘system’ describes both how many parties there are and how
many of those parties make a significant impact. The party system can help us understand Party system The way
how a political system works and it can also help us to explain change. Most importantly, or manner in which
the party system is so called because it relates to the connection between the parties the political parties in
and governmental power, especially how many parties have a realistic chance of being a political system are
influential and politically significant. This has been especially true in relation to the UK grouped and structured.
in recent times. Descriptions of different kinds of party system are provided below. There are several variants
that could apply to the UK;
Table 2.12 illustrates where the various party systems can be found and some of their
these include one-party,
features.
dominant-party, two-party,
Table 2.12 Examples of party systems two-and-a-half-party and
Party system Countries Features multi-party systems.
One-party system China, Cuba, All three countries describe themselves as
North Korea communist states. The Communist Party is the only
legal party
Dominant-party Scotland (SNP) The SNP holds nearly all the UK parliamentary
system seats and has governed Scotland since 2007,
holding many more seats than any other party in
the Scottish Parliament
Two-party system USA Democrats and Republicans hold virtually all
elected positions at all levels of government in the
USA
Two-and-a-half- Canada The Liberal Party of Canada and the Conservative
party system Party of Canada form the two dominant parties,
with the New Democratic Party emerging as a
serious third party
Multi-party Italy, Germany Italy has so many parties it is remarkably unstable.
system Governments regularly tend to collapse
Germany has a four-party system with the Christian
Democrats and Social Democrats dominating, but
they have to form coalitions with either the Greens
or the Free Democrats. The afD (Alternative for
Germany) party also has 94 seats

One-party system
This is where only one party is allowed to operate. This is normally associated with
highly authoritarian regimes and we would not consider them to be democratic in
the generally accepted sense of the word.

2 Political parties 85

9781398388093.indb 85 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Dominant-party system
Here we are referring to democratic systems that do allow parties to operate freely,
but where only one party has a realistic chance of taking governmental power. Such
systems are highly stable, though there is a lack of accountability and competition.

Two-party system
Only two parties have a realistic chance of forming a government. It implies that
two parties win the vast majority of the votes at elections and most of the seats in
the representative assemblies of the state.

Two-and-a-half-party system
These are systems where there are two main parties that contest elections but also a
sizeable third party. Usually, these third parties can be seen as holding the balance of
power between the two main parties, much as the Liberal Democrats did in 2010 in
the UK. Countries like Canada and Australia appear to fit this model.
While the UK could be seen as a two-and-a-half-party system, it is rare that the third
party actually forms part of the government. This means it is not entirely accurate to
consider the UK in this way, despite the presence of the Liberal Democrats and then
the SNP as sizeable third parties.

Activity
Research the most recent elections in the following regions of the UK. In each case, decide
what kind of party system the region seems to have:
● Scottish Parliament
● Welsh Parliament
l London (mayor and Greater London Assembly)
● Northern Ireland

Multi-party system
These are common in Europe and growing more so. As the name suggests, there
are several parties competing for votes and power. There is no set number to define
a multi-party system, but the key is that more than two parties have a realistic
chance of being a part of the government and governments tend to be made up of
coalitions. Although these systems can look a lot more fragile and unstable than
dominant or two-party states, there is actually far less volatility as many of the same
parties regularly find themselves in government, time and again.

Topic link
Party systems should not be looked at in isolation from the electoral systems used in various
countries, as there are strong links between electoral and party systems. This section should
therefore be read in conjunction with the material in Chapter 3, which describes various
electoral systems and their impacts. Generally, first-past-the-post tends to create a two-party
system (e.g. the USA) and proportional representation tends to lead to a multi-party system,
while majoritarian and hybrid systems tend to be more unpredictable in the party system they
create. This means that while it can be helpful to consider a link between electoral systems
and party systems, there is a lot more to it than a simple case of the electoral system causing
the party system.

86 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 86 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 The party system in Westminster and beyond
The dominance of two parties in the UK has varied over the long term. Table 2.13
illustrates the dominance of two parties in terms of seats in the period 1979–2019.
However, Figure 2.6 demonstrates that two-party dominance in terms of votes
remained less pronounced until such dominance was restored in June 2017, and
appears to have remained in 2019.
Table 2.13 Two-party dominance in the UK, 1979–2017
Conservative Largest third- % of seats won by
Election year seats Labour seats party seats two main parties
1979 339 269 11 95.8
1983 397 209 23 93.3
1987 376 229 22 93.0
1992 336 271 20 93.2
1997 165 418 46 88.4
2001 166 413 52 87.8
2005 198 356 62 85.6
2010 307 258 57 86.9
2015 331 232 56 86.7
2017 318 262 35 89.2
2019 364 203 48 87.2

Source: House of Commons Library

That other parties have been unable to convert their increasing proportion of votes
won into significant numbers of seats is almost wholly due to the electoral system,
which discriminates against them. The UK remains a two-party system in terms
of seats but is a multi-party system in terms of votes. As Figure 2.6 shows, however,
two-party dominance showed signs of returning in 2017 and in 2019. The impact of
the first-past-the-post system is discussed in detail in Chapter 3.
Looking at the different regions of the UK, we see a similar model of one-party
dominance or two-party competition. Since 2007 the SNP has dominated elections
to the Scottish Parliament, making Scotland a dominant-party system. There are
opposition parties, but neither the Conservatives nor Labour have had a realistic
prospect of forming a government since then, despite the use of the additional
member system. Since devolution was introduced to Wales, Labour has always been
the main party, sometimes securing a majority, sometimes working in a coalition
and sometimes as a minority government, again suggesting a dominant-party model.
London mayoral elections have been dominated by the two-party system, with
only Conservative and Labour candidates ever finishing in the top two, although
elections to the Greater London Assembly are more mixed. Northern Ireland has its
own party system, which appears at first to be multi-party, with several parties being
required to form a coalition to create a government, but the system is dominated
by the DUP and Sinn Féin, suggesting a two-party dominance. Therefore, the UK
can be described as a multi-party system (many parties competing to gain power),
but in terms of electoral results the UK elections reveal a dominant or two-party
system at work.

2 Political parties 87

9781398388093.indb 87 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 90
80 82.4
80.8
75.1 77.5 75.5 77.6
70 72.4
70 67.5 67.3
60 65.1

50
40
30
20
10

0
1979 1983 1987 1992 1997 2001 2005 2010 2015 2017 2019
% of votes of the two main parties
Figure 2.6 Vote share of the two main parties combined

Knowledge check
What kind of electoral system is used (a) in Northern Ireland and (b) in Wales and Scotland?

Factors that affect party success

Here we brief ly examine three aspects of parties that go some way to determining
why they may succeed or fail: leadership, unity and media exposure. We should
first, however, consider why small parties have so much difficulty achieving a
breakthrough. This is shown in Table 2.14.
Table 2.14 Why small parties find it difficult to make an impact and how they can nevertheless
succeed
Why small parties fail How small parties can succeed
They lack funding They may find wealthy benefactors to support
them, as occurred with UKIP after 2010 and the
Reclaim Party in 2022
The electoral system may In devolved regions, proportional representation
discriminate against them helps small parties
If a party can develop concentrated geographical
support, it can break through in a region, such as
the SNP
They lack media exposure A strong, charismatic leader may help to gain
Topic link public support, as occurred with Caroline Lucas
for the Green Party and Nigel Farage for UKIP and
The factors that determine the Brexit Party
party success are closely They lack organisation in They may gain widespread popular support with
tied to the factors that communities populist ideas, as UKIP achieved
affect electoral success, They can build good community teams and
and so we will consider the successfully compete in local government
elections, which then helps them in subsequent
roles of the party leader
general elections
and the media in greater
People consider voting for them to be In proportional systems, fewer votes are wasted
depth in Chapter 4.
a wasted vote

88 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 88 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Leadership
This is crucial. Voters respond to the quality of the individual who leads a party
and who therefore, in the case of the two main parties at least, is a potential prime
minister. The qualities that voters generally prefer include:
● experience
● decisiveness
l ability to lead
l media image
l intelligence
● apparent honesty.
There have been leaders who may be seen to have damaged the prospects of their
party, such as Gordon Brown, Ed Miliband, Nick Clegg and, in 2019, Jeremy
Corbyn, and others who may be seen to have enhanced their party’s fortunes, such
as Margaret Thatcher, Tony Blair and Boris Johnson (at least until they fell from
grace). However, it was among smaller parties that leadership became important in
2015. Nicola Sturgeon, then SNP leader, made a hugely favourable impression in
TV debates, as did Nigel Farage of UKIP and the popular and strong leader Charles
Kennedy, who took the Liberal Democrats to their most successful result in 2005.
Farage ensured that his party was constantly in the news, while Sturgeon enjoyed
very positive public approval ratings in the opinion polls.
Leaders do not win or lose elections, but from 2010 to 2019, and in elections to
devolved assemblies, there is no doubt that party fortunes were inf luenced by the
performance and image of their leaders.

Unity
It is often said by political commentators that a disunited party has no hope of being
elected. The facts appear to bear this out. Some examples in both directions can
illustrate this:
● In the 1980s, the Conservative Party united around the leadership of Margaret
Thatcher while Labour was split between its left and right wings. In fact, the
party did literally split in 1981. This resulted in two huge victories for the
Conservatives at the 1983 and 1987 general elections.
● In 1997, Labour was an almost totally united party around the banner of New
Labour under Blair. The Conservatives under John Major had been wracked
by internal division, mainly over the UK’s position in Europe. The result was a
crushing victory for Labour.
l In 2015, the united Conservative Party dominated the disunited Labour Party.
However, in the 2017 general election campaign, Labour succeeded in uniting
around a radical manifesto, which resulted in a dramatic improvement in its
fortunes.
● In 2019, having suspended moderate Conservatives from the party and required
all candidates to sign a pledge to back getting Brexit done, the Conservative
Party was able to unify around the central issue of Brexit while the Labour Party
found itself divided over the issues of Brexit, antisemitism and the radical nature
of its manifesto.
The evidence is therefore compelling that the commentators are right: united parties
always have a huge advantage over disunited parties.

2 Political parties 89

9781398388093.indb 89 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 The media
Synoptic link Whatever the true policies of a party are, the electorate is often inf luenced by the
The role of the media is image of the party as portrayed in the media, especially newspapers. Research
considered more fully in suggests that newspapers only reinforce existing political affiliations and do not
Chapter 4. change minds, but there remains the probability that their campaigns may well
persuade people to vote for the party ‘their’ newspaper supports. Some wavering
voters may also be swayed.
There is usually a correlation between the political views of the readership of a
newspaper and the political stance of the paper itself. However, this may be because
readers tend to buy newspapers with whose views they agree. Yet, in the 2017
general election most newspapers backed the Conservatives, mainly because their
owners backed Conservative policies, but to little avail, as the party lost its Commons
majority following a Labour resurgence.
Television and radio broadcasters, such as the BBC and ITV, must be neutral and
balanced by law. Nevertheless, TV does give exposure to party leaders. TV debates
have had an impact on the fortunes of the parties. In 2010, for example, Liberal
Democrat leader Nick Clegg’s performance in the TV debates was widely praised.
Partly as a result, the Liberal Democrats did well enough to form a coalition with
the Conservatives. In 2015, by contrast, Labour leader Ed Miliband performed
poorly and this was a factor in Labour’s failure to win the election. Equally, in 2017,
Theresa May’s refusal to participate in televised debates and Jeremy Corbyn’s good
performance helped to shift the media perceptions of the two leaders.

Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn and Prime Minister Boris Johnson debate live on ITV during the
2019 general election campaign

There has also been a growth in the role of social media, with Twitter (currently
known as ‘X’) and other platforms becoming essential for parties to promote
themselves and critics to attack politicians they oppose. Social media allow
politicians and political actors to speak directly to the public, bypassing many of the
rules about media coverage. However, social media are difficult to control and their
effects and importance difficult to quantify. Perhaps more worryingly, social media
can be used to target voters in intrusive and forceful, even ethically dubious ways, as
highlighted by the reports surrounding the collection of personal data from millions

90 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 90 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 of Facebook users by Cambridge Analytica in 2018. Data was taken not only from
those who had agreed to take their survey but also from their friends and contacts
on Facebook to utilise and sell for political advantage.
The media are not decisive, nor is leadership and nor is a party’s level of unity,
but, taken together, they are inf luential. However, it is still the performance of the
government and the policies of the opposition parties that determine the outcome
of elections.

Debate
How influential are the media in determining party success?

The case that media are influential The case that media are not influential
● The media are the prism through which public perceptions ● Influential media tend to reflect, rather than lead, attitudes
of the parties are created. to parties.
● The winning party usually has the support of most print ● Despite nearly all print newspapers opposing him, Jeremy
newspapers. Corbyn performed well in the 2017 general election.
l Since 2010, the leadership debates have become key l There is little evidence to suggest that leadership debates
moments in general election campaigns. have affected public perception or changed minds.
l Parties are increasingly developing resources to use social l Social media tend to act as an echo chamber and rarely
media to influence voters as well as utilising social media to change opinions or attitudes towards parties.
collect data and target voters in increasingly sophisticated ● Other factors, like leadership and policies, may be more
ways. influential.
● Leaders spend time cultivating positive media images.
It is worth considering the long- and short-term influence of the media, and how far the media can actually change
perceptions in the short term and long term.

A summary of the role of parties in the UK

How well do parties enhance representative
democracy?
Political parties play many key roles in the UK’s representative form of democracy:
● They are vital in the selection of candidates for office. Without parties, candidates
would campaign as individuals, which would make it difficult for voters to
understand what collective policies might result from their decisions.
● They mobilise support for political programmes, not just individual policies. This
is known as aggregation. Without such aggregation, politics would become
incoherent.
● Parliament itself relies on party organisations to operate in an effective way. The
parties organise debates and ensure that ministers are called to account. They
also organise the staffing of parliamentary committees.
However, parties can also distort representation. The governing party is always
elected without an overall majority of the national vote and yet it claims to have the
mandate of the people. The ‘winner takes all’ nature of party politics may result in
government that is too partisan and does not seek a consensus of support for policies.
The coalition government between 2010 and 2015 was a rare example of parties
cooperating with each other.

2 Political parties 91

9781398388093.indb 91 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Parties also tend to reduce issues to false choices, such as ‘binary’ decision-making,
by claiming that one type of decision is either wholly wrong or wholly right. This
is rarely the case.
A consideration of the role of positive and negative aspects of parties in representative
democracy is given in Table 2.15.
Table 2.15 The role of parties in the UK’s representative democracy
Positive aspects Negative aspects
They provide open opportunities for people Adversarial party politics is negative in that
to become active in politics, and they it denies the creation of consensus and
are inclusive and make few demands on reduces issues to false, simplistic choices
members
They make political issues coherent and Parties claim legitimacy through their
help to make government accountable electoral mandate even when they are
elected to power with a minority of the
popular vote
They help to make elections and the Parties can become elitist so that small
operation of Parliament effective and leadership groups dominate policy-making
understandable to the public to the detriment of internal democracy
They identify, recruit and ‘train’ people for They limit the pool of talent for political
political office and leadership leadership to members only

Summary
Having read this chapter, you should have knowledge and understanding of the following:
➜ What political parties are and do, and why they are so central to an understanding of how
government and politics work in the UK
➜ How parties are funded, the main issues concerning party funding and what proposals for
reform have been offered
➜ How political parties and their leaders fit into the left–right spectrum in UK politics
➜ How the main political parties developed historically and what are the main ideological
principles behind them
➜ The nature and impact of smaller parties in various parts of the UK
➜ The nature of the different party systems that exist within the UK, why they differ and the
significance of those differences
➜ In what ways and to what extent small parties make an impact on UK politics
➜ The main reasons why some parties are successful and others are less successful

Key terms in this chapter

Classical liberals Classical liberalism is a philosophy developed by early liberals who
believed that individual freedom would best be achieved with the state playing a minimal role.
Left wing A widely used term for those who desire change, reform and alteration to the way
in which society operates. Often this involves radical criticisms of capitalism made by modern
liberal and socialist parties.
Modern liberals Modern liberalism emerged as a reaction against free-market capitalism,
believing this had led to many individuals not being free. Freedom could no longer simply be
defined as ‘being left alone’.

92 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 92 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 New Labour (Third Way) A revision of the traditional Labour values and ideals represented
by Old Labour. Influenced by Anthony Giddens, the ‘Third Way’ saw Labour shift in emphasis
from a heavy focus on the working class to a wider base, and a less robust alliance with the
trade unions.
New Right There are two elements — (i) the neo (or new) conservatives who want the state
to take a more authoritarian approach to morality and law and order, and (ii) the neo-liberals
who endorse the free-market approach and the rolling back of the state in people’s lives and
businesses.
Old Labour (social democracy) Key Labour principles embodying nationalisation,
redistribution of wealth from rich to poor and the provision of continually improving welfare and
state services, which largely rejected Thatcherite/free-market reforms or a Blairite approach.
One nation A paternalistic approach adopted by conservatives under the leadership of
Benjamin Disraeli in the nineteenth century and continued by David Cameron and Theresa May
in the twenty-first century, that richer people have an obligation to help poorer people.
Party system The way or manner in which the political parties in a political system are
grouped and structured. There are several variants that could apply to the UK; these include
one-party dominant, two-party, two-and-a-half-party and multi-party systems.
Right wing Reflects support for the status quo, little or no change, stressing the need for
order, stability and hierarchy; generally related to conservative parties.

Further reading
Websites
Information about all political parties can be found on their websites. This is also true of
important party factions:
● Conservative Way Forward: www.conservativewayforward.com
● Cornerstone Group: http://cornerstonegroup.wordpress.com
● Tory Reform Group: www.trg.org.uk
● Momentum: www.peoplesmomentum.com
Information about party regulation and funding can be found on the Electoral Commission site:
www. electoralcommission.org.uk
More information is on the UK Parliament site: www. parliament.uk

Books
Bale, T. (2016) The Conservative Party: From Thatcher to Cameron, Polity Press
Cole, M. and Deigham, H. (2012) Political Parties in Britain, Edinburgh University Press
Cook, A. (2012) Political Parties in the UK, Palgrave Macmillan
Davis, J. and Rentoul, J. (2019) Heroes or Villains: The Blair government reconsidered, Oxford
University Press
Driver, S. (2011) Understanding British Party Politics, Polity
Kogan, D. (2018) Protest and Power: The battle for the Labour Party, Bloomsbury Reader
Thorpe, A. (2016) The History of the British Labour Party, Palgrave — up-to-date but goes back
to the origins of Labour

2 Political parties 93

9781398388093.indb 93 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 Practice questions
1
Source 1
A
In Britain political giving is a minority pursuit. British parties are reliant on a very small
number of donors. In the first quarter of 2023 the Conservatives took in more than
£14 million, from a handful of super-wealthy individuals. While the unions remain the
bedrock of the Labour Party’s finances, Keir Starmer has been aggressively targeting
private donors. There are signs that Labour’s ‘Rose Network’ — similar to the Tory
‘Leaders Group’ where for £50,000 donors get regular off-the record-meetings with
senior ministers — is beginning to bloom. Accepting private donations leaves parties
open to charges of hypocrisy, cronyism, or worse.
Adapted from an opinion piece by Peter Geoghegan, published in the Guardian, 10 July 2023,
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/jul/10/british-political-giving-rich-abuse-tory-
labour-election

B
Representatives of big business do not need to donate in order to exercise undue
influence over government policy. Demands for the state to fund political parties would
only institutionalise the dominance of the established parties and make them even
more insulated from any need to engage with their grassroots. There is nothing untoward
about trade unions — that is, civil society organisations that represent the interests of
millions — exercising influence within political parties. The problem with state funding is
that it would make party elites all too ‘independent’ without union donations. Labour’s
leadership would no longer depend upon its capacity to generate active political support
or upon maintaining any relationship with its social and political base. State funding
would also make all political parties less independent of the state and there would
certainly be an outcry the first time an ‘extreme’ party got its hands on public cash.
Adapted from ‘Why state-funded political parties would be a disaster for our democracy’,
published on the openDemocracy website in 2012

Using the sources, evaluate the view that there should be full state funding
of political parties.
In your response you must:
– compare and contrast different opinions in the sources
– examine and debate these views in a balanced way
– analyse and evaluate only the information presented in the sources. (30)
2
Source 2
The idea of a stable two-party system has been increasingly questioned amidst growing
speculation that periods of minority or coalition government may have become the
norm in a context of declining support for the two major parties. Both the Conservatives
and Labour face ongoing challenges from insurgent parties, like the Brexit Party, and
from threats of internal party splits. The British party system is changing all too rapidly
with both major parties departing from what was previously perceived to be the ‘centre

94 Component 1: UK Politics

9781398388093.indb 94 08/03/24 3:56 PM

 ground’. With the Conservatives drifting to the right and Labour to the left, real
opportunities have emerged for so-called ‘third’ parties to take advantage. Such
opportunities have also been aided by the introduction of proportional representation
voting systems outside of general elections. This has enabled impressive electoral
successes for UKIP, the SNP and the Brexit Party. In the midst of this level of
unprecedented political turmoil, it is tempting to suggest that the UK party system is no
longer recognisable.
Despite this, the decline in electoral vote share for the two main parties has not been
mirrored by a decline in their relative parliamentary or executive dominance. Since [the
Second World War], 2010 is the only occasion that another party was part of a government
and at the 2015 general election, the Conservatives returned to power with a majority
government, with the Liberal Democrats being severely punished for their part in the previous
five years. Whilst UKIP had achieved the third highest number of popular votes at that
election at 12.6 per cent, the first-past-the-post system did not translate this in terms of
parliamentary representation. The snap election of 2017 may have led to the Conservatives
losing their majority, but the actual share of the votes for the two main parties dramatically
increased during that election — with the Conservatives and Labour taking over 82 per cent
of the popular vote and gaining nearly 90 per cent of parliamentary seats.
Adapted from ‘Is the Party over for Britain’s two-party system?’ by Dr Alex Oaten and Dr
Peter Kerr, published on the UK in a Changing Europe website in July 2019,
https://ukandeu.ac.uk/is-the-party-over-for-britains-two-party-system/

Using the source, evaluate the view that the UK is best described as a two-
party political system.
In your response you must:
– compare and contrast different opinions in the source
– examine and debate these views in a balanced way
– analyse and evaluate only the information presented in the source. (30)
3 Evaluate the view that the Labour Party remains committed to its traditional
values and beliefs.
You must consider this view and the alternative to this view in a balanced way. (30)
4 Evaluate the view that serious divisions exist between the Labour and
Conservative parties over the economy, law and order, and foreign affairs.
You must consider this view and the alternative to this view in a balanced way. (30)
5 Evaluate the view that the abilities of the leader are the most important
factor in determining a political party’s success.
You must consider this view and the alternative to this view in a balanced way. (30)
6 Evaluate the view that parties other than the Conservatives and Labour
play a meaningful role in UK politics.
You must consider this view and the alternative to this view in a balanced way. (30)
Answer guidance available online: www.hoddereducation.com/EdexcelUKPolitics7E

2 Political parties 95

9781398388093.indb 95 08/03/24 3:56 PM