AP Physics 1

Prepared by:
Jeff Laufer
 AP Physics 1
Table of Contents

Unit 1: 1D Motion…...…………….…….………..3
Unit 2: 2D Motion……..……………….….…….19
Unit 3: Forces & Motion……………….………..33
Unit 4: Work, Energy & Power…………........…56
Unit 5: Momentum………………….…….……..71
Unit 6: Rotation………...………………………..85
Unit 7: Gravity………….…………….………..105
Unit 8: Oscillations...……………………......…114
Unit 9: Fluids……………...….………………..124

2
 AP Physics 1
Unit 1: Motion in One-Dimension

Section 1.1 – Introduction to Kinematics………………………..…………………….…………4

Section 1.2 – Kinematics Equations……………………………………………..…….…………6

Section 1.3 – Free-Fall………………………………………………………………….………..9

Section 1.4 – Kinematic Graphs……….………………………………….………………….…13

3
AP Physics 1 Unit 1 - Kinematics
1.1 Kinematics
Focus Question: What is the difference between a vector and scalar quantity?

Motion with constant velocity.

Kinematics – The study of motion without regards to the forces causing the motion (The study of forces is
called dynamics).

Vectors - Quantities that have direction and Scalars – Quantities that only have magnitude.
magnitude.

ex: velocity, displacement, force ex: mass, temperature, speed, time

Position – Where an object is compared to some reference point (origin)

*Denoted as x in 1D motion or (x,y) in 2D motion

Displacement – The change in an object’s position. Distance – Length of the path an object travels as it
∆𝑥 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 moves from its initial position to its final position.
*vector *scalar
*distance must always be zero or positive, it cannot be
negative!
* Displacement tells you how far you are from you are started. Distance tells you how far you’ve traveled.
Consider the two paths from P to Q. If you traveled along the solid line, you
have traveled a greater distance than the solid line. However, travelling along
either line will lead to the same displacement.

Velocity – The rate at which displacement is Speed -

changing: Instantaneous speed – how fast an object is moving.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = !"#$%&'(
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 Average speed = $")(
∆𝑥 *scalar
𝑣=
∆𝑡 *speed is the absolute value of velocity. For example, an
*vector object moving at -20 m/s has more speed than object
*Rearranging the equation above, the general formula that moving at 10 m/s, but less velocity. This means it’s
relates displacement, velocity, and change in time is: moving faster, but moving in the negative direction.
∆𝒙 = 𝒗∆𝒕 *this only work when there is no acceleration
(velocity is constant)*
Example A: Mario drives a go-kart around a circular track with a radius of 20 m .What is his a)
displacement and b) distance traveled?

Displacement – 0, since Mario’s start point and end point are the same.

Distance - 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉 = 𝟒𝟎𝝅

Example B: Under what condition will an object have a distance equal to its displacement?

When an object only moves in the positive direction. *also possible if an object never moves

4
Example C: Pikachu and Eevee are both located at the origin. At time t = 0, they both start moving. Pikachu
moves with a velocity 20 m/s. Eevee moves with a velocity of -10 m/s. Find the distance between the two after
10 s.
𝒎
§ Pikachu’s displacement is ∆𝒙 = 𝒗𝒑𝒊𝒌𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒖 𝒕 = J𝟐𝟎 𝒔 L (𝟏𝟎 𝒔) = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎. Since he started at 0,
his position is now 200 m.
𝒎
§ Pikachu’s displacement is ∆𝒙 = 𝒗𝒆𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒆 𝒕 = J−𝟏𝟎 𝒔 L (𝟏𝟎 𝒔) = −𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒎. Since he started at
0, his position is now -100 m.
*The distance between the two is therefore 300 m.

Acceleration

Ø Acceleration – The rate of change of velocity.

𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
∆"
Equations: 𝑎 = or 𝑣$%&'( = 𝑣%&%#%'( + 𝑎∆𝑡
∆#

§ If velocity and acceleration are in the same direction, an object is speeding up.

§ If velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions, an object is slowing down.

Example D: A family excitingly drives to Homeplus for some well-choreographed shopping. For each of the
following cases, determine the direction of the acceleration of the car.

a) The car travels east and speeds up Eastward, since the object is speeding up, its acceleration
must be in the direction its velocity.

b) The car travels east and slows down Westward, since the object is slowing down its acceleration
must be against the direction of its velocity.

c) The car travels east at constant velocity No acceleration since velocity is constant.

d) The car travels west and slows down Eastward

e) The car travels west and speeds up Westward

Rate your understanding: Kinematics

0 1 2 3 4
I know nothing. I can solve kinematics I can set up and solve I can set and solve I can explain and teach
equations with help. kinematics problems kinematics problems kinematics.
with minor errors. with no errors.

5
AP Physics 1 Unit 1 - Kinematics
1.2 Kinematic Equations
Focus Question: How do velocity, acceleration, and displacement impact each other?
For an object in motion, there are 5 primary kinematic quantities to describe the motion:

• 𝑣𝑖 – initial velocity
• 𝑣𝑓 - final velocity
• ∆𝑥 – change in position (displacement)
• 𝑎 - acceleration
• 𝑡 - period of time for the problem being solved.
When given a problem to solve for an unknown quantity, first determine the given quantities. Then find a
kinematics equation that contains both the unknown and the known quantities. Each kinematics equation
contains four of the quantities and can be classified by which quantity is not in the equation.
𝒗𝒊 5𝒗𝒇
Ø No acceleration: ∆𝒙 = J 𝟐
L𝒕

Ø No displacement: 𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕

𝟏
Ø No final velocity: ∆𝒙=𝒗𝒊 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐

𝟏
Ø No initial velocity: ∆𝒙=𝒗𝒇 𝒕 − 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐

Ø No time: 𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝒂∆𝒙

*These only work for uniform (constant; does not change with time) acceleration.

To solve a kinematics problem:

§ Write down the knowns and the unknown quantity. (You need at least 3).

§ Identify a kinematic equation that relates the knowns to the unknowns.

§ Solve using algebra.

Use the kinematics equations to solve for unknown quantities.

Example A: A 2014 Hyundai Elantra uniformly accelerates from 12 m/s to 20 m/s in 3 seconds. What distance
did it travel in that time?
) )
Known quantitates: 𝑣" = 12 , 𝑣9 = 19 ,𝑡 = 3 𝑠 Unknown quantity: ∆𝑥 =?
# #

(;# 5;$ )
Equation that relates the variables: ∆𝑥 = =
𝑡

% %
>?= 5=@ A
Already solved in terms of unknown variable: ∆𝑥 = & &
(3 𝑠) = 𝟒𝟖 𝒎
=

6
Example B: A 2013 Hyundai Accent is initially traveling at 10 m/s. It accelerates uniformly at a rate of 2 m/s2
for 4 seconds. How far does the car travel during this time.
) )
Known quantitates: 𝑣" = 10 #
, 𝑎 = 2 #' , 𝑡 = 4 𝑠 Unknown quantity: ∆𝑥 =?

?
Equation that relates the variables: ∆𝑥 = 𝑣" 𝑡 + = 𝑎𝑡 =

) ? )
Already solved in terms of unknown variable: ∆𝑥 = J10 # L (4 𝑠) + = J2 #' L (4 𝑠)= = 𝟓𝟔 𝒎

Example C: A 2000 Ford Focus is traveling at a speed of 22 m/s. The brakes can produce a maximum
acceleration of 8 m/s2. What is the minimum distance needed for the car to stop?
) ) )
Known quantitates: 𝑣" = 22 #
, 𝑎 = −8 #' , (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛)𝑣9 = 0 #
(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑠)

Unknown quantity: ∆𝑥 =?

Equation that relates the variables: 𝑣9= = 𝑣"= + 2𝑎∆𝑥

!!" "!#"
Solving the equation for displacement: ∆𝑥 =
#$

) =
(0= − J22 # L
∆𝑥 = ) = 𝟏𝟓 𝒎
2( 8 #' )

Example D: A jet requires 2.5 seconds of acceleration from rest to cover a 94 m distance.
a) What is the takeoff speed of the plane?
b) What was the acceleration?
)
Known quantitates: 𝑣" = 0 # (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡), 𝑡 = 2.5 𝑠, ∆𝑥 = 94 𝑚

a) Unknown variable: 𝑣9
(;# 5;$ )
Equation that relates the variables: ∆𝑥 = =
𝑡

=∆C
Solving the equation for final velocity: 𝑣9 = $
− 𝑣"

=(DE ))
𝑣9 = =.H #
− 0 = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟐 𝒎

b) Unknown variable: a
Equation that relates the variables: 𝑣9 = 𝑣" + 𝑎𝑡
;$ I;#
Solving the equation for acceleration: 𝑎 = $

%
JH.= I@
𝑎= &
=.H #
= 𝟑𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐

7
Example E: An unusually athletic panda is initially running up at mountain with a speed of 𝑣 when he gets the
inspiration to speed up with uniform acceleration for a period of 𝑡 seconds. Afterwards, he is now running at a
speed of 3𝑣.
a) What distance did the panda cover during the 𝑡 seconds?
Known quantitates: 𝑣" = 𝑣, 𝑣9 = 3𝑣, 𝑡 = 𝑡 Unknown quantity: ∆𝑥 =?
(;# 5;$ )
Equation that relates the variables: ∆𝑥 = =
𝑡
;5K;
Already solved in terms of unknown variable: ∆𝑥 = =
𝑡 = 𝟐𝒗𝒕

b) What was the panda’s acceleration?

Known quantitates: 𝑣" = 𝑣, 𝑣9 = 3𝑣, 𝑡 = 𝑡 Unknown quantity: 𝑎 =?
Equation that relates the variables: 𝑣9 = 𝑣" + 𝑎𝑡
;$ I;#
Solving the equation for acceleration: 𝑎 = $

3𝑣 − 𝑣 𝟐𝒗
𝑎= =
𝑡 𝒕

c) After what time will the panda have covered half the distance found in a)?
*For this part, the final velocity from a) and b) don’t apply. However, we know the acceleration is
constant so that value can be used. In addition, the total distance is known, so half the distance is half
that quantity.
=;
Known quantitates: 𝑣" = 𝑣, 𝑎 = $
, ∆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡 Unknown quantity: 𝑡 =?
?
Equation that relates the variables: ∆𝑥 = 𝑣" 𝑡 + = 𝑎𝑡 =

? =;
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣𝑇 + = J $ L 𝑇 = , solve for T.

Rate your understanding: Kinematics

0 1 2 3 4
I can’t math. I can solve kinematics I can set up and solve I can set and solve I can explain and teach
equations with help. kinematics problems kinematics problems how to apply
with minor errors. with no errors. kinematics equations.

8
AP Physics 1 Unit 1 - Kinematics
1.3 Free Fall_
Focus Question: How does the earth’s gravity affect the motion of an object?
Free Fall Acceleration
In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same, constant acceleration.
Acceleration due to gravity = g = 9.81 m/s2.
*For the sake of simplicity, g = 10 m/s2 can be used in this course.

Example A: A penny and a Ford F-150 pick-up truck are both dropped off the top of Taipei 101. Which one
would strike the ground first?
They both hit the ground at the same time. Although there is more downward force on the pick-up truck,
it takes more force to pull it down.

Solve kinematics equations for falling objects.

If an object is dropped from rest:

• Its initial velocity is zero.
• It is accelerated in a downwards direction with a magnitude equal to g (9.8 m/s2).
Example B: A camera falls off a cliff of height 𝐻. Determine the time it takes to hit the ground if up is the
positive direction.
*In 1.1, ∆𝑥 was used for displacement. In 1.3, ∆𝑦 is used since we are dealing with vertical motion.
Known quantitates
∆𝑦 = −𝐻 (up is positive and the displacement is down since the object ends up lower than its start)
𝑎 = −𝑔 (𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛)
𝑣" = 0 (starts from rest since its dropped)
Unknown quantity: t
?
Equation that relates the variables: ∆𝑦 = 𝑣" 𝑡 + = 𝑎𝑡 =

=∆L =(IM) 𝟐𝑯
Solving for t: 𝑡 = h %
Plugging in knowns: 𝑡 = h IN
=h𝒈

Example C: A rock is dropped off a cliff that is 80m.

a) How long does it take the rock to reach the ground?
𝟐𝑯 𝟐(𝟖𝟎 𝒎)
Using 𝑡 = h 𝒈 from above: 𝒕 = h𝟏𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 = 𝟒 𝒔
b) With what speed does the rock strike the ground?
Known quantitates
∆𝑦 = −80 (up is positive and the displacement is down since the object ends up lower than its start)
𝑎 = −10 𝑚/𝑠 = (𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛)
𝑣" = 0 (starts from rest since its dropped)
Unknown quantity: vf
Equation that relates the variables: 𝑣9 = 𝑣" + 𝑎𝑡
)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣9 : 𝑣9 = 𝑎𝑡 = J−10 #'L (4 𝑠) = −40 𝑚/𝑠
*If up is the positive direction, velocity must be negative since the rock is traveling down.

9
Example D: Gravity on other planets - Suppose you are visiting a planet a long time ago in galaxy far, far
away. To determine the acceleration due to gravity on the planet, you drop a ham sandwich from a height of 55
m. The sandwich strikes the ground 1.9 seconds later. How many times greater is the acceleration of gravity of
this planet than it is on earth?
*In this problem, a is the unknown. We cannot use g = 10 m/s2 as this does not take place on Earth.
Knowns: 𝑣" = 0, ∆𝑦 = −55 𝑚, 𝑡 = 1.9 𝑠 Unknown: a
? =
Equation that relates the variables: ∆𝑦 = 𝑣" 𝑡 + = 𝑎𝑡
!∆# !(&'' ))
Solving for a: 𝑎 = $!
= (+.- .)!
= −31 𝑚/𝑠 !
This is about 3 times Earth’s gravity.

Solve kinematics equations for objects thrown up in the air.

Example E: Deriving some formulas - A football is thrown up with a velocity 𝑣.

a) Calculate the maximum height of the thing.

To solve a kinematics problem, we need to know 3 of the 5 kinematic variables. Initial velocity is given
and we know acceleration is the acceleration due to gravity, g. For max height, we can also say that the
final velocity is zero, since the football will have a velocity of zero for a brief moment while it is
switching directions at the top of its trajectory.
10
 We will take up as the positive direction:

Known quantitates: 𝑣" = 𝑣, 𝑎 = −𝑔, 𝑣9 = 0 Unknown quantity: ∆𝑦 =?

Equation that relates the variables: 𝑣9= = 𝑣"= + 2𝑎∆𝑥

;' ;' 𝒗𝟐
Solving for ∆𝑦 = − =%# = − =(IN) = 𝟐𝒈

b) Calculate the time the thing takes to reach its maximum height.

Since we solved a), we now know initial velocity, final velocity, displacement, and acceleration for this,
so we can pick any of the 5 equations. In this case, the no displacement equation is the simplest to use:
𝑣9 = 𝑣" + 𝑎𝑡
Plugging in knowns: 0 = 𝑣 − 𝑔𝑡
𝒗
Solve for t: 𝑡 = 𝒈
c) How long is the thing in the air?

We could use kinetic equations here, but we now the time from ground to max height is equal to the
𝒗
time from max height to the ground for a project that lands at its launch height. Thus the time is 𝟐 𝒈.

d) With what speed will the thing strike the ground?

We could do math, but this is not necessary. Since it was launched at v, it will hit the ground at speed
v. *Note this is only true is the launch height and landing height are the same.

Example F: Choosing a coordinate system - A baseball is thrown upward with initial speed of 35 m/s. What is
its velocity at t =2 s if:
a) Up is the positive direction? b) Down is the positive direction?
) ) ) )
Knowns: 𝑣" = 35 # , 𝑔 = −10 #' , 𝑡 = 2𝑠 Knowns: 𝑣" = −35 # , 𝑔 = 10 #' , 𝑡 = 2𝑠
Unknown: 𝑣9 Unknown: : 𝑣9
Equation: 𝑣9 = 𝑣" + 𝑎𝑡 Equation: 𝑣9 = 𝑣" + 𝑎𝑡
) ) ) )
𝑣9 = J35 # L + (−10 #' )(2 𝑠) 𝑣9 = J−35 # L + (10 #' )(2 𝑠)
𝑣9 = 15 𝑚/𝑠 𝑣9 = −15 𝑚/𝑠
*We get the same magnitude but different signs. However, both answers are consistent with physics.
The baseball is still moving up after 2 s. In a) up is positive, and the answer is positive, so the ball is moving up
by our answer. In b) down is positive, but the answer is negative, which means the ball is moving up. As long as
you are consistent with which direction is positive, your answer will be correct.

Example G: A package falls of a freight elevator that is ascending at 12.0 m/s. The package is 22.0 m off the
ground at the instant it falls off the elevator.
When the package falls off the elevator, it is still traveling up due to inertia. It was going up
before sliding off, so it will continue traveling upwards. However, it will slow down since
now gravity is acting. It will eventually lose all its upward speed, switch directions and then
start traveling down at increasing speed. *We will take up as the positive direction for this
problem.

11
 a) How long will it take the package to reach its maximum height?
At max height, we can say that final velocity is zero.

b) How high will the package rise?

*We only solved for the change in height. To find final height, add ∆𝑦 to the initial height.
c) How long will it take the package to reach the ground?
We are now using a different frame of time than a) and b. a) and b) considered from when the box leaves the
elevator until max height. For parts c) and d), we will consider the frame for when the package slides off until it
hits the ground. We know that the displacement is -22 m. The displacement is negative since the package lands
below its starting point and up is the positive direction (making a downward displacement negative).
*note we cannot multiple a) by 2 here since the starting and ending height are different.

*The path of the package is quadratic, so we get two times. Since one of these values is negative, it is not part of
the motion for this problem, so we only use the positive answer.
d) With what speed will the package strike the ground?

Rate your understanding: Free Fall

0 1 2 3 4
Looking at my I can solve kinematics I can set up and solve I can set and solve I can explain and teach
grade, I think I equations with help. kinematics problems with kinematics problems free fall.
understand free fall. minor errors. with no errors.

12
 AP Physics 1 Unit 1 - Kinematics
1.4 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration Graphs
Focus Question: How do velocity, acceleration, and displacement change over time?

Example A: Intro to Kinematic Graphs. Graph the appropriate quantities for the scenarios given.
a) A llama gallops gracefully at a constant speed in the positive direction of 3 m/s for 3 s.
Before making each, graph, a function for each will be constructed.
𝑎(𝑡) = 0 since velocity is constant. v(t) = 3
Using kinetics: ∆𝑥 = 3𝑡 since velocity is constant. *this is straight line starting at x = 0 m at t =0 s
and going to x = 9 m at t = 3 s.

b) An alpaca is initially at rest. The alpaca is startled by a fierce capybara and starts running at time t =
0 at a constant acceleration of 1 m/s2 for 3 seconds.
𝑎(𝑡) = 1 v(t) = 𝑣" + 𝑎𝑡 → 𝑣(𝑡) = 3𝑡
For x(t), the math of the equation is beyond the scope of Physics 1. However, we know the displacement
is increasing at an increasing velocity, meaning the rate of change (slope) will increase.

c) A capybara is initially at x = 1. At t = 2.0 s, the capybara moves in the positive direction at constant
velocity to x = 2 and stops at t = 3.0, then stays there at rest.
x(t) is pretty much given in the problem. For the phase from 2 s to the 3 s, the slope is constant since
it goes at a constant rate.
v(t) is zero except from 2 to 3. The velocity is the change in positive over the change in time which
=)I?)
K #I= #
= 1 𝑚/𝑠.

13
Analyze position vs. time graphs

Position vs. Time Graphs

∆𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
§ slope = ∆𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
= 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

o positive slope – positive velocity.

o negative slope – negative velocity.

o no slope – no velocity (at rest)

§ A straight line with a non-zero slope –

constant velocity
§ A line with a slope of zero indicates –
0 velocity; object is at rest
§ A vertical line – The end of all things (impossible)
§ Curved Lines:
Positive Velocity, Positive Acceleration Positive Velocity, Negative Acceleration

*slope is positive and *slope is positive and gets

gets more positive. less positive.

Negative Velocity, Positive Acceleration Negative Velocity, Negative Acceleration

*slope is negative and gets *slope is negative and gets

less negative more negative

§ In general, concavity gives the acceleration:

Concave up (a smiley face J) – Concave down (a frowny face L) –
positive acceleration negative acceleration
Example B: Refer to the graph on right.

a) Where is the velocity positive and constant? B, since the

slope is positive and constant (straight line)
b) When is the object at rest? E (horizontal line)
c) Where is the instantaneous speed greatest? F and G (this is
also the least velocity)
d) Where is speed undefined? D (sharp turn; slope is
undefined)
e) Where is acceleration zero? A, B, E, F, G (slope is constant; straight lines)

14
Example C: For the graph on the right, find:

a) the total displacement

The displacement is 20 m since that’s
the difference between the starting and
ending position. The distance is 60 m
since the object travels 40 m from 0 to
40 m and then 20 more meters when it
goes from 40 to 20 m. Thus, it travels a
total distance of 60 m, but is only 20 m
from its starting position.
b) The velocity at t = 1 s.
The velocity is equal to the slope at this point. Using math, the slope of the line passing through this
E@I@
point is =I@
= 𝟐𝟎 𝒎/𝒔.

c) The velocity at t = 8.
=@IE@
Slope = ?@IH
= −𝟒 𝒎/𝒔. *the object is traveling in the negative direction.

d) The average acceleration from t =5 to = 9. 0, since the velocity(slope) is always the same.

Analyze velocity vs. time graphs

Displacement

*Consider the graph on the right, the displacement for a time t is:

∆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡

This is also the area of the rectangular area under the graph.

Overall, the area under a velocity vs. time graph is displacement.

15
Example D: Ponder the graph shown.

a) Find the displacement of the object after

55 seconds.

*Displacement is the area between the

function and x-axis. Area above the x-axis is
counted as positive. Area below is negative.
Area above x-axis: 1050 m
Area below x-axis: -500
Displacement = 1050-500 = 550 m

b) Find the distance the object travels in 55 seconds.

Distance is the total area, without regard to positive or negative.

Distance = Total area = 1050+500 = 1550 m

c) Find the acceleration and speed at 30 seconds.

I𝟒𝟎I𝟔𝟎
Acceleration = slope = 𝟒𝟎I𝟏𝟓
= −𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
Speed = absolute value of velocity = 40 m/s
d) Name a time when the velocity is increasing but the speed is decreasing.
40 s to 50 s (velocity is getting less negative, but absolute value is getting smaller)
e) Name a time when the velocity is decreasing but the object is getting faster.
30 s to 40 s (velocity is getting more negative, but absolute value is increasing)

Analyze acceleration vs. time graphs

Acceleration vs. Time Graphs – Rate of change of velocity.

*will be constant or zero in AP Physics 1.

*Area under Graph = Velocity.

Zero Acceleration Constant Acceleration

16
Example E: Classify the velocity at each point of the position vs. time graph and sketch the graphs for velocity
and acceleration.

Ø 1 – constant positive velocity, zero acceleration.

Ø 2 – constant positive velocity, zero acceleration.
Ø 3 – zero velocity, zero acceleration.
Ø 4 – decreasing positive velocity, negative acceleration.
Ø 5 – increasing negative velocity, negative acceleration.
Ø 6 – constant negative velocity, zero acceleration.

17
Example F: The graph on the shows the velocity of an alpaca.

a) When is the alpaca at rest?

t = 5 s. The alpaca briefly stops to switch directions.

*The alpaca is NOT at rest from 2 to 3 s, this is constant velocity. A common mistake is thinking a
horizontal lines means rest; this is true for positive graphs, but not for velocity graphs.

b) What is the acceleration of the alpaca at 4 seconds?

I𝟏𝟎I𝟐𝟎
Acceleration = slope = 𝟔I𝟑 = −𝟏𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐

c) Where does the llama have no acceleration?

2 to 3 s since velocity is constant. Acceleration is change in velocity, and there is no change here.

d) If the alpaca continues his negative acceleration for t>3, when would he return to its starting
position?
The positive area is 70. For the alpaca to return to his starting positive, total displacement must be
zero. Thus, we need an area below the x-axis of -70. If he continues on his current path, the area
𝟏
would be 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟐 (𝒙)(𝟏𝟎𝒙) = 𝟕𝟎, solve for x gives 𝒙 = √𝟏𝟒.
Thus the time is t = 𝟓 + √𝟏𝟒 s

Rate your understanding: Graphing Displacement, Velocity & Acceleration

0 1 2 3 4
I get none of this. I know what speed, I know what distance, I understand distance, I can explain and teach
This is so sad. Alexa, distance, and velocity, and velocity, and acceleration how distance,
play Despacito. acceleration are. acceleration what they and how they are related acceleration, and
represent. to each other. velocity are related.

18
 AP Physics 1
Unit 2: Motion in Two Dimensions

Section 2.1 – Vectors……………………………….………………………………..…………20

Section 2.2 – Projectile Motion……………………………………………….…………..…….24

Section 2.3 – Relative Velocity……………………………………………………………..…..31

19
AP Physics 1 Unit 2: 2D Kinematics
2.1 Vectors
Focus Question: How can we find the horizontal and vertical components of a vector quantity?

Vectors – Quantities that have magnitude and direction. You represent a vector by drawing an arrow. The
length of the arrow is proportional to its magnitude. The oriention of the arrow is the direction.

Example A: The HMS Boaty McBoatface sails due east with a velocity of 10 m/s when there is no wind. On a
certain day, a westward win of 3 m/s blow. Draw vectors representing the boat’s velocity with no wind, the
wind, and the resultant velocity vector the boat.

Example B: Create vectors to present the following quantities:

§ Vector A: 4 N, 60° above the positive x-axis.

§ Vector B: 4 N, 120° with the x-axis.
§ Vector C: 2N in the negative y direction.

*A and B are the same length since they have the same
magnitude.
*C is half the length of A and B since its half their
magnitude.

Vector Components: Vector quantities in two dimensions can be expressed as a combination of their x and y
components.

Example C: A vector of magnitude 25 m/s acts 60° above the horizontal. Find the x and y components of the
vector.

𝒎
𝒗𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓
𝒔
𝒎
𝒗𝒚 = 𝟐𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟔𝟎 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟕
𝒔
20
Vector Addition: To combine vectors graphically, you can use the tail-to-head method.

Vectors can be subtracted by reversing the direction of one vector and then adding.

Example D: A student walks 2 blocks north of Suncoast and 3 blocks east. Draw a vector to represent their total
displacement from Suncoast.

To combine vectors mathematically, add up the x-components together and the y-components together to find
the components of the resultant vector. The resultant force and direction can then be found using properties of
right triangles.

*Usually in physics, cosine is used for horizontal components and sine for vertical. This is for when the
angle given is the angle with the horizontal, which is true most of the time. However, keep in mind this is
reversed if given the angle with the vertical.

21
Example E: A weather balloon is released and rises at a constant speed of 15 m/s relative to the ground. The
wind blows eastward at 6.5 m/s. What is the velocity of the balloon?

To add vectors in Physics:

1) Find the x and y components of each vector.
2) Add the x components together to get 𝑹𝒙 (x component of resultant vector).
3) Add the y components together 𝑹𝒚 .
4) Use R = +𝑹𝟐𝒙 + 𝑹𝟐𝒚 to get the magnitude of the resultant.
𝑹
5) Use 𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧&𝟏 (𝑹𝒚 ) to get direction of resultant.
𝒙

Example F: Two forces act as shown.

a) Find x and y components of the resultant force.
b) Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
The 12 N vector will be defined as A, the 10 N vector will
be defined as B, and the resultant will be defined as R.
12 N *A is positive in both the x and y directions.
*B is negative in y and positive in x.
10 N

30° 45°

22
Example G: Two forces act as shown.
a) Find x and y components of the resultant force.
b) Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
The 10 N vector will be defined as A, the 8 N vector will
be defined as B, and the resultant will be defined as R.
*A is positive in the x and y directions.
*B is negative in x, and has no y-component (𝑩𝒚 = 𝟎)

Rate your understanding: 2D Motion

0 1 2 3 4
Two dimensions is two I understand the I can calculate resultant I can calculate resultant I can explain and teach
more than I can do concepts, but the math vector magnitude and vector magnitude and how to describe motion
math in. is too crazy for me. directions with minor directions with no in two dimensions.
errors. errors.

23
AP Physics 1 Unit 2: 2D Kinematics
2.2 Projectile Motion
Focus Question: How does the velocity of a projectile change during its path of motion?

Projectile Motion – Motion on a curved path, with only gravity acting on it.

Notation for projectiles

§ 𝑥 −horizontal position 𝑦 −vertical position

§ 𝑣C – horizontal velocity 𝑣L – vertical velocity
§ 𝑎C – horizontal acceleration (always zero) 𝑎L – vertical acceleration (always g downward)

Analyze horizontal motion under the effects of gravity.

Example A – Launching an object horizontally: A rock of mass 𝑚 is thrown horizontally off a building of
height ℎ. The speed as it leaves the top of the building is 𝑣" . a) Find i) the time for the object to hit the ground,
ii) the horizontal distance traveled, and iii) the final velocity

For a horizontally launched projectile, the all the initial velocity is in

the x-direction. Thus, the x-component of velocity is always vi. For the
y-component, it is initially zero since all the initial velocity is
horizontal. Over time in the air, the y-component accelerates with
gravity; thus is will speed up in the down direction.

*For the sake of consistency, we will take up as positive for this

problem. It is also appropriate to take down as positive here.

i) For this problem, we will only consider motion in the y-direction since we have 3 knowns in the y-direction
(acceleration, displacement, and initial velocity)

ii) Since we now have the time in the air, the horizontal distance can be found using ∆𝑥 = 𝑣C 𝑡.

24
iii) For this part, we know the final x value (vi), but we need to find the final y-velocity to find the total velocity.

b) Suppose the height of the cliff were doubled. Why would the rock travel a greater horizontal distance in this
case?

The rock will travel further, since it will have the same horizontal speed, but will in the air longer, give it
more time to travel horizontal.

c) Suppose the initial speed of the object were doubled. How would this affect the time the rock is in the air?

This would not affect the time in the air. The time in the air is only based on the vertical motion of the
rock, which is not affect by its horizontal velocity.

Example B: A copy of Star Wars: The Last Jedi on Blu-Ray is thrown horizontally off a cliff into the trash
where it belongs. It takes 3 seconds to hit the ground and shatter 40 meters away.

a) How high is the cliff?

There is not enough information to use the x-direction, however we do have 3 variables in the y-
direction so we can use this variable to find the time in the air.
*There is no general rule on whether to use the x-direction of y-direction to solve a projectile
kinematics problem, you have to look at the knowns and what you’re looking for and make a
decision on the direction to use.

b) With what speed was the movie thrown?

25
Example C – Dropping an object while moving: A plane flying horizontally at 120 m/s and height of 300 m
drops a crate.
a) How fast is the crate traveling horizontally as it falls?

120 m/s. The horizontal velocity never changes as the crate is in the air as there is no horizontal
acceleration.

b) How long does it take for the crate to hit the ground?

To find the time in the air for a projectile problem, you usually will use the direction, horizontal or vertical, in
which displacement is given. Since we know displacement in the y-direction, we will try using the y-direction
to find time in the air.

c) How far, horizontally, from where it was realized does the crate hit the ground?

d) What is the crate's velocity immediately before it hits the ground?

*When using the inverse tangent function, it’s okay to ignore the negative since this will give you an angle
between 0 and 90.
26
Analyze the motion of a projectile fired at an angle from the ground.

Relationship between v, vx, and vy:

v
𝒗𝒚
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒗𝒚 = 𝒗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒗𝒙
An object launched an angular will follow a trajectory that is

During the motion of the particle

Assuming there is no air resistance, no force impedes the motion of a projectile in the horizontal direction. The
horizontal component of motion has an acceleration equal to zero.

*there is never any horizontal acceleration for projectiles in high school physics.

Gravity acts to accelerate a projectile downward. The vertical component of motion has an acceleration equal to
the acceleration due to gravity, which is g downwards.

To solve problems involving projectile motion, horizontal and vertical motions are considered separately.

At t = 0: At time t = t

vxi = 𝒗 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

vyi = 𝒗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒗𝒚 = 𝒗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 − 𝒈𝒕

27
Example D: A cannon ball is launched at angle of 40° and a velocity of 60 m/s.

a) Find the vertical and horizontal components of the initial velocity.

b) How long after being launched will the cannon-ball hit the ground?

To find the time in the air, the y-direction will be used. We know when the ball lands, it’s y-displacement is 0
(it takes off from the ground and lands on ground level). We also know that the final y-velocity is -39 m/s since
this is the negative of the launch velocity (again this is only true when launch and landing heights are equal).

c) How far away will the cannon ball land?

d) How would increasing the launch angle affect the time that the projectile is in the air?

Increasing the launch will increase the time the ball in the air. This is because it will have a greater y-
component of velocity and will therefore travel higher and have to fall further, making it stay in the air longer.

e) How are launch angle and maximum height related?

The height reached is based on the y-component of the ball’s velocity. It has more of its velocity in the y-
direction, and thus a greater vertical velocity, with a higher launch angle.

*Higher launch angles also leads to less horizontal speed. Both horizontal speed and vertical speed affect
horizontal distance traveled. A smaller angle leads to greater horizontal speed while a higher angle leads to
more time to travel in the x-direction. The angle that leads to the greatest horizontal distance is 45o.

28
Example E: Graphs of Projectiles: An object is launched at a positive velocity and angle 0 < 𝜃 < 90.

a) Sketch graphs for the horizontal displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the object.

b) Sketch graphs for the vertical displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the object.

Example F – Using the horizontal direction to find time: A football player kicks a football with an initial
velocity of 30 m/s at angle of 42° above the field. The goal post is 22 m away and 10 m high. Assuming the is
kicked straight towards the center of the goal post (the kick does go wide), does the ball go over the goal post?

To answer the question, the x-direction will be used to find time since x-displacement is known. Then the y-
displacement can be found at this time and compare it to the goal post to determine if it went over or under.

29
Example G – A harder airplane problem: An airplane attempts to drop a bomb on a target. When the bomb is
released, the plane if flying upward at an angle of 30° above the horizontal at a constant speed of 200 m/s. At
the point of release, the plane's altitude is 2.0 km. The bomb hits the target.
a) Determine how much time it takes the bomb to hit the target after it is released.
b) What is the height of the airplane when the bomb hits the ground?

*When the bomb leaves the airplane, it still has the upward velocity of the airline,
but gravity will give it an acceleration downward, so the bomb will go up, then
down in a parabolic arch. The airplane will still move upward at constant speed.

a) To find time, the y-direction will be used since y-displacement is known (2km is 2000m). Since the bomb
lands below the target, displacement will be taken as negative (again, up will be the positive direction).

b) The plane continues flying up with its initial y-velocity. Once its change in height is found, it is added to the
initial height.

Ø TL;DR: There is only one equation for the x-direction, since ax=0. This equation is a form of ∆𝑥 =
;# 5;$
=
𝑡, where the initial and final velocities are the same since the x-velocity is constant. ∆𝑥 = 𝑣# 𝑡

In the vertical direction, acceleration is always g downwards.

Rate your understanding: Projectile Motion

0 1 2 3 4
I can analyze the After receiving help in With minor errors, I can With no errors, I can set I can explain and teach
motion of my grade setting up the problem, set up and solve up and solve problems how to set up and solve
falling off a cliff. I can analyze projectile problems involving involving projectile projectile motion
motion. projectile motion. motion. problems.

30
AP Physics 1 Unit 2: 2D Kinematics
2.3 Relative Velocity
Focus Question: What is a reference frame?

Suppose you are flying across the Pacific at 580 mph. The in-flight meal on the tray in front of you appears
motionless(and cold and bland but that’s not important right now), however, it is also moving across the Pacific
at 580 mph. This is because you and the in-flight meal are in the same inertial reference frame.

Reference Frame:

A coordinate system fixed to a single point that is at rest or moving.

Relative Velocity

Reference Frame from inside car A:

Ø Car A – From an observer in Car A’s perspective, car A is at rest.
Ø Car B – Car A sees Car B approaching at 70 + 65 = 135 mph.
Ø Car C – Even though Car C is at rest, an observer in car A sees car C approaching it at 65 mph,
which is car A’s velocity.

Reference Frame from inside car B:

Ø Car A – Car B sees Car A approaching at 65 + 70 = 135 mph. This is the same as the speed A
approaching B at since they approach each other at the same speed.
Ø Car B – Car B is at rest.
Ø Car C – Even though Car C is at rest, an observer in car B sees car C approaching it at 70 mph.

Reference Frame from inside car C:

Ø Car A – Car C sees A approaching at 65 mph.
Ø Car B – Car B is approaching at 70 mph.
Ø Car C – Car C is a rest.
*since C is at rest, it measures all the velocities relative to the Earth since it is not moving relative
to Earth.
Example A: You are sitting in the back of a bus on a field trip. The bus is traveling at 30 m/s. Your teacher is
walking towards the back of the bus at a rate of 4 m/s to yell at you for acting like a schmuck. Find the velocity
of your teacher relative to the ground.

velocity = 30 + (-4 m/s) = 26 m/s

*The student sees the teacher

approaching them at 4 m/s, but the
teacher is moving 26 m/s in the direction
of the bus with respect to the ground.

Solve problems involving relative velocity.

Example B: A cowboy is riding on the top of a train car that is moving at a constant velocity. He throws his hat
up in the air, and then catches it as it falls. Draw the trajectory of the hat: i) from a reference frame fixed to the
train , ii) from the reference frame of an observed standing still as the train passes and iii) from an observer on
the ground walking opposite the train’s direction.

Example C: An airplane drops a bomb on a target. At one particular instant, the bomb is falling at a rate of 20
m/s directly below the airplane. An observer on the ground sees the bomb moving towards the ground at an
angle with a speed of 80 m/s. How fast is the airplane flying with respect to the ground?

'𝟐𝟎𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐𝒑 = 𝟖𝟎𝟐

𝒗𝒑 = 𝟕𝟕 𝒎/𝒔

Rate your understanding: Relative Motion

0 1 2 3 4
I’m relatively confused. I understand reference I understand most of I understand reference I can explain and teach
frames and relative reference frames and frames and relative relative velocity.
motion partially. relative motion. motion.

32
 AP Physics 1
Unit 3: Forces and Motion

Section 3.1 – Newton’s Laws of Motion……………………………………………………….34

Section 3.2 – Solving Problems with Free-Body Diagrams……………………………………37

Section 3.3 – Friction …………………………………………………….…………………….45

Section 3.4 – Forces in Circular Motion……….…………….……………………………....…51

33
AP Physics 1 Unit 3: Forces
3.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion
Focus Question: How do the forces acting on an object affect the motion of an object?

Dynamics – The study of motion and the forces causing it.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

1st Law (Law of Inertia) –

Ø Objects resist changes in acceleration.

Ø Objects at rest remain at rest and objects in motion travel with constant speed unless there is a net
force.

§ Net Force – Vector sum of all forces on a system.

o If there is a non-zero net force: the object is accelerated in the direction of the net force.

o If there is no net force: the object is in equilibrium (at rest or moving at constant velocity).

§ Inertia – The tendency of an object resist a change in velocity (acceleration).

o Measure of inertia: Mass is the measure of an object’s inertia.
*More mass = more inertia = more difficult to accelerate with force

2nd Law (F=ma)

“The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force applied and inversely proportional
to the object’s mass.”

*F=ma*
More force : more acceleration

More mass (inertia) : less acceleration

To solve any problem involving forces

1) Draw a picture of all the forces acting on the object.

2) Label each force.

3) Apply ∑ u𝑭
u⃑ = 𝒎𝒂
u⃑ in the direction of motion.

In a problem involving forces, the forces acting on the system in a motion will cause the object to
acceleration in the direction of motion. The goal is to determine which forces act in the direction of
motion, whether they are positive or negative, and put those forces in an equation with F=ma.

34
Example A: Two forces act on an object. A 10 N force is directed north and a 5 N force south. The objects
moves at constant acceleration of 2.0 m/s2. Find the mass of the object.

Before using F=ma, they net force must be found by combing the two force vectors.

Example B: What net force is required to bring a 1500 kg car to rest from a speed of 100 m/s over a distance of
55 m?

F=ma can’t be used right away, so kinematics will be used to find the acceleration.

*Force is a vector. Since the force is acting against the motion (it’s a braking force), and the direction of
of motion is taken as the positive direction, the force is negative.

3rd Law (Action & Reaction) –

u Every action has equal and opposite reaction (forces come in pairs).

35
Example C: A man ties a rope to a box and pulls the box across the floor with the rope. Identify all the action-
reaction pairs.

Box Action-Reaction Pairs: FTension and FFriction

Man Action-Reaction Pairs: FTension and FFriction

*Notes on the forces

Ø FGravity – This is the force of weight, pulling the box/man down to the ground.
Ø FNormal – When you push on a surface, the surface pushes back. This is called a normal force.

*Common Physics Misconception* Gravity and Normal force are not action-reaction pairs since gravity
is a force between the center of mass of the object and the Earth’s center of mass. The normal force acts
only at the point of contact. This is will explored more later in Physics 1.

Ø FTension: A pulling force in a rope is called tension. This force pulls the box forward, but tries to pull the
man backwards. Think about tug of war, the rope pulls on both sides.
Ø FFriction for the Box: The box is sliding, so friction resists this sliding motion.
Ø FFriction for the Man: When you walk, you push back on the ground with your foot. Friction acts against
this pushing backward force, pushing you forward as a result. This is why you can’t walk well on ice;
there’s no friction to push back on the ground.

Rate your understanding: Forces and laws of motion

0 1 2 3 4
I fought the laws of I know what the laws With minor errors, I can I can apply the laws of I am the new Newton
motion and the laws of motion are, but can't apply the laws of motion with no mistakes. and can explain and
won. apply them. motion. teach forces.

36
AP Physics 1 Unit 3: Forces
3.2 Solving Problems with Free-Body Diagrams .
Focus Question: How do you sketch a free-body diagram?

Common forces to consider:

Gravity
The first force we will investigate is that due to gravity, and we'll call it the gravitational force. We know that
the acceleration due to gravity (if on Earth) is approximately g = 9.8 m/s . This force is equal to weight. The
force, by Newton's Second Law is F = m g.

Normal
The normal force one which prevents objects from 'falling' into whatever it is they are sitting upon. It is always
perpendicular to the surface with which an object is in contact.

Friction
Related to the normal force is the frictional force. The two are related because they are both due to the surface
in contact with the body. While the normal force was perpendicular to the surface, the frictional force is
parallel. Friction opposes motion, and so its vector always points away from the direction of movement.

Push and Pull

Another force which may act on an object could be any physical push or pull. This could be caused by a person
pushing a crate on the floor, a child pulling on a wagon, or the wind pushing on a ship.

Tension
Tension in an object results if pulling force act on its ends, such as in a rope used to pull a boulder. If no forces
are acting on the rope, say, except at its ends, and the rope itself is in equilibrium, then the tension is the same
throughout the rope.
*Elevators - Elevator cables use tension. On an elevator, you either add or subtract the elevator’s acceleration
to gravity to get the apparent weight (downward force) of an elevator passenger.

Example A: Draw free body diagrams for each of the following.

a) Book on a table b) Sled sliding down hill.

c) Box being pushed across floor. d) Elevator

37
A net force changes the state of motion of an object. The net force is the vector sum of all the forces acting on
an object. If no forces act or the forces add up to zero, the object does not move and is in static equilibrium. .

Free Body Diagram: Used to show the magnitude and direction of all external forces acting on an object with
arrows.

*Length of arrows represent magnitude of force.

*Arrows should be draw where they act on the object.

*The components of Fp are shown for ease of setting up the equation. This makes the free-body diagram
above a pseudo free-body diagram. An official free-body diagram does not contain components of forces.

If the forces were not balanced, then the object would be accelerated in the direction of the unbalanced forces. If
you add up all the forces and get something other than zero, a net force acts.

Right and upward are taken as positive directions, respectively.

1 𝑭𝒙 = 𝑭𝑷 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝑭𝒇

1 𝑭𝒚 = 𝑭𝑷 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝑭𝑵 − 𝑭𝑮
If an object is in static (at rest) or dynamic (constant velocity) equilibrium, then all of the forces acting on it are
balanced:

§ The magnitude of the forces acting to the left equals the magnitude of the forces acting to the right.
§ The magnitude of the forces acting upwards equals the magnitude of the forces acting downwards.

Example A: A 4-kg block and a 2-kg block can move on the horizontal frictionless surface. The blocks are
accelerated by a +12-N force that pushes the larger block against the smaller one.
a) Determine the force that the 2-kg block exerts on the 4-kg
block.
b) Determine the force that the 4 kg block exerts on the 2 kg
block.

The entire system has an acceleration of 2 m/s2 (12 N divided by the total mass of 6). Thus the
force on the 2 kg block is 4 N (2 kg x 2 m/s2). This is equal to the force it exerts on the 4 kg
block by Newton’s 3rd law.

38
Solve problems in which systems are in static equilibrium.

Example B: A 500 g mass is hung by a string as shown below. The left-hand string is horizontal, the other
string makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. What is the tension in the angled string?

To start the problem, draw a free-body diagram with all

forces labeled.

*the diagram shown is a pseudo diagram since the tension

in the right rope (TR) is broken into components.

Since the system is at rest, there is no acceleration, so the net force must also be zero. To solve the
problem, the net force in both the x and y directions will both be set equal to zero. To set up the equation,
look at the picture above and identify the forces in the x-direction. TRcos is to the right so its positive, TL
is to the left so its negative.

There are two unknowns in the equation, so it can’t be solved. Instead, the y-direction will be used. Since
TL has no y-component, there is only 1 unknown in the -direction so TR can be solved for. In the y-
direction, Tysin is upward so its taken as positive. mg is down so its taken as negative.

39
Example C: Suppose a 3 kg block is be pushed against a wall by a force F = 15 N
acting at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. What is the normal force of the wall on
the block? What is the magnitude of the friction present between the block and the
wall?

Solve problems involving inclined planes.

When you stand on level ground, all your weight acts directly towards the ground since weight always acts
direct down towards Earth’s center. The same is true on an incline. Some component of this weight presses you
directly in the hill (perpendicular to the plane of the hill). However, there’s always a component that acts
downwards, parallel to the incline surface. This component of weight is what causes things to slide or roll
downhill.

§ When an object is on an incline, the forces acting on it are broken up into components:
§ F^ - Force acting perpendicular (in/out) to the plane of the incline
§ F// - Force acting parallel (up or down) the incline

40
Example D: A 5 kg mass is placed on an incline tilted at 15°.

a) Calculate the magnitude of the components of weight

acting parallel and perpendicular to the incline’s surface.

WPerp=𝒎𝒈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = (5 kg)(10 m/s2)cos(15) = 48.3 N

W//=𝒎𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽=(5 kg)(10 m/s2)sin(15) = 12.9 N

b) Calculate how fast the block would slide down the incline if there were no friction.
On an incline, the x and y direction are not consider as in previous problems. For this problem, the
direction of motion is along the plane parallel to the incline is the direction of motion. Since the block is
moving down the incline, down the incline will be taken as positive.

Example E: Suppose that you now want to drag a 5 kg mass up and down a frictionless 15° inclined plane.

a) How much force must you apply to a string acting parallel to the incline’s surface to slide the 5 kg mass
up or down the incline at a constant velocity?
b) How much upward force would be needed to accelerate the 5 kg mass up this incline at 3 m/s2?

This problem will be set up just like Example D, just with an extra force, the pushing force directly up the
incline. Also, this block moves up the incline, so up the incline will now be taken as the positive direction.

41
Solve problems involving frictionless pulleys.

Example F: The two masses are attached to the ends of a single cord that passes
over a massless, frictionless pulley suspended from the ceiling. What is the
acceleration of the system? What is the tension in the cord?

For this problem, both blocks will be looked at separately. For pulleys, just like
any other system, the direction of motion must be defined to maintained
consistency; it will also be taken as the positive direction here. The 5 kg block
moves down and the 2 kg block moves up. Therefore, for the 5 kg block, its
weight is a positive force and tension is negative. However, for the 2 kg block, its
weight opposes the motion and is thus a negative force that is being pulled by
tension, which is a negative force here.
Once both equations are written, there are 2 equations and 2 unknowns (tension and acceleration). Since tension
is positive in one equation and negative in the other, adding the equations will lead to tension cancelling out an
acceleration can be solved for (since both blocks have the same acceleration) .

42
*Short-cut for pulleys to find acceleration only:

In example F, both blocks were considering separately. However, you can

solve pulley problems much quicker by looking at the two blocks as a
single system. The tension of the rope is an internal force. Internal forces
do not affect the motion of a system; only external forces can change the
velocity of a system.

Consider the pulley shown on the left with m2>m1. The weight of block
two will act in the direction of motion and will therefore be the positive
force. The weight of the block one will oppose the motion and will be the
negative force. The equation can be then set up as:

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

𝒂=
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎
𝒎𝟐 𝒈 − 𝒎𝟏 𝒈
𝒂=
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐
*This is the same result you would get using the longer method from Example F.

Example G: Suppose that the right mass is hanging off a frictionless table and the cord connecting it to the left
mass passes over a massless, frictionless pulley. What is the tension in the cord?

For this problem, the shortcut will be used. The only

force on the two-block system is the weight of the 3 kg
block. The 2 kg’s block does not act in the direction of
motion. The total force of 30 N will be divided by the
total mass of 5.

𝒎
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 (𝟑 𝒌𝒈)(𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝟐 )
𝒂= = = 𝟔 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝟑 𝒌𝒈 + 𝟐 𝒌𝒈
Analyze motion in an elevator.

§ When at rest or moving at constant velocity in an elevator, a scale would give a normal reading.
§ If an elevator accelerates upward (moving up and speeding up or moving down and slowing down) the
elevator will push up on the rider, causing them to push down, making apparent weight more.
§ If an elevator accelerates downward (moving down and speed up or moving up and slowing down),
apparent weight will be less. (If free fall, apparent weight is zero).

43
The weight you feel yourself weighing, or “apparent weight” is based on the normal force. The relationship
between normal force and weight on an accelerating elevator is given below:
| 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝐹\ − 𝑚𝑔 → 𝐹\ = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚𝑔

𝑭𝑵 = 𝒎(𝒂 + 𝒈)
Ø If acceleration is up (going up and speeding up or going down and slowing down) : Apparent
weight is greater than mg
Ø If acceleration is down (going down and speed up or going up and slowing down): Apparent
weight is less than mg.
Ø If acceleration is zero: Apparent weight is equal to mg.
Ø If acceleration is g (free fall): Apparent weight is zero.

Example H: A confused man takes a bathroom scale on an elevator. The scale reads 900 N.

a) What will the scale read if the elevator accelerates down at 3.0 m/s2?
The mass of man is (900 N)/(10 m/s2) = 90 kg.
𝒎 𝒎
𝑭𝑵 = 𝒎(𝒂 + 𝒈) = 𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝒈 J−𝟑 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 L = 𝟔𝟑𝟎 𝑵
𝒔 𝒔

b) As the elevator moves up, the scale reading increases to 1000 N, then decreases back to 900 N. Find the
acceleration of the elevator.
𝑭𝑵 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵 𝒎
𝑭𝑵 = 𝒎(𝒂 + 𝒈) → 𝒂 = −𝒈= − 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟏 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝒎 𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝒈 𝒔

c) What will the scale read if the elevator enters free fall?

𝒎 𝒎
In free fall, g = -10 m/s2. 𝑭𝑵 = 𝒎(𝒂 + 𝒈) = (𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝒈) J−𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝟐 L = 𝟎 𝑵

Rate your understanding: Free body diagrams

0 1 2 3 4
I wish I could free my I can define and label I can set up a problem I can solve a problem I can explain how to set
body from physics. some of the forces of a with a free body diagram with a diagram up a problem using a
free body diagram. with only minor errors. without errors. diagram and solve it.

44
AP Physics 1 Unit 3: Forces
3.3 Friction .
Focus Question: How are objects in motion influenced by frictional forces?

Friction: Friction opposes sliding force between two objects that in contact.

§ Caused by microscopic irregularities and attractive force between molecules.

§ Disadvantage of friction - Makes it difficult to slide heavy object. Can make moving parts wear out.
§ Advantages of friction - Allows for control of motion. (walking, rolling forward).
§ Factors that affect force of friction - Type and smoothness of surfaces in contact
Pressing force between objects in contact. (normal force)
*independent of surface area
§ Static friction: Force of friction that an object at rest when trying to move an object at rest.
“starting friction”.
𝑭𝒇 ≤ 𝝁𝒔 𝑭𝒏
𝝁: property of materials in contact
*Static friction is only as big as it needs to be to stop motion. Once the force opposing friction passes the
maximum value (𝜇# 𝐹\ ) the object starts to move and kinetic friction applies.

§ Kinetic friction: Friction once an object is already moving.

*less than static friction
𝑭𝒇 = 𝝁𝒌 𝑭𝒏
*unlike static friction, kinetic friction is always the same value regardless of the force opposing it.

*While the force of friction depends on the normal force, the coefficient of friction only depends on the
types of surfaces in contact.

o Sliding friction – acts against the direction of the sliding motion.

o Rolling friction - acts in the direction of motion (relative motion of bottom of wheel is
opposite motion).

Example A: How can friction be increased between the tires of a car and an icy road?

One way to increase friction can be to increase the pressing force between the surfaces. This can be done
by increasing the weight of the car.
Another way to increase friction is to increase the roughness of the surfaces in contact. Thus, you can
use rougher tires (add chains, etc.)

45
Example B: A block of mass m = 10 kg and an initial velocity of 10 m/s slides for 20 m before stopping. What
is the coefficient of sliding friction for the block on the surface?

Example C: A 10-kg block is pushed against a vertical wall by a horizontal force of 100
N as shown. The coefficient of static friction, µs, between the block and the wall is 0.60;
and the coefficient of kinetic friction, µ k, is 0.40. Determine the direction and
magnitude of the frictional force.

It cannot be known right away whether this problem involves static or kinetic
friction. If the force trying to get the block to move is greater than the maximum static friction value, the
block will slide downward, and kinetic friction will act. If the force trying to move the block is less than
the maximum static friction value, the block will not move and static friction will act, with a value equal
to the force trying to move the block. For this problem, the normal force counteracts the horizontal force
pressing the block to the surface and the force trying to the move block is the weight of the block.

Force trying to move the block : mg = (10 kg)(10 m/s2) = 100 N

Maximum static friction = 𝝁𝒔 𝑭𝑵 =. 𝟔𝟎(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵) = 𝟔𝟎 𝑵

The force trying to move the block is greater than the maximum static friction force. Thus, the block’s
weight will overcome the static friction and slide down the wall. Since the block is moving, kinetic friction
will now start to act:

𝑭𝒇 = 𝝁𝒌 𝑭𝑵 = (. 𝟒𝟎)(𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵) = 𝟒𝟎 𝑵

46
Example D: A block of mass 𝑚 is pulled along a rough horizontal surface by a
constant applied force of magnitude 𝐹 that acts at an angle θ to the horizontal, as
indicated. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and ground is 𝜇.
a) On the figure below, draw and label a free-body diagram showing all the forces
on the block.

b) Derive an expression for the magnitude of the normal force between the block and ground.

The normal force is NOT mg. The normal force is not necessarily equal to mg. The normal force is a
reaction force to all forces acting against the surface. It will only be as big as it needs to be to prevent the
block from being pushed through the surface. Since the force F has some component pulling the block off
the surface, not all the weight of the block will act onto to the surface. To solve for the normal force, set
the sum of the forces in the y-direction equal to zero (since there is no vertical motion).

*If the force F was pushing down on the surface rather than pulling up, the normal force would be greater than
mg.

c) Derive an expression for the acceleration of the block.

The direction of motion is to the right, so this is the positive direction.

47
Friction on an Incline

Ø Static Friction – 𝑭𝒇 ≤ 𝝁𝒔 𝒎𝒈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

Ø Kinetic Friction -𝑭𝒇 = 𝝁𝒌 𝒎𝒈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

Example E: The coefficient of sliding friction between the block and incline is .35. At what rate does the block
accelerate down the incline?

Since the direction of motion is down the incline, the direction running parallel
down the incline will be taken as the positive direction.

Example F: A sled slides down an incline at a constant velocity. The incline is inclined at 𝜃 with the horizontal.
Determine an expression for the coefficient of kinetic friction.

48
Example G: Suppose that the right mass is hanging off a table and the cord connecting it to the left mass passes
over a massless, frictionless pulley. Assume the coefficient of friction between the block and table is 0.3. What
is the acceleration of the blocks?

The direction of motion should always be the positive direction. For the 2 kg block, this is to the right. For the
3kg block, this is downward.

49
Example H: Pulleys - For the system below, m = 5.0 kg and M = 10.0 kg. The
coefficient of sliding friction between m and the inclined plane is .20, and 𝜃 =
30°. Find the magnitude of the acceleration of the system.

Rate your understanding: Friction

0 1 2 3 4
I hate friction. It’s I understand the With minor errors, I can With no errors, I can I can explain and teach
rough and coarse and principles behind calculate frictional calculate frictional how to solve problems
irritating and it gets friction, but have force to solve problems force to solve problems with a force of friction
everywhere. trouble applying them. involving motion. involving motion. present.

50
AP Physics 1 Unit 3: Forces
3.4 Forces in Circular Motion_
Focus Question: What is a centripetal force?
Uniform Circular Motion – Motion of an object in a circular path at constant speed.

§ Tangential velocity: Velocity tangent to a circular path.

ie. if a stone was being spun around in a circle and suddenly released

§ Centripetal acceleration: Acts towards the center of the circle.

Only changes direction of an object in a circle, not the speed.
𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒄 =
𝒓

§ Centripetal Force – Any force that makes an object follow a curved path. Acts towards the center of the
curved path.
𝒎𝒗𝟐
From Newton’s 2nd law: 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒓
§ Centrifugal “Force” - NOT AN ACTUAL FORCE. The tendency of an object in a circular path to move
in a straight line tangent to the curvature of the path.
*A centripetal force must be provided to keep the object in a circle.
Example A: Does centripetal force cause an object undergoing circular motion to speed up?

NO! In order for an object to change speed, there must in an acceleration acting in the same direction as
velocity. Since centripetal acceleration is always perpendicular to the velocity, there is no change in
speed. Centripetal acceleration causes the direction to constantly change.

Solve for period and frequency in circular motion.

§ Period – (T) Time to complete one trip around the circular path:
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉 (𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆)
𝑻=
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅

𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑻=
𝒗
§ Frequency – (f) Cycles per second.
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = →𝒇=
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝑻
𝒗
𝒇= → 𝒗 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒇
𝟐𝝅𝒓
Ex: If object makes 3 trips around a circle in a second (frequency), the period is 1/3 s.

Units of frequency: 1/seconds, or Hertz (Hz)

51
Example B: An object is traveling in a horizontal circle at constant speed. The radius is 2.3 m and the
frequency is 1.1 rev/min. What is the object's speed?

Example C: A 0.50 kg rock is swung at end of string 3.0 m long. The period of the motion is 2.0 s. With what
force must the string be pulled to maintain the motion?

Solve problems involving centripetal force.

*Centripetal force does not occur by itself. The force to keep an object in circular motion must come from some
outside source. This can be tension, friction, gravity(in the case of planetary orbits), the normal force, or other
sources.

Example D: Car on a Track - A 90‡00 N car is traveling on a circular track of radius 120 m. The coefficient of
friction between the tires and the road is .32. What is the maximum speed which the car can drive around the
track?
); '
The centripetal force value ( _
) must be set equal to the force or forces keeping it in circular motion. For this
problem, the force of friction (𝜇) keeps the car in circle motion.

Example E: Conical Path - A 10 kg mass is whirled around the end of a cord (fixed to a ceiling) in a
horizontal circle with a 3.0 m radius. The speed of the mass is 6.0 m/s. Find the tension in the cord.

The x and y components must be considered separately

here. The x-component of tension provides the centripetal
force to keep the mass at the end of the string in a circle.
The y-component acts to overcome gravity.

52
Solve problems involving motion in a vertical circle.

*For an object traveling in a vertical circle, gravity must be accounted for. Also, the object does not travel at
constant speed. The object will travel slower at the top and faster at the bottom.

At the top of the circle, tension and gravity both act to keep the object in a circle. At the bottom of the circle,
gravity tries to bring the object out of the circle, and tension has to both keep the object in a circle and
overcome gravity. Further, the object travels faster at the bottom so more force is required to keep it in a circle.
Therefore, the tension is much greater at the bottom of a vertical circle than at the top.

53
Example F:A 2.5 kg stone is whirled in a vertical circle in such a way that it has constant speed. The stone is
attached to a .90 m cord and makes 1.8 revolutions per second.

a) What is the tension in the string when the stone is at the top of the vertical path?

b) What is the tension at the bottom of the circular path?

§ Critical velocity: Minimum speed the object must have at the top of the loop in order to reach the top.
Think about a mass going around at the end of the string in a circle. The minimum tension the rope can have
before going slack and the circular motion ending is T = 0 N.

Vertical Loops on Roller Coasters: How does the normal force on a roller coaster
rider change as they go through a vertical loop?

*Centripetal force requirement: There must always be an inward force acting on the
); '
rider equal to _

Top – Normal Force and gravity both act towards center.

*lower normal force

Bottom – Normal Force acts towards center and gravity acts away.

*higher normal force

Left/Right -

54
Example G: A 40‡ kg student is riding a looping roller coaster. When the car is at the top of the loop and
traveling at 14 m/s, the car exerts a downward force F of 100 N on the student. What is the radius of the loop?

*A force toward the center of the circle is needed to keep the student traveling in a circle. The student’s speed is
so great that their weight is not great enough to supply all the centripetal force. The car pushes down on the
student, providing the needed centripetal force beyond the student’s weight. The student will feel like they’re
being pushed upward against the seat. Due to Newton’s 3rd law, if the seat pushes on the student, the student
will push on the seat.

Rate your understanding: Circular Motion

0 1 2 3 4
I'm gonna turn my I understand the I can set up and solve I can set up and solve I can explain and teach
grade around 360°! concept of the circular problems involving problems involving the concepts behind
motion and can solve circular motion with circular motion with circular motion.
some problems. minor errors. no errors.

55
 AP Physics 1
Unit 4: Work, Energy & Power

Section 4.1 – Work & Power……………………………………………………..….…………57

Section 4.2 – Work & Energy………………………………………………………….……….61

Section 4.3 – Conservation of Energy…………………….…………………………………….66

56
AP Physics 1 Unit 4 – Work, Energy & Power
4.1 Work & Power
Focus Question: When does a force do work?
Calculate work done on an object.

Work – The Physics Definition: Work is 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 in the

direction of the force.

§ When force and motion are in the same direction:

𝑾 = 𝑭𝒅
§ When force and motion are not the same:

𝑾 = 𝑭𝒅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 (distances time force in the direction of distance)

*not really used in Physics 1, but work is the scalar (dot) product of the force and distance vectors:

uuu⃗ = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑⃗
𝑊

*only use the component of force in the direction of motion. For example, when you pull a rolling suitcase across the ground, there is
an upward component to the force on the suitcase, but this upward component does no work since the suitcase is moving horizontally.
Only the horizontal component does work because it actually moves the suitcase some distance.

When work done is independent of the path of the object, the force is a conservative force.

*Unit of work – Joules (J)

Example A: Determine if net work is done in the following cases. Justify each answer.

a) A weight lifter holds a 300 lb weight over his head. No; there is no displacement.

b) A hockey puck moves at constant speed on a frictionless surface of ice. No; no force is needed. The puck
moves due to inertia.

c) A crate is pushed across the ground at constant speed. Yes and No. The pushing force does positive work;
there is not net work though since there is no net force.

Sign of work: Work can be positive or negative.

Ø Work is positive if: the component of force acts in the direction of displacement.

Ø Work is negative if: the component of force acts opposite the direction of displacement.

Ø Work is zero (no work is done) if: Force is perpendicular to displacement (no component of force is
in direction of displacement).

57
Example B: A skier skies down a slope. Draw a FBD of the skier’s motion and
identify a) a force that does positive work, b) a force that does negative work and c)
a force that does no work.
Ø Normal Force – Does no work since it is
perpendicular to the direction of motion (no
component of the normal force affects the
motion of the skier.
Ø Gravity – Does positive work since a
component of gravity acts in the direction of motion.
Ø Friction – Does negative work since it acts opposite the direction of motion.

Example C: In order to write a physics problem, a physics teacher

makes a stick figure push a refrigerator across a rough floor as
shown. The force of the push is 300 N The refrigerator has a mass of
120 kg. Wow, that’s a big refrigerator. The coefficient of friction
between the refrigerator and floor is 0.2. The stick figure pushes the
box a distance of 2 m.

a) Calculate the work done by the stick figure.

𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒔𝒉 = (𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑵)(𝟐 𝒎) = +𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑵

b) Calculate the work done by friction.

𝒎
𝑾𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑭𝒇 𝒅 = −𝝁𝒎𝒈𝒅 = −(. 𝟐𝟎)(𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝒈) J𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝟐L (𝟐 𝒎) = −𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝑵

c) As the refrigerator moves across the floor, is it gaining or losing energy? How can you tell?
The net work is 600 – 480 = +240. Since the overall work is positive, the system is gaining energy.

Example D: A force of 70‡ N is applied to a 20‡ kg object. The object accelerates on a horizontal, frictionless
surface. If the object starts from rest then how much work is done in the first 5.0 seconds?

58
Calculate work using force vs. distance graphs

In the real world, the force pushing an object does not remain precisely constant and may change with time.
Given a force vs. distance graph, the work done is in the area under the curve.

Example E: The force applied to a system varies with distance

traveled according to the graph on the right. Find the work done
on the object.

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

𝟏
𝑾= (𝟏𝟓). 𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝑱
𝟐
*In calculus, work can be defined as ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑥.

Calculate Power

Power– The Physics Definition: The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑾
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = →𝑷=
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕
𝑭𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒅
*Alternate Formula 𝑷= 𝒕
= 𝒕
= 𝑭𝒗

'b%&N( "& (&(_NL

-In general in physics, 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 'b%&N( $")(

*Units of power: Watts (W)

Example F: Mario climbs to the top of a 20 m tall flagpole in 10 seconds. In the next level, he climbs a
similar 20 m tall flagpole in 5 seconds. In both cases, Mario does the same amount of work. In which case
is there more power developed?

More power is developed in the second case. In both cases, the same work is done; however, it is
done faster in the second level. Since power is the rate of work, there is more power when the work is
done faster.

Example G: A 200 kg curtain needs to be raised 7.5 m at constant speed in 5.0 seconds.

a) What is the power required to raise the curtain?

Since the curtain moves up at constant speed, the upward force is equal in magnitude to the downward force
(gravity).

59
b) If three motors have power ratings of 1.0 kW, 3.5 kW, and 5.5 kW, which motor should be chosen to raise
the curtain? Calculate the efficiency of the motor.

The 3.5 kW motor is sufficient. Since the motor supplies 3.5 kW but only 3.0 kW used, it is not 100% efficient.

Example H: A car of mass 𝑚 drives at a constant speed of 𝑣 up an incline that makes an angle of 𝜃 with the
horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 𝜇.

a) What is the work done by friction when driving a distance 𝐷 up the hill?

b) What is the power output by the engine?

The upward force is not given, but it is known that the car goes upward at constant velocity so the net
force is zero. This can be used to find the force supplied by the engine.

Rate your understanding: Work & Power

0 1 2 3 4
I can solve for the I understand the With minor errors, I With no errors, I can I can explain and teach
amount of work I can principles work and can calculate work, calculate work, power, how work, power, and
do in this section, and power, but have trouble power, and and efficiency. efficiency are related and
it's zero. solving for them. efficiency. how to solve for each.

60
AP Physics 1 Unit 4 – Work, Energy & Power
4.2 Work & Energy
Focus Question: What is a centripetal force?
Energy – The Physics Definition: The ability to do work.
Units of energy: Joules (J)
*the units for energy are the same as the units for work
Kinetic energy – energy an object possesses due to its motion.

𝟏
𝑲 = 𝒎𝟐
𝟐
Solve for kinetic energy and apply the work-energy energy.

*Work is done when a force acts over a distance (which changes the energy of a system).

Work-Energy Theorem – Work transfers energy from one object to another or from one form to another. The
Work-Energy Theorem is derived by Newton’s 2nd Law:

Doing work on a system increases (positive work) or decreases (negative work) that the energy the system
has.

The net work (by nonconservative forces) is equal to the change in kinetic energy for a system in motion.

W=∆𝑲
*Doing work on a system increases the energy of a system. When a system does work, it loses energy.

Example A: A 15 kg mass has its speed changed from 10‡ m/s to 30‡ m/s in 8.0 s by a constant force.

a) How much energy does the object gain?

b) What is the magnitude of the constant force?

61
Example B: A textbook slides across the classroom floor. It initially is traveling at 6 m/s and the coefficient of
sliding friction between the book and floor is 0.15. Find the distance required for the book to stop.

Friction does negative work, to take kinetic energy out of the book system until it comes to rest.

Example C: Graphs: A force is applied to a 0.4 kg object

that is initially rest. The force applied vs. distance is
shown in the graph above. What is the speed of the object
at x = 5 m?

Solve for gravitational potential energy.

Suppose an object is lifted off the ground. A certain amount of work, 𝑚𝑔ℎ, is done to lift the object. The work
doesn’t just go away after the object is lifted. The work is stored in the object as potential energy.

Potential energy – Stored energy object possesses due to its position.

*The amount of potential energy an object has is equal to the work done to give that object that energy (usually
through moving it to some location).

Gravitational Potential Energy – Energy of an object due to its height above some reference position.

Suppose you lift a mass m a height h above the ground. The work
done to lift the mass is 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ. The mass doesn’t gain
kinetic energy, but it does gain energy. This is stored energy,
called potential energy. In this case, we have gravitational
potential energy:

𝑼𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉
*gravitational potential energy is equal to work done to bring the object to the height.

62
Example D: A 800 kg car drives up a frictionless with constant speed. It reaches
a point 20 m above its starting point.
a) What is the gravitational potential energy of the car at top?
𝑚
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = (800 𝑘𝑔) J10 = L (20 𝑚)
𝑠
𝑈 = 160,000 𝐽
b) What is the work required to drive the car up the incline?
The car drives up at constant speed. Since the car goes at constant speed we ignore friction (which
doesn’t make any sense to do with a car; just assume the car is sliding), the upward force is equal to the
b
parallel component of its weight, 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃. Also the distance up the incline is #"&c using trigonometry.
ℎ 𝑚
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 → 𝑚𝑔ℎ = (800 𝑘𝑔) J10 = L (20 𝑚)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠
𝑊 = 160,000 𝐽
Therefore, the car did 160,000 J of work to go uphill. This work was transferred to energy, which in this
case was all potential energy the car had due to its height above its starting position. This is true because
there was no friction. As will be explored later, if friction is present, some of the work will have to be
used to overcome friction an not all of the work will be transferred to usable potential energy.
Example E: A pendulum bob of mass m on a cord of length L is pulled sideways until the cord makes an angle
𝜃 with the vertical as shown in the figure to the right.
a) Calculate the change in potential energy.
Trigonometry can be used to show that when a
pendulum is displaced an angle 𝜃 from
equilibrium, the change in height of the
pendulum bob is:

∆ℎ = 𝐿 − 𝐿 cos 𝜃
*this can also be written as 𝐿(1 − cos 𝜃)
The change in potential energy is then:
∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝒈∆𝒉 → 𝑼 = 𝒎𝒈𝑳(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
b) The pendulum bob is brought to one side and released. It swings freely to the other side and is then
stopped. Graph the kinetic energy and potential energy vs. time for the motion of the bob.
The bob starts off at rest (no K) with its max potential energy. At the bottom of its swing, it has its
minimum potential energy and max kinetic energy.

63
Calculate elastic potential energy.

When an object is at some height, it has potential energy; since it has a potential to move downward. Similarly,
when a spring is compressed or stretched away from equilibrium, it will have a tendency (potential) to move
back towards its equilibrium positive. When a spring, or any elastic object, is displaced from its natural
equilibrium position, there is type of potential energy called elastic potential energy.

Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s Law relates what distance from equilibrium (x) a spring will be displaced when a force F is applied to
stretch or compress the spring.

Force is opposite
𝑭 = −𝒌𝒙 displacement

k – spring constant (units: N/m)

*stiffer springs have higher spring constants

*a larger spring constant means a spring applies more force per unit area. The negative sign in front of k
indicates force is in the opposite direction of displacement.

*Hooke’s Law applies for anything elastic, not just springs. Anything that can stretch at all can be treated as a
spring in physics.

Work To Stretch a Spring

Work = area = ½(kx)(x)

𝟏
Work to stretch spring = 𝟐 𝒌𝒙𝟐

Elastic Potential Energy - Elastic potential energy is the energy stored by a spring that has been stretched a
certain distance. Elastic potential energy is equal to the work done to stretch the spring.

𝟏 𝟐
𝑼𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 = 𝒌𝒙
𝟐
*traditional springs are most commonly used with elastic energy; however other objects such as rubber bands,
tennis rackets, and bows have elastic potential energy.

64
Example F: A spring is stretch 10m by a force of 75 N.

a) What is the spring constant of the spring?

The negative sign in Hooke’s Law is used to conceptually show that the displacement and force are
in opposite directions. When using math in this unit, this negative sign will be omitted since it will
not affect the amount of energy stored in the spring. This negative sign will be important in unit 8.

b) The spring is placed vertically and a 3.0 kg watermelon is hung from the spring. Calculate the elastic
potential energy stored in the spring at this point.
When you hang the watermelon from the spring, its weights mg is the force that is stretching the
spring, which can then be plugged into Hooke’s law to find the new displacement from equilibrium.

Rate your understanding: Work & Energy

0 1 2 3 4
According to the Work- I understand the basics I can solve for I can solve for potential I can explain and
Energy Theorem, I can’t behind potential and potential and kinetic and kinetic energy and teach the work-
do any work until I have kinetic energy but need energy and with minor can relate both to the energy theorem.
coffee. help setting up problems. problems. work done on a system.

65
AP Physics 1 Unit 4 – Work, Energy & Power
4.3 Conservation of Energy
Focus Question: When it is better to use conservation of energy to solve a problem rather than kinematics?
Law of Conservation of Energy – Total energy is always conserved, but may change forms.

Mechanical Energy – Mechanical energy is the total energy in a system. An object can gain mechanical energy
when work is done on it.

Total Mechanical Energy = Kinetic Energy + Total Potential Energy

§ Conservation of Mechanical Energy – When only conservative forces such as gravity or elastic forces,
act on a system, total mechanical energy is conserved in the system.

𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 + 𝑼𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 = 𝑲𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 + 𝑼𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍

§ Dissipative Forces – When dissipative forces act on a system, energy is not conserved. Energy can be
lost to heat due to dissipative forces such as friction. When friction acts on a system, some energy is
converted heat. Heat is a type of energy, but is not desirable as mechanical energy. Heat involves
random motion of molecules so not all the heat can be harnessed to do work. For example, consider a
group of Suncoast students and a group of hippies. Both groups have the same resources, but the
students can do more work than the hippies because they are more organized. Similarly, heat cannot be
used to do meaningful work.

𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 + 𝑼𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 + 𝑾𝑵𝑪 = 𝑲𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 + 𝑼𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍

𝑊\d : Work done by non-conservative forces

Another way of stating this equation is that the total change in energy in the system is equal to the work
done by non-conservative forces.

𝑾𝑵𝑪 = ∆𝑲 + ∆𝑼
Positive work done by nonconservative forces will cause a system to gain mechanical energy. Negative
work done by conservative forces will result a loss in mechanical energy.

*while mechanical energy is not always conserved, total energy is always conserved. However, not all the
energy conserved is available to do work.

Example A: A car engine is 31% efficient. What happens to the energy not used to do work (move the car)?

Most energy is lost to heat. Other energy is lost by the work required to overcome the friction between the
engine’s moving parts.

*energy output by engine is also used up for friction with the road and the car radio/AC so car engines usually
only end up being about 15% efficient in terms of actual work done moving the car.

66
Apply conservation of mechanical energy.

Example B: A roller coaster car with a mass of 250kg has negligible speed at the top of the hill (point A) as
shown before descending. Find the velocities at point B and C.

Potential energy at A is transferred to kinetic energy at B and C.

Energy Methods vs. Kinematics

The problem above could have solved with kinematics, but it was just as easily solved with conservation of
energy. Energy methods can be extremely useful for 2 key reasons i) work done by conservative forces is
path independent and ii) energy is a scalar quantity so the vector mathematics involved can be skipped. In
general, problems involving time must be done with kinematics, but energy is often preferred otherwise.

Example C: A ball of mass 2kg is pushed off the edge of a tabletop that is 1.5 m above the floor. Find the speed
of the ball as it strikes the floor using a) kinematics and b) conservation of energy.

As expected, both answers yield the same result. It’s often easier to use energy methods rather than kinematics
as long as time is not a variable of concern in the problem.
67
Apply conservative of energy to problems with non-conservative forces.

When friction acts, work is required to overcome friction. Since doing work requires some form of energy, this
energy is lost with respect to the system. The work energy theorem when non-conservative acts can be written
as:

Example D: A skier starts from rest at the top of a 20° incline and skis in a straight line to the bottom of the
slope, a distance of 400 m. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the skis and the snow is 0.2, calculate
the skiers speed at the bottom.

*As the skier skies down the incline, gravitational energy is either converted to kinetic energy or lost due to
friction.

Example E: A mass of mg is pulled up an incline that makes an angle 𝜃 with

the horizontal. Force F is applied to the mass. The height of the incline is H. If
the final velocity is 𝑣, then what is the coefficient of friction? Assume the
object starts from rest.

68
Apply conservation of energy to systems with springs.

When a spring is compressed, it gains elastic potential energy that can be converted into kinetic energy when
the spring is released.
Example F: Hawkeye uses a force 100 N to pull a .20 kg arrow a distance .15 m against a bowstring.

a) What is the bow’s force constant?

b) With what velocity will the arrow be propelled as it leaves the bow?
When the bow is pulled all the way, it has elastic potential energy. When the bow is released, that
potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as the bow returns to its equilibrium position.

Example G: A 0.1-kilogram block is released from rest at point A as shown above, a vertical distance h above
the ground. It slides down an inclined track, around a circular loop of radius 0.5 meter, then up another incline
that forms an angle of 30° with the horizontal. The block slides off the track with a speed of 4 m/s at point C,
which is a height of 0.5 meter above the ground. Assume the entire track to be frictionless and air resistance to
be negligible.

a) Determine the height h .

Potential energy at A is converted to potential and kinetic energies at C. We can ignore point B and
the whole loop here. There is energy conversion as the block goes up and down the loop. However,
this problem has no friction and only conservative forces act. Since conservative forces are path
independent, we can ignore the fact that the block goes through a loop and just focus on the start and
end points.

69
 b) Determine the maximum height above the ground attained by the block after it leaves the track.
Explain why your answer is not h even though energy is conserved.
At the top of its parabolic path after leaving point C, the block will reach some maximum height. At this max
height, the y-component of velocity will be zero, but it will have a constant x-component of velocity, vccos𝜃
while in the air. This is also its total speed at max height since there is only an x-component of velocity at
max height.

If the block went straight up after leaving C, it would reach height h again. Since all the energy is potential at
point A, with no kinetic energy (and energy is not added to the system), the block can only reach the same
height again if it were again to have all its energy be potential energy. However, it will always have some
horizontal velocity (vccos𝜃) and will therefore always have a kinetic energy while in flight. Therefore, it
can’t have all its energy be potential energy again and will thus not reach h after leaving point C.

c) Another track that has the same configuration, but is NOT frictionless, is used. With this track it is
found that if the block is to reach point C with a speed of 4 m/s, the height h must be 2 meters.
Determine the work done by the frictional force.
Unlike A, there is a non-conservative force acting here; friction. To solve for the work done by friction,
simply use the conservation of energy formula with work done by non-conservative forces.

Since friction does negative force, the system loses mechanical energy.

Rate your understanding: Conservation of Energy

0 1 2 3 4
This section is a I understand I can apply I can apply I can explain and teach
dissipative force so my conservation of energy conservation of energy conservation of energy the concepts behind
physics grade will not and can solve with minor errors. with no errors. conservation and apply
be conserved. problems with help. them to the real world.

70
 AP Physics 1
Unit 5: Momentum

Section 5.1 – Impulse & Momentum…………………………………….……………..………72

Section 5.2 – Collisions………………………………………….………………..…….………77

Section 5.3 – Center of Mass…………………………………………………………………..83

71
AP Physics 1 Unit 5 – Momentum
5.1 Impulse & Momentum
Focus Question: How are impulse and momentum related?
Calculate the momentum of an object in motion.

Momentum – Momentum is a vector quantity that measures motion. The direction of the momentum vector is
in the direction of motion of the object.

'𝒑⃗ = 𝒎𝒗
'⃗
𝒎
*units of momentum: mass x velocity = 𝒌𝒈 𝒔 *or* (using N=kg*m/s2) Ns

Momentum can be thought of as how difficult it is to stop an object in motion.

§ If 2 objects have the same speed but different masses, the one with the greater mass is harder to stop. For
example, it is easier to stop an ant going 10 mph than a train going 10 mph.
§ For 2 objects have the same mass, the one with the greater speed is harder to stop. For example, it is
easier to catch an object when it is gently tossed to you than when it is shot out of a cannon.

Example A: A llama has a mass of 90 kg and gallops at 2 m/s. An alpaca has a mass of 60 kg and runs at 3 m/s.
Compare the inertia and momentum of each object.

The momentums are the same, so both objects are equally difficult to stop.

The llama has more mass and thus more inertia, so it is harder to change the acceleration of the llama.

Relate impulse to change in momentum.

*Momentum is closely related to force, in that applying a force for a certain time to an object will change its
momentum:

72
Impulse – Impulse is a change in momentum and can be related to force applied over time and momentum in
the Impulse-Momentum Theorem:

An impulse is an outside force on a system applied over a time. This impulse changes the momentum of the
system:

𝐽 = ∆𝑝 𝐹𝑡 = ∆𝑝
*units of impulse Ns (same units as momentum.

Example B: A force of 𝐹 acts on an object of mass 𝑚 for a time 𝑡.

a) What impulse is imparted to the mass?

J=𝑭𝒕
b) What is the change in momentum of the mass?
Since impulse is equal to the change in momentum, this is also 𝐽 = ∆𝑝 = 𝑭𝒕
c) What is the change in the speed of the mass?
In Physics 1, mass of a system is almost always constant, so the formula becomes 𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎∆𝒗
𝑭𝒕
𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎∆𝒗 → ∆𝒗 =
𝒎
Example C: A car abruptly goes from a velocity of 15 m/s to rest
after a collision. Explain why the airbag is deployed to protect the
driver of the vehicle.

Force and time change an object’s momentum.

Since 𝑭𝒕 = ∆𝒑, a collision that takes place in a small amount of time will lead to a lot of force on the
driver. The airbag increases the time in which the momentum is changed, requiring a smaller force.

ü For a defined change in momentum, time and force are inversely proportional. A smaller time will
require a greater force to change an objects momentum by a certain amount.

ü For a constant force, more time will lead to a greater change in momentum.

For a predetermined time, a greater force will lead to a greater change in momentum.

Example D: A soccer player can apply a force of 30‡ N to a ball with a mass m = 1.5 kg. If the player remains in
contact with the ball for 0.70 s and if the ball was at rest when it was kicked, how fast will the ball be moving
when it leaves the player’s foot?

73
Example E: Find the rebound speed of a 0.5 kg ball falling straight down that hits the floor moving at 5 m/s if
the average normal force exerted by the floor on the ball is 205 N for 0.02 s.

Keep in mind the initial and velocities have different signs. In this problem, down is defined as negative, so the
initial velocity is -5 m/s.

In the real world, the force pushing an object does not remain precisely constant and may change with time.
Given a force vs. time graph, the impulse is the area under the curve.

Example F: A force acts on object of mass 3.0 kg initially at rest. The force vs. time graph is given. Find

a) The impulse imparted to the object in the 5 seconds.

b) The final velocity of the object.

*In calculus, impulse can be defined as ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑡.

**Note that is a force vs. time graph. Area under a force vs. distance graph gives work done. Be careful
attention to the x-axis!

Apply linear momentum conservation in one-dimension.

If no outside forces act on a system the total momentum of the system remains constant.

If two particles in motion collide: 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐴 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐵 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐵 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐴

Ball A must exert a force 𝐹 on ball B during the collision because B moves to the right. Since A’s direction
changes from right to left, ball A was pushed to the left. The force on ball A is also 𝐹 by Newton’s 3rd law. The
force acts on each ball as long as they are in contact.
74
Law of Conservation of Momentum – Total momentum of an isolated never changes. The vector sum of the
momentum of the system remains constant (result of Newton’s 3rd Law).

• Vector equation: uuu⃑ uuuu⃑𝒇

𝒑e = 𝒑

• If there is an external force acting for a time, then the momentum can change. In other words, impulse (
a force applied for a certain amount of time) is need to change momentum of a system.

Example G: A 60‡ kg skater and a 10‡0 kg skater push against one another.

a)If the 60 kg skater moves to the left at 5.0 m/s, then how fast will the 10‡0 kg skater move to the right? Both
skaters are initially at rest on nearly frictionless, horizontal surface.

Conservation of momentum will be used. The initial momentum is zero since the two skaters start at rest. After
the collision, they will have momenta in opposite directions that cancel out so the net momentum will still be
zero. Left will be defined as negative.

Since the answer is positive, and the 60 kg skater’s speed was defined as negative this means the 100 kg skater
travels in the opposite direction. This is necessary since their momenta must cancel out to be zero since the
system originally has no net momentum.

b)Suppose the magnitude of the push in the previous problem is 10‡0 N and that the push acts for 2.0 s. What is
the final speed of each skater?

The magnitude of the force of each skater is the same, but in opposite direction (Newton’s 3rd law). Thus, the
force on one person must be defined as positive and the other force must be defined as negative.

Since the forces were in opposite directions, the velocities are also in opposite directions.

*The force of the push on each skater is an internal force; thus the momentum of the system will not change. An
internal force can change the energy of a system, but not the momentum. An external force must act to change
net momentum of a system.
75
Example H: A 75 kg man throws a 25 kg package at 6.0 m/s from a 10‡0 kg boat. The boat is originally at rest.
What is the final speed of the boat?

Again, the system is originally at rest and has no momentum. Thus, the momentum of the boat/man system after
throwing the package must be of the same magnitude and in the opposite direction of the original momentum of
the package.

The package’s velocity was defined as positive and the result here is negative, which means the man/boat
system moves opposite the direction of the package as expected.

Rate your understanding: Impulse & Momentum

0 1 2 3 4
It appears as if my I understand impulse and I can apply momentum I can apply momentum I can explain and teach
grade has no momentum, but have and impulse to systems and impulse to impulse and momentum
momentum, because I trouble solving the more in motion with few systems in motion like the great sages of
don’t get this stuff. complex problems. errors. with no errors. old.

76
AP Physics 1 Unit 5 – Momentum
5.2 Collisions
Focus Question: How are elastic and inelastic collisions different?
Isolated System – A system in with no outside forces (and thus no impulse) acting on it.

*Earth has no truly isolated systems due to gravity, but we can still treat systems as isolated.

Momentum of an isolated system is always conserved. Energy may or may not be conserved.

uuu⃑e = | 𝒑
|𝒑 uuuu⃑𝒇

Elastic Collisions- Kinetic energy is conserved.

• Objects ‘bounce away’ from each other and retain shape.

• Conserved quantities: momentum & kinetic energy

Ex: 2 billiard balls colliding. Balls bounce off each other, neither deforms, and kinetic energy is conserved.

Inelastic Collisions– Kinetic energy is not conserved.

• 2 objects collide and then interlock together or 2 objects collide and deform.
• Most collisions are inelastic, even if objects don’t stick together. Energy is almost always lost in a
collision due to heat, energy to deform the objects, etc.
• Conserved quantities: momentum only
*Collisions can still be inelastic if there is no apparent deformation. You must check to see if energy
after the collision is the same as energy before the collision.
*In a perfectly inelastic collision, the objects stick together and move as one mass.

Ex: When 2 cars collide, energy is lost due the cars deforming when they collide. Kinetic energy is not
conserved, but momentum is. The energy equation from last chapter cannot be used since it does not account for
light, heat, and energy to deform the cars.

Example A: Identify the following collisions as elastic or inelastic:

a) 2 marbles slide towards each other, hit each other, and then bounce away. Elastic

b) 2 rental cars driving 40 mph on I-95 crash into each other and interlock together as they slide off the
road. Both drivers and all passengers escape unscathed and return to Canada safely. (Perfectly) inelastic

c) A golf ball is hit by a golf club and sent flying through the air. Inelastic (ball will deform)

d) A football is kicked by a foot and is sent flying through the air. Inelastic

e) A 5kg mass hits a wall with a speed of 5 m/s and rebounds with a speed of 3 m/s in the opposite
direction. Inelastic

77
Apply conservation of momentum to elastic and inelastic collisions.

Example B: A 1500 kg car going 20 m/s rear-ends a 1000 kg compact car going 15 m/s on ice in the same
direction. How fast do the two cars move together immediately after the collision if the collision is perfectly
inelastic?

Example C: A man of mass 150 kg jumps from a bridge onto a boat of mass 400 kg that is moving up river at a
speed of 5 m/s. How fast is the boat moving afterwards?

Since the man’s initial velocity is in the y-direction, and the direction of motion is horizontal, only the boat’s
initial velocity is considered in this problem.

78
Example D: A block of mass M travels at speed 4v to the right when it collides when a block of mass 2M,
which is initially traveling at v to the left. After the collision, the block of mass M moves to the left at v.

a) Find the speed of the other block after the collision.

The bigger cart moves off at 3v/2 to the right.

b) Is the collision elastic or inelastic? Justify your answer.

You cannot say the collision is inelastic since the carts bounce off each other. You must compare the
kinetic energies before and after the collision to identify the type of collision. If kinetic energy is
lost, the collision is inelastic. If kinetic energy is conserved, the collision is elastic.

Since the kinetic energy after the collision is less than the kinetic energy before the collision, the collision was
inelastic since kinetic energy was lost.

79
Example E: A bullet of mass m is fired with velocity 𝑣 into a block of mass 𝑀 attached to a rope of length 𝐿.
Find the maximum angle that the rope is displaced.

80
Apply conservation of linear momentum to collisions in two-dimensions.

Momentum is a vector quantity.

For objects that move in 2 dimensions, the momentums (and thus velocities) need to be resolved in components:

§ Total momentum in the x-plane before the collision is equal to total momentum in the x-plane after.
§ Total momentum in the y-plane before the collision is equal to total momentum in the y-plane after.

Example F: A 1000 kg car moving north at 20.0 m/s collides with 2000 kg car moving east at 5.0 m/s. The two
cars stick together. In what direction and with what speed do they move after the collision?

*In AP Physics 1, you will only have to analyze 2D collision conceptually, not mathematically.

81
Example G: A cannonball explodes into two pieces at a height of ℎ when it travelling horizontally with a
velocity 𝑣. The two pieces have a mass of m1 and m2. The piece of mass m1 falls directly downward to the
ground in time 𝑡 after the explosion. Describe the motion of the piece of mass m2 after the explosion. Justify
your answer qualitatively.

Originally, the system has no y-component of momentum so the piece of mass m2 must have an upwards
momentum to cancel out the downward momentum of m1. Since m1 has no horizontal momentum, the
horizontal momentum of m1 must be the same as the original cannonball.

Rate your understanding: Elastic & Inelastic Collisions

0 1 2 3 4
I only know how to I understand what makes I can solve problems I can solve problems I can explain and teach
participate in a collision elastic or with elastic and with elastic and how to solve problems
collisions, not analyze inelastic, but have trouble inelastic collisions with inelastic collisions with inelastic and
them. setting up problems. few errors. with no errors. elastic collisions.

82
AP Physics 1 Unit 5 - Momentum
5.3 – Center of Mass
Focus Question: What is center of mass?
Center of Mass: The entire weight of an object can thought of as being concentrated at a single point. Also
called the center of gravity.

For example, in a uniform rod, every molecule in the rod is attracted by the force of gravity, but instead of
considering the force of gravity on every molecule of the rod, the force can be thought of as being concentrated
at the geometric center of the rod.

Forces of gravity acting on all molecules of a rod:

Can be simplified into a single gravitational force acting at the center:

• If a body is uniform (mass is evenly distributed), the center of mass is in the

geometric center of the body.
• If a body is non-uniform, the center of mass occurs at a point where a force equal
to the weight of the mass can balance the object's weight.

Calculating Center of Mass

∑ 𝒙𝒎
§ In One-Dimension 𝒙𝒄𝒎 = ∑𝒎

9$ :$ ;:" 9"
Ex: 𝑥89 =
9$ ;9"

§ In Two-Dimensions: Find the x-coordinate of the center of mass and the y-coordinate of the system of
mass separately.

83
Example A: A firework shell reaches the top of its parabolic trajectory and explodes. What happens to the
center of mass of the system of all the shell fragments?

The center of mass of the fireworks will continue moving in a parabolic path. Since the explosion only
involves internal (no external) forces, the center of mass of the fireworks will continue with its motion before
the collision.

Example B: Three people stand around not doing their physics homework as shown below. Find the distance of
the center of mass of the 3 person system from leftmost person.

Example C: A fisherman stands at the back of a perfectly symmetrical boat of

length L. The boat is at rest in the middle of a perfectly still and peaceful lake, and
the fisherman has a mass 1/4 that of the boat. If the fisherman walks to the front of the
boat, by how much is the boat displaced?

There is no external force on the boat, so the boat’s center of mass

cannot move relative to the water. Thus, the boat itself moves
opposite the fisherman’s direction.
𝒎 𝑳
J 𝟒 L (𝟎) + 𝒎(𝟐) 𝟐
𝑪𝑴 = 𝒎 = 𝑳
𝒎+ 𝟓
𝟒

𝒎 𝑳
J 𝟒 L (𝑳) + 𝒎(𝟐) 𝟑
g
𝑪𝑴 = 𝒎 = 𝑳
𝒎+ 𝟓
𝟒

Rate your understanding: Center of Mass

0 1 2 3 4
I’m off center. I understand the basic I understand center of I understand center of I can explain and teach
concept of center of mass, and can solve mass, I can solve for center of mass.
mass, but don’t think I for center of mass with center of mass with no
can solve for it. help. errors.

84
 AP Physics 1
Unit 6: Rotation

Section 6.1 – Rotational Kinematics………………………………………………...….………86

Section 6.2 – Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies (Torque)……………… ………….………….……90

Section 6.3 – Newton’s 2nd Law for Rotation…………………………………………………..95

Section 6.4 – Conservation of Angular Momentum……….…………..…………………….…98

Section 6.5 – Work & Energy in Rotational Motion……….…………………..…………..…101

85
AP Physics 1 Unit 6 – Rotation
6.1 – Rotational Kinematics
Focus Question: How is rotational kinematics different from linear kinematics?
Review: Kinematics - study of motion without regards to forces causing it.

Revolution – Circular motion of an object about an axis that does not lie inside the object.

ex: a roller coaster going around a loop, Earth orbiting the sun.
Rotation - Spinning of an object about an axis that lies within the object.

ex: a wheel’s spin, the rotation of Earth about its axis, CD disc spinning

Describe kinematic quantities in rotational motion and relate them to linear motion.

Angular Displacement - Vector quantity representing how much a rotating object spins (the angle)

Units of angular displacement: radians (rad)

𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°

Relationship between linear distance and angular displacement:

Linear displacement vs. angular displacement

§ Linear displacement is the length of the arc of the path of an object a radius r from the center of
rotation.

§ From math: 𝒔 = 𝒓𝜽

86
Example A: A hipster spins a vinyl copy of an album you’ve probably never heard of on their vintage record
player. The record spins 10 times.

a) Find the angular displacement of the record in that time.

There are 2𝜋 radians for every revolution.

𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜃 = 2𝜋 ∗ 10 𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝟐𝟎𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝑟𝑒𝑣

b) While the record was spinning, a fly stands on the record 10 cm from the center of the disc. Find the
length of the fly’s path while the record is spinning.

𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃 = (. 10 𝑚)(20𝜋) = 𝟔. 𝟑 𝒎

Everything on a spinning axis has the same angular displacement. However, linear distance traveled is
the based on the distance from the center of rotation. Objects with a greater radius will travel a greater
distance (arc length) the further they are from the center.

Angular Velocity - Rate of angular displacement (how fast an object is spinning)

%&Nhi%_ !"#ji%'()(&$ ∆𝜽
Angular velocity ∶ 𝜔 = $")(
= 𝒕

Units of angular velocity: 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔

*Radians can be omitted when writing units so 1/s is also appropriate for velocity.

Vector direction (Right-hand rule): Curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction of motion,
the direction of the vector is the direction your thumb points.
Relationship between linear speed and angular velocity- divide both sides of the relationship
between linear displacement and angular displacement by time:

𝒗 = 𝒓𝝎
Angular Acceleration - Rate of change of angular velocity. For an object rotating in the positive direction,
positive angular acceleration means it is spinning faster and faster and negative acceleration means the object's
spin is slowing down.

∆𝝎
𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝜶 =
𝒕
𝝎𝒇 − 𝝎𝒇
𝜶=
𝒕

Units of angular acceleration: 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝟐 or 𝟏/𝒔𝟐

Relationship between linear speed and angular velocity-

𝒂 = 𝒓𝜶
87
Kinematics Equations
Linear Equations: Rotational Equations:

Apply the kinematics equations to rotational motion.

Example B: A wheel making 800 rev/min slows down to 500 rev/min while making 60 revolutions.

a) What is the angular acceleration?

b) How long does it take the wheel to slow down?

c) Find the linear speed of an object .35 m from the center of the wheel when the wheel is spinning at 500
rev/min.

88
Example C: The angular acceleration of a wheel is 4.0 rad/s2. How many revolutions does the wheel make in
the first 6.0 seconds if it is initially at rest?

Example D: A wheel is rotating at 4.0 rad/s. Its rotation accelerates at a rate of .25 rad/s2.

a) What is the angular displacement in radians during the first 3.0 seconds?

b) What is the angular velocity at the end of 3.0 seconds?

c) What is the linear distance traveled by an object .40 m from the center of the wheel?

Rate your understanding: Rotational Kinematics

0 1 2 3 4
Wow, this is awkward. I understand rotation I can set up and solve I can set up and solve I can explain and teach
What was kinematics and solve some of the rotational kinematics rotational kinematics the concepts behind
again? problems. problems with only a few problems with no rotation.
errors. errors.

89
AP Physics 1 Unit 6 – Rotation
6.2 – Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies (Torque)
Focus Question: When is in object in static equilibrium?
§ Rigid Body - An object that does not deform.
For a rigid body to be in static equilibrium, the object must be in both translational equilibrium and
rotational equilibrium.
§ Translational Equilibrium – no linear acceleration (∑ 𝑭 = 𝟎)

§ Rotational Equilibrium - no rotational acceleration (∑ 𝝉 = 𝟎)

Calculate torque acting on an object.

§ Torque – Measure of the force that makes an object rotate.

Torque depends on both magnitude of the force and the distance from the
axis of rotation.

§ Magnitude of torque – Torque is based off the force applied and its distance to the axis of rotation.

If force is perpendicular to lever arm: If force is not perpendicular

𝝉 = 𝑭𝒓 𝝉 = 𝑭𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
In path, torque is defined as the vector (cross) product of F and r: 𝜏⃗ = 𝐹⃗ 𝑥𝑟⃗
*only the component of forces perpendicular to the axis of rotation causes rotation.
§ Direction – Torque is a vector quantity, which means it has direction and magnitude. The directions of
torque are clockwise or counter wise.

Counter-clockwise (positive) torque Clockwise (negative) torque

90
 § Torque/distance relation: A force applied further away from the center of
rotation creates a greater torque.
ex: It’s easier to open an open by pushing on the side opposite the hinges rather
than near the hinges of the door.
§ Units of torque: Nm
*torque has no relationship to work.

Example A: Bob the Builder uses a wrench to tighten a bolt as shown. He applies a
17.0 N force 25 cm from the bolt an angle of 37° with the axis of rotation. Calculate
the magnitude and direction of the torque on the bolt.

§ Pivot point - Some objects have a natural pivot point, but any point can be
selected as a pivot point. The value of the torque will depend on the which
point is the pivot. If there is no natural pivot point, it's best to choose:
a) one of the ends b) a point where a force is applied

Rotational Equilibrium

Sum of clockwise torque = Sum of counterclockwise torque

If the clockwise torque and counterclockwise torque are the same about a pivot point (any pivot point can be
chosen), an object will not rotate about the pivot point and is in rotational equilibrium.

Example B: Check if the following object is in rotational and translational equilibrium:

91
A is a natural pivot as its on the left end. However, you don’t have to pivot there. B is another possible point.
The advantage of pivot at B is the 20 N force will apply no torque about this point since the distance from the
force to point B is zero. Either way, the answer will be the same; there is no point that is necessarily the correct
point to pivot. You just have to be consistent with the signs of the torque about that pivot and the distances to
get correct answers.

Example C: A uniform meter stick weighs 25.0 N. An 80.0 N weight is hung at the 20.0 cm mark and a 70.0 N
weight is hung at the 90.0 cm mark.

a) What is the magnitude of the upward force needed to balance the meter stick?

b) Where should the force be applied so that the stick hangs horizontally?

92
Example D: A 800 N painter stands 3.00 m from the left end of a scaffold that is 4.00 m long. The uniform
scaffold weighs 100 N and is hung by a chain at each end. What is the tension in each chain?

Many problems involving static equilibrium will require working with both translational equilibrium and
rotational equilibrium. Example C) only had one unknown force so it was easy to start using translational
equilibrium.

This problem has two unknown forces, so it would not be possible to start using translation equilibrium. This
problem can be solved by using rotational equilibrium first and pivoting at one of the ends of the scaffold.
Pivoting at one of the ends means that there will be torque from this force, leaving only one unknown in the
equation that can easily be solved for. For this example, it will be pivoted on the left.

This problem could be completed by now pivoting on the right to solve for the left tension, but it’s easier to just
use translational equilibrium since there will now only be one unknown force in the equation.

Example E: The horizontal strut in the figure to the right is uniform and
weights 100 N. Find a) the tension in the cable. b) the normal force of the
wall on the strut.

For this problem, it’s best to pivot on the left end. The length is not given,
but will cancel out. Only the vertical component of the tension in the string
applies torque about the pivot. There are unknown wall forces, so this
problem must be pivoted at the lefthand side at the wall so only the forces
right of the wall are in the equation.

93
There are two wall forces. Fx, the horizontal component is due to the normal force of the wall pushing against
the strut. The other wall force, Fy, is the vertical component which is friction against the strut sliding down the
wall. These forces are the only unknown forces remaining in their respective directions so translational
equilibrium can be used to solve for each.

Rate your understanding: Torque

0 1 2 3 4
Torque? ¿Porque? I understand the I can set up and solve I can set up and solve I can explain and teach
concept behind torque problems involving torque problems involving the concepts behind
and can solve some with minor errors. torque with no errors. torque.
problems.

94
AP Physics 1 Unit 6 – Rotation
6.3 – Newton’s 2nd Law for Rotation
Focus Question: What causes rotational motion?
In linear motion, acceleration is caused by force (Newton's second law). In rotary motion, angular acceleration
is caused by torque (T).

Linear motion: ∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 Rotary motion: ∑ 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼

Moment of inertia
*only valid for rigid bodies
Calculate momentum of inertia.

Only mass resists acceleration in linear motion. In angular motion, both the mass and shape of an object resist
angular acceleration. A quantity called moment of inertia is a property of both mass and shape and is a
measure of an object’s ability to resist rotation.

Rotational inertia is analogous to mass, but more complex. Rotational mass is based on the mass of a body and
the distance of the mass from the axis of rotation.

Take 2 rods: Rod 1 Rod 2

If a mass was placed on the end of each rod, and force was applied to one end, the mass at the end of rod 2
would cover a greater distance. . However, it would have a larger circumference to travel around, so the angular
displacement would not be as large as for the smaller rod.

Formulas for rotational inertia are derived in calculus. In Physics 1, the formula will always be provided.
However, you are expected to know qualitatively which objects have more inertia (more resistance to rotation).

Example A: An Olympic ice skater is spinning and pulls her arms in to speed
up her spin. Explain how this is possible with physics.

It's harder to make a given mass rotate around an axis that it's far from
than one that it's close to.

When the skater pulls her arms in, she brings more of her mass closer to the center of axis of rotation,
thus increasing her angular acceleration.

Example B: The thingamajic shown can be rotated around anyone of 4 pivot

points shown. Rank the moment of inertia of the object about each pivot point.

I is greater (I am greater?) when pivoted further from the center, which is around
C’s location.

𝑰𝑨 > 𝑰𝑫 > 𝑰𝑩 > 𝑰𝑪

95
Formulas for moment of inertia of common objects:

*Units of moment of inertia: kg∙ 𝒎𝟐

Apply Newton’s 2nd Law for rotation.

Example C: A solid spherical object with a mass of 5 kg and a radius of 50 cm experiences a force of 8 N
applied at an angle of 40° with its axis of rotation. Find the angular acceleration of the sphere.

96
Example D: A tennis ball has a mass of .32 kg and a radius of .056 m. The rotational inertia of the ball is given
=
by 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 = , where r is the radius of the ball. What torque is required to give the ball an angular velocity of 5.0
H
rads/sec in .60 seconds?

Example E: A rod is hinged on its left side. The uniform rod is 2.0 m long and has a mass of 3.6 kg. What is
the angular acceleration of the rod at the instant is released from a horizontal position?

When the rod is released, its weight (which acts at the center of mass; the midpoint of the rod) causes applies a
torque about the left side hinge. Diving this torque by the moment of inertia can be used to find the angular
acceleration.

*Since the torque and acceleration are clockwise, these quantities are negative.

Rate your understanding: Newton’s 2nd Law for Rotation

0 1 2 3 4
I do not know da wae. I understand the concepts I can solve problems I can solve problems I can explain and teach
behind rotary motion and involving rotary involving rotary the concepts behind
can solve some problems motion with minor motion with no motion around an axis.
with help. errors. errors. Pretty righteous.

97
AP Physics 1 Unit 6 – Rotation
6.4 – Conservation of Angular Momentum
Focus Question: What is angular momentum?
Define momentum in angular motion.

§ Angular momentum is similar to linear momentum.

Angular Momentum (L)
L - a measure of how difficult it is to stop something from spinning:
𝑳 = 𝑰𝝎
*units – 𝒌𝒈 ∙ 𝒎/𝒔

§ Angular Impulse – An angular impulse is an outside torque (an outside force applied at distance) applied
for a certain time. If an outside torque acts, the angular momentum of a system changes.

Angular Impulse = Change in angular momentum

𝑱𝜽 = 𝝉𝒕

𝑱𝜽 = ∆𝑳
Example A: A uniform 3 kg rod is 2 m long and free to rotate about its center. By the hammer of Thor, the rod
is struck by a 1500 N force for .08 s directly perpendicular to the rod. What is the angular velocity of the rod
?
after impact? (I for rod pivoted at center = ?= 𝑀𝐿= )

Apply conservation of angular momentum to solve problems.

In an angular “collision”, angular momentum is always conserved unless external torques act on the system.

L is always conserved in an isolated system unless there is a net external torque.

𝑳𝒊 = 𝑳𝒇
*internal torques do not change angular momentum of a system (but can change the energy)

98
Example B: A baggage carousel has a mass of M=500 kg and a is in the shape of a disk with r = 2.0 m. It
rotates at 1.0 rad/s when ten pieces of luggage with average mass of m = 20 kg are dropped on the carousel.
Find the speed of the carousel after the luggage is added if no external torques act on the carousel.

Before the “collision”, the baggage carousel spins at a rate of 1.0 rad/s. When the luggage is dropped on, the
momentum of inertia of the carousel will increase, and its angular velocity will decrease as a result. Each piece
of luggage will be treated as a point mass. The moment of inertia for a point mass is given by mr2, where r is the
distance to the center of rotation.
?
*The carousel is a solid disc with moment of inertia = 𝑚𝑟 = .

§ u⃑, of a particle about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the particles motion:
The angular momentum, 𝐿

An object moving linearly through space can also have angular momentum about some reference point.
For point mass moving linear, its angular moment a distance r away along a perpendicular axis is given:
𝑳 = 𝒎𝒗𝒓
*In a collision with both linear and angular motion, linear and angular momentum are both conserved
separately.

99
Example C: A bullet of mass m = .20 kg is shot at a 40 kg door at its unhinged end. The speed of the bullet is
initially 200 m/s and travel perpendicular to the plane of the door. The bullet becomes embedded in the door,
which is 2.5 m high and 1.5 m wide.

a) What is the angular velocity of the door after the door after the bullet strikes?
?
*The door is a rod hinged at one end (I= K 𝑀𝐿= ). The height is negligible.

b) How would the answer change if the bullet hit closer to the door?

The angular velocity will increase. Although there will be more less momentum (mvr), there will also be
significantly less moment of inertia (mr2) after the collision. Looking at the equations, moment of inertia will
decrease far more than initial moment will decrease if the bullet hits closer to the door. Therefore the door will
rotate faster with a collision closer to its hinge due to having significantly less moment of inertia in this case.

Rate your understanding: Conservation of Angular Momentum

0 1 2 3 4
The classroom clock I understand some I apply conservation of I apply conservation of I can explain and teach
looks like it has hardly concepts in angular angular momentum with angular momentum the concepts angular
any angular momentum. momentum. only a few errors. with no errors. momentum.

100
AP Physics 1 Unit 6 – Rotation
6.5 – Work & Energy in Rotational Motion
Focus Question: How do we deal with a system with translational and rotational motion?
Solve for rotational kinetic energy.

<
Kinetic energy of rotation – Energy an object possess due to its rotational motion. 𝐾 = 𝐼𝜔#
#
Analyze systems with moving axis of rotation.

§ Often times, a body has both translational and rotational motion, such as the wheel on a car.
§ Newton’s Laws for rotational mechanics still remain valid as long as:
o The axis of rotation passes through the center of mass.
o rotation does not change direction.
§ Total kinetic energy of a rigid body – A rolling object has both linear kinetic and rotational
kinetic energy.
1 9 1
𝐾= 𝐼𝜔 + 𝑚𝑣 9
2 2
Example A: A soccer ball of mass M and radius R is rolling at a speed V. Find the total kinetic energy.
=
The moment of inertia for a solid sphere is H 𝑀𝑅= .

*Total kinetic energy does not depend on radius*

Example B: A yo-yo is a solid disk or radius R and mass M. The yo-yo is released from rest while
the free end of the yo-yo string is held stationary. Find a) the acceleration of the yo-yo and b) the
tension in the yo-yo string.
In problems involving linear and rotational motion, both F=ma and 𝜏=I𝛼 need to be used. For this
problem, tension supplies a force and a torque. Since mg acts at the center of the yo-yo, it only
applies a force. In both cases, the direction of motion (CCW and downwards) is to be taken as
positive. As a result, tension is negative as a force, but is a positive torque.

101
Example C: A solid wheel of mass M and radius R moves up an incline as
shown. The speed of the ring is 𝑣 as it enters the incline.

*Background* When friction is present, it is used to convert rotational kinetic

energy into linear kinetic energy. The magnitude of the negative rotational
work done by friction equals the positive linear work done by friction. Thus friction does no net-work.

a) Find how high up the incline the wheel goes if: the wheel slips while going up the incline. (frictionless)

If there is no friction, the rotational motion of the wheel will not be converted to linear motion. This problem
works the same as sliding.

b) Find how high up the incline the wheel goes there is no slipping of the wheel as it moves up the incline.
(friction is present)

If there is friction, the rotational of the wheel helps it move forward and it can convert its rotational kinetic
energy into potential energy.

In a), only the linear kinetic energy is converted to potential energy. In b), both linear and rotational kinetic
energy are converted into gravitational potential energy, which is why the answer to b) is greater.

c) How would the answer to b) change if the wheel were solid?

In this case, there would be more initial energy (more I at the beginning), so the wheel will go higher.

*NOTE* In the no friction case (slipping), only translational kinetic energy is converted into gravitational
potential energy. In the case with friction (no slip), more kinetic energy is converted into gravitational potential
energy and the wheel will rise more. The torque causes the object to slow down is provided by the parallel
component of weight. Since friction causes the angular acceleration to be less negative tan the slipping case,
friction points in the positive direction for this problem.

102
Example D; Rolling down an incline: A wheel of radius M and radius
R rolls without slipping down an incline.

a) Find the linear speed of the center of mass of the wheel when it
reaches the bottom of the incline.
b) Calculate the acceleration of the wheel down the incline.
c) Determine the minimum coefficient of friction required to
prevent slipping down the incline.
a) Using conservation of energy:

b) The force of friction applies a positive torque since it causes the wheel to rotate downhill, but a negative
force since it resists the sliding motion downhill. *friction always is to be taken as acting uphill on an
incline. Gravity (the parallel component) is a positive force since it propels the wheel downhill. Gravity
causes no torque since it acts at the center of mass. The normal force applies no torque or force since it
is parallel to the axis of rotation (no torque) and has no component in the direction of motion (no force).

c) To prevent slipping, there are two conditions: 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 and 𝜇 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.

103
Solve for work and power in rotational motion.

A force applied to a rotating body does work on the body. The work can be expressed with torque and angular
displacement:

*only the component of the force perpendicular to the axis of rotation does work.

Example D: A 12.0 kg golf cart wheel has a radius of .30 m. The wheel is brought to rest from an initial speed
of 30 rad/s. The wheel makes 10 revolutions while slowing down.
a) What is the work done to slow the wheel?
b) What torque is required to slow the wheel?
c) What is the power required to stop the cart?
Since the system stops and loses energy, the work, torque, and power will all be negative.

Rate your understanding: Rotational Motion

0 1 2 3 4
My physics grade I understand the concepts I can solve problems I can solve problems I can explain and teach
is rolling in its behind rotary motion and involving rotary motion involving rotary motion the concepts behind
grave. can solve some problems with minor errors. with no errors. motion around an axis.
with help.

104
 AP Physics 1
Unit 7: Gravity

Section 7.1 – Gravity………………………………………………….……………………….106

Section 7.2 – Orbital Motion……………………………………………………………..……110

105
AP Physics 1 Unit 7: Gravity
7.1 Gravity
Focus Question: What is the force of gravity?
Solve for force of gravity.

Law of Gravitation: For 2 bodies of mass m1 and m2 a distance of r apart. The force of attraction due to gravity
acts along a straight line that connects the masses:

𝐺𝑚9 𝑚:
𝐹=
𝑟:
By Newton’s 3rd Law, each object experiences the same force.

*If you are attracted to Earth at 120 pounds, the Earth is attracted to you with 120 pounds.
\)'
G = 6.67𝑥10I?? lN'
(measured in the Cavendish experiment)

Example A: If the gravitational constant is extremely weak, how is the force of gravity on earth so strong?

Earth has an extremely large amount of mass.

*All objects with mass attract others with gravity, but it takes a lot of mass for it to be significant attraction.

Calculation acceleration due to gravity and how it affects weight of an object.

§ Mass - Measurement of amount of matter. Only a property of the

object.
§ Weight - Measurement of the pull of gravity on an object. Property of
the object and its location.

If you go to another planet, your weight will change, but your mass will stay the
same. For example, if you go from Earth to the moon, you will feel lighter, but you
will still be the same size and have the same mass, but there will not be as much
force pulling you towards the ground as there would be on Earth.

Gravitational Mass vs. Inertial Mass

§ Gravitational Mass – How much an object can attract masses. Measured by comparing the force
of gravity of an unknown mass to the force of gravity of a known mass.

§ Inertial Mass - How much an object can resist changes in velocity. Measured using F = ma.

*Gravitational and inertial mass are equal by all known measurements.

106
Formula for g in terms of mass (5.97219 × 1024 kg) and radius of the earth (6 378.1 km):

Using the two formulas for weight (mg and the force of gravity):

𝑮𝑴
Acceleration due to gravity on a given: 𝒈=
𝒓𝟐

M – mass of planet r – radius of planet g – acceleration due to gravity on planet

Example B: What is the acceleration due to gravity 400 km above the surface of the earth? (about the height of
the space station

Earth has a mass of M = 5.97x1024 kg and a radius of 6.4x106 m.

*The r in the gravity formula is the distance between the centers of mass of the two objects, so to get the total
distance from the ISS to the center of Earth is the height above the earth plus the radius of the earth.

*The result above is still a significant acceleration. Yet if you’ve ever seen astronauts in the space station, they
are weightless and not experience most of Earth’s gravity.

The reason astronauts in the space station are weightless is that they are in a constant state free fall, but the
horizontal component of their motion makes them “miss” the earth due to its curvature as they fall.

107
Example C: The radius of Krypton is 2.80 times the radius of Earth. The mass of Krypton is 4.60 times the
mass of Earth. Superman drops a rock from 3 meters above the surface of Krypton. What is the acceleration due
to gravity on Krypton.

When given data on another planet in terms of Earth’s data, ratios are used.

Example D: Planet X has half the radius and half the density of Earth. What is the acceleration due to gravity
on planet X?

When given density and radius, a new formula needs to be derived to relate acceleration due to gravity to
density. Using the formula for acceleration due to gravity, mass can be replaced by using the fact that density
(𝜌) is mass over volume. A planet is roughly spherical, so the volume for a sphere is used:

Now, ratios can be used again to find the acceleration on the unknown planet.

Understand gravity as a non-contact force.

Gravity Fields- The closer an object is to earth, the more gravity it will experience. This can be visualized
using vectors in space acting towards objects with the most gravity. At a point in space, the net force of gravity
at that point is the vector sum of the gravitational forces at that point.

108
Example E: Is there a point between the Earth and the Moon where you would be weightless? Is this at the
half-way point? Explain.

Since the gravity due to Earth and the moon will point in opposite directions when between the two objects,
there is a point where the force due to gravity will cancel out and there will no net gravitational force (resulting
in weightlessness). Since Earth has a much larger mass and has stronger gravity further out than the moon, the
point the forces of gravity cancel out is not a half-way point, and will be closer to the moon.

Artificial Gravity
Imagine a person in a large can at the end of a cable (space station) and swung
in a circle orbit. The floor of the space station pushes on the feet of a person to
cause them to go in circular motion. In other words, the floor provides a
centripetal force on the person. The push of the floor is like the normal force
on Earth, simulating gravity.

Example F: A space station has a radius of 2000 m. How fast must the station spin to simulate Earth’s gravity?
To find the required speed, set centripetal acceleration (v2/r) equal to the gravity on the Earth:

Rate your understanding: Gravitation

0 1 2 3 4
Gravity is really going I understand the I can set up and solve I can set up and solve I can explain and teach
to pull my physics concept of of gravity problems involving problems involving the concepts behind
grade down. and can solve some gravitation force with gravitation force with gravitation.
problems with help. minor errors. no errors.

109
AP Physics 1 Unit 7 – Gravity
7.2– Orbital Motion
Focus Question: What causes planets to orbit?
When a planet orbits the sun or a satellite orbits a planet, an inward centripetal force is required to maintain the
orbit. This centripetal force is equal to the gravitational force.

When an object is in circular motion, a force must keep it in a circle. The magnitude of the force keeping it in a
); '
circle must be equal to _
. In this case, that force is the gravitational force between the planet and the star its
orbiting.

*Orbital velocity is affect by distance to the star and the mass of the star. The mass of the orbiting planet does
not affect its orbital velocity.

Example A: a) Calculate the orbital velocity of the moon, which is 3.85𝑥10H 𝑘𝑚 from Earth.

b) Find the period of the moon's orbit

To find the orbital period, diving the orbital circumference by the orbital velocity.

This number is a ridiculous way to give orbital period; orbital period is often given in Earth days:

This is about one month.

110
Describe planetary motion with Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion.

Kepler’s 1st Law: The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the star it is orbiting as one
of the foci.

Ø Planets have greater momentum of inertia further from the star they orbit and thus have smaller speed
since momentum of inertia and angular velocity are inversely proportional.

“Moment of inertia” of planet about star: 𝑰 = 𝒎𝒓

Angular momentum of planet about star:𝑳 = 𝒎𝒗𝒓
*Angular momentum of planet about its star is always conserved during a planetary orbit since no
outside forces act on the planet/star system.
𝒎𝒗𝟏 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝒓𝟐
*Angular momentum of planet about its star is always conserved during a planetary orbit since no
outside forces act on the planet/star system.

Example B: A planet orbits a sun in an elliptical orbit as shown. How does the speed
of the object change as it orbits the sun?

The object is moving in space, so angular momentum of the planet will be

conserved. Since both points A and B are the same distance from the star, the
moment of inertia will be the same at each point and thus the angular velocity
will be as well.

Kepler’s 2nd Law: A line joining a planet and the star it orbits sweeps out equal
areas in equal times.

*Planets travel faster closer to their star as a result of conservation of angular

momentum.

Kepler’s 3rd Law: The square of the period of orbit is directly property to the cube of the radius of orbit.

T^2 ~ r^3

111
Energy Considerations in Orbital Motion

§ Gravitational Potential Energy (with respect to the universe) - The potential energy between object on a
planet and the planet is equal in magnitude to the work done to bring it equal from its current location to
a point infinitely far away in space where the potential energy due to the planet is zero:

Potential energy is equal in magnitude to the work required to give something

potential energy:
−𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈N = −𝐹𝑟 = − 𝑟
𝑟=

−𝑮𝑴𝒎
𝑼𝒈 =
𝒓
This energy is negative. This is because it would take positive work just to reach a point in space with
no energy. Potential energy is the ability to do work. Since it takes work to have no energy, there is a
large amount of negative energy.

* This is technically true for any two objects with mass, but is only significant for celestial bodies. It
takes energy to separate two bodies that are bound together with gravity.
Example C: A 400 kg satellite is set to orbit at 500 km above the surface of the Earth. Find the total energy of
the satellite.
An object in orbit has both negative gravitational potential energy and a positive kinetic energy. The kinetic
energy in the system is the orbital velocity of the orbiting body. Combining the kinetic energy formula with the
orbital velocity formula gives the following formula for total energy of a planet/star system if the planet is
orbiting:

The total energy is still a negative number. Even though there is a kinetin energy, it would still take a lot of
work to escape the orbit and to reach a space where the total potential energy is zero.

112
 § Escape Velocity – An object starts on Earth’s surface with an enormous amount of
negative gravitational potential energy. Therefore, it must have also have a very high
initial speed so it has kinetic energy to overcome it’s gravitational potential energy
deficit.

To derive the escape velocity formula, conservation of energy will be used. For
minimum escape velocity, the final energy will be zero as the object will have
escape all negative potential energy gravity wells. When the object is launched, it
has negative potential energy and positive kinetic energy.

Example D: Calculate the escape velocity for a spacecraft that wants to escape Earth’s gravity well.

This means an object would have to be going 11 km/s at launch to escape Earth. This is if there is no
acceleration while going upward.

Rate your understanding: Orbital Velocity

0 1 2 3 4
I want to find the escape I understand some I apply conservation of I apply conservation of I can explain and teach
velocity from AP concepts in angular angular momentum with angular momentum the concepts angular
Physics. momentum. only a few errors. with no errors. momentum.

113
 AP Physics 1
Unit 8: Oscillations

Section 8.1 – Pendulums…………………………………….………………………..…….…115

Section 8.2 – Springs…………………………………………….……………………………118

114
AP Physics 1 Unit 8 – Oscillations
8.1 – Pendulums
Focus Question: How do kinematics quantities change as a pendulum oscillates?
Pendulum – Consists of a mass m that is attached to a massless string that swing
about a vertical equilibrium position. Pendulums approximate simple harmonic
motion.
*The restoring force a pendulum is the component of weight tangent to the arc of
the object’s motion. This is directly proportional to displacement so a pendulum is
not true simple harmonic motion, but for small amplitudes (>20o or so), the
difference is negligible.

Period of a pendulum – The period of a pendulum is dependent on the length of the pendulum and the
acceleration to gravity at its location:

𝑳
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅f
𝒈

115
Example A: The acceleration due to gravity on the moon is 1/6 that of the earth’s. The period of a pendulum of
the moon is measured to be 7.6 s. Find the period of the pendulum on earth.

Example B: A 0.5 kg mass suspended from a 40 cm string creates a simple pendulum. The mass is displaced at
an angle of 15o from the vertical equilibrium position. Calculate the following:

a) Calculate frequency of the pendulum.

*The angle of a pendulum does not affect the frequency/period as long as the angle is small.

b) Calculate the height of the pendulum above the equilibrium position when it reaches its maximum
displacement. Also, draw a free body diagram of the mass at this position.

116
c) Draw a free body diagram of the mass at its equilibrium position. Find the tension in the string at this point.

At the bottom of a pendulum’s swing, the bob is in circular motion. Thus, the net force on the bob can be set
equal to 𝑚𝑣 = /𝑟, with tension providing the centripetal force and gravity acting away from the center as a
negative force. To solve this problem, you will also need the speed of the pendulum bob at this point. This can
be found using conservation of energy, since a pendulum converts gravitational potential energy to kinetic
energy as it swings down. From part b), the change in height of a pendulum is L-Lcosθ.

d) Describe one modification to double the period of oscillation.

You could increase the length by a factor of four. (It is not reasonable to change gravity)

Rate your understanding: Oscillations

0 1 2 3 4
Harmonic Motion is I understand the I can set up and solve I can set up and solve I can explain and teach
going to harm my grade. concept behind problems involving problems involving the concepts behind
oscillations and can oscillations with only oscillations with no harmonic motion.
solve some problems. minor errors. errors.

117
AP Physics 1 Unit 8 – Harmonic Motion
8.2 – Mass-Spring Systems
Focus Question: What is simple harmonic motion?
Simple Harmonic Motion
§ In period motion, an object moves repeatedly over the same path in equal intervals for time. The
repetitive movements are called oscillations. If periodic motion is directed towards an equilibrium
position, the motion is simple harmonic motion.
§ If an object undergoing periodic motion is in simple harmonic motion, it has two simple characteristics:
o The force acting on the object is directed towards the equilibrium position.

o The force is proportional to the distance from equilibrium. (the restoring force
varies linearly with displacement).

Example A: Why does a pendulum only approximated simple harmonic

motion?
The restoring force is gravity, which acts downwards, not toward
equilibrium. Also, the gravitational force is dependent on 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and
is thus not directly proportional to the distance from equilibrium.

*However, we can still analyze the motion of a pendulum mathematically as

if it were in simple harmonic motion. .

§ Amplitude – Distance from max displacement to equilibrium position.

§ Period – (T) Time to complete 1 cycle

§ Frequency – Frequency – (f) Cycles per second, measured in Hz.

1
𝑓=
𝑇

A mass vibrating at the end of a spring undergoes simple harmonic motion

§ The restoring force for a mass-spring system is the
force that causes the system to return to
equilibrium is given by Hooke’s Law:
𝑭 = −𝒌𝒙
x: displacement from equilibrium
F: force that restores spring back to equilibrium. F always points towards equilibrium. At equilibrium, F
is 0.
*F and x always have opposite signs. The force acts to “undo” the displacement from equilibrium.
Spring constant, k – Property of a spring that measures stiffness (ability to resist the force of stretching
or compression)

118
 𝒎
§ Period of a mass-spring system – 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅' 𝒌

*Period and mass are directly proportional. More mass = more period.
*period and k are inversely proportion. Stiffer spring = large k = smaller period of oscillation

§ Equation of Oscillation - 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 + φ)

x: position at time t
A: amplitude of oscillation
2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇
Φ: phase constant, determine by initial position
A spring has two types of positions of interest: equilibrium and max displacement. At equilibrium, the object is
at its natural state and thus there is no force or no velocity. However, at equilibrium the velocity will be at its
maximum value in the direction it was going and the object oscillating will overshoot equilibrium and keep
oscillating. As it moves away from equilibrium, the force on the object increases by Hooke’s law, and its slows
down until it eventually stops and switches direction at its max displacement. At max displacement, the force
and acceleration back towards equilibrium at a maximum.

Between equilibrium and max displacement, there is both linear and kinetic energy. The sum of these energies
is equal to both the maximum kinetic and potential energies.

119
Example B: A 7.0 kg mass stretches a spring .60 m.

a) Find the spring constant, k.

b) What is the frequency with which the mass vibrates?

To find the frequency formula, simply take the reciprocal of the period formula.

Example C: The total system energy of mass-spring system is E.

?
a) For what value of x will E of the energy be kinetic? Answer in terms of A(amplitude).

If ¼ of the energy is kinetic, then ¾ is potential energy. The total energy can be set equal to the max potential
?
energy, which is = 𝑘𝐴= .

b) What would the total energy of the system be if the amplitude were doubled?
?
Since the total energy in a max-spring system is equal to 𝐸 = = 𝑘𝐴= , doubling the amplitude would quadruple
the total energy.

c) The maximum speed of the original system is v. What is the maximum speed if the amplitude were doubled?

The total energy, maximum potential energy, and the maximum kinetic energy are all the same for a mass-
spring system.

𝐾)%C = 𝑈)%C

1 1
𝑚𝑣)%C = = 𝑘𝐴=
2 2
Looking at the equation above, if amplitude doubles, and all other variables remain constant, the maximum
velocity will also double.

120
Example D: A spring with constant k = 40 N/m is attached to a surface
and a block of .25 kg as shown. The block is brought to a position 20 cm
from equilibrium and released and allowed to oscillate on a frictionless
surface.

a) Draw a free body diagram of the block when its position is -20 cm.

When the block is displaced to the right at -20, the spring force acts towards the left, which
is where equilibrium is.

b) Determine the period of the spring-block system

c) Determine the max speed of the block.

The maximum potential energy and maximum kinetic energy of an oscillating mass-spring system are equal.

d) Derive an expression for the displacement of the block as a function of time.

=m
In the equation 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡), the value of 𝜔 is n
. Since the block starts at the positive position, the
equation has a positive sign in front.

121
e) On the graphs below, plot the displacement, f) Plot the potential and kinetic energy of the block.
velocity and acceleration of the block vs. time
for one cycle.

Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy

§ Whenever two springs are connected in parallel, the total force of the springs is the sum of the two.

𝒌𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 : 𝒌𝒆𝒒 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐

Springs in parallel are stiffer.

Examples: spring mattresses for beds, shocks on a car

§ Whenever springs are connected in series, the effective spring constant is smaller than either springs
individual constant since each spring stretches a smaller amount for the same total linear displacement
of the mass.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒌𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 : 𝒌 = 𝒌 + 𝒌
𝒆𝒒 𝟏 𝟐

Springs in series are less stiff.

122
Example E: Two identical strings are hung from a horizontal support as shown. A
block of mass 5.0 kg is suspended from the pair of springs. When the block is in
equilibrium, each spring stretches 10 cm. What is the force constant of each spring?

Example F: A disk with a mass M, a radius R, and a rotational inertia of I = ½ MR2 is attached to a horizontal
spring which has a spring constant of k as shown in the diagram. When the spring is stretched by a distance x
and then released from rest, the disk rolls without slipping while the spring is attached to the frictionless axle
within the center of the disk. Calculate the linear velocity of the disc.

This problem involves a simple conversion of elastic potential energy

into kinetic energy. However, since the disk can roll, the potential energy
is converted into both rotational and linear kinetic energy.

Rate your understanding: Oscillations

0 1 2 3 4
Harmonic Motion is I understand the I can set up and solve I can set up and solve I can explain and teach
going to harm my grade. concept behind problems involving problems involving the concepts behind
oscillations and can oscillations with only oscillations with no harmonic motion.
solve some problems. minor errors. errors.

123
 AP Physics 2
Unit 1: Fluids

Section 9.1 – Pressure…………………………………………………………………………125

Section 9.2 – Buoyancy………………………………………………………………..………129

Section 9.3 – Fluid Dynamics………………………………………………................………131

124
AP Physics 2 Unit 9: Fluids
9.1 Pressure
Focus Question: How does pressure change with depth?
§ Solid – Shape and volume do not readily change.
§ Liquid – Takes on the shape of its container, but volume does not readily change (liquids are
incompressible).
§ Gas – No fixed shape of fixed volume. Will expand to fill whatever container it’s in.

§ Fluid-
Ø Does not maintain a fixed mass.
Ø Flows under pressure.
Ø Includes liquids, gasses, and plasmas.

Density & Specific Gravity

§ Density – The ratio of an objects mass to the volume it occupies:

𝑀
𝜌=
𝑉
*units of density = 𝑘𝑔/𝑚K

§ Specific Gravity – Specific gravity is the ratio of an object’s density to the density of water:
𝜌
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌opnqr
The value of density of water in Physics 2 can be taken as 1000 kg/m3

Pressure
§ Pressure – When a force is applied to a surface, the pressure on the surface is the force applied on the
surface divided by the surface area:
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
Units of Pressure: Pascals (Pa)
Pressure is sometimes measured in atmospheres, where 1 atmosphere is equal to the pressure exerted by the
earth’s atmosphere at sea level: 1 atm = 1.013x105 Pa

§ Pascal’s Principle - If pressure is applied to a confined fluid then the

pressure at all points in the fluid is greater than the hydrostatic
pressure. The pressure throughout the fluid is increased everywhere.
The pressure on each piston is equal:

𝑃? = 𝑃9
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐
=
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐

125
Example A: A car lift uses pistons to raise a car. Compressed air
exerts a force on a piston with a radius of 5.0 cm, and the pressure on
this piston is transmitted to a larger piston with a radius of 20 cm to
lift a car with a mass of 1200 kg.
a) What force does the compressed air exert?
b) How does the work done by the pistons compare?

a) Pascal’s Principle:
s) s' s) s' _)'
= → = → 𝐹? = (𝐹= )
p) p' m_)' m_'' _''
(5 𝑐𝑚)= 𝑚
→ 𝐹? = (1200 𝑘𝑔) J10 L = 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝑵
(20 𝑐𝑚)= 𝑠=
b) Since a constant volume is transmitted, the volume is equated (one piston pushes a volume of air to
the other, that volume is the same):
∆𝑥? 𝜋𝑟==
𝑉? = 𝑉= → 𝜋𝑟?= ∆𝑥? = 𝜋𝑟== ∆𝑥= → =
∆𝑥= 𝜋𝑟?=
With the ratio of the distances moved by the pistons, the ratio of the work can be found:
𝑊? 𝐹? ∆𝑥?
=
𝑊= 𝐹= ∆𝑥=
∆C _'
Substitute in ∆C) = _'' :
' )
𝑊? 𝐹? 𝑟== (750 𝑁) (20 𝑐𝑚)=
= · =¸ = ) = 1 → 𝑾𝟏 = 𝑾𝟐
𝑊= 𝐹= 𝑟? (1200 𝑘𝑔)(10 ' ) (5 𝑐𝑚)= #

Example B: A swimming pool is a rectangular prism with a width of 8 m, a length of 14 m, and an average
depth of 1.5 m.
a) Calculate the weight of the water in the swimming pool.
b) Calculate the force the Earth’s atmosphere exerts on the pool’s surface.
c) A frisbee of radius 𝑟 = .1 𝑚 rests at a depth of 1 m below the surface of the pool. Calculate the
pressure exerted on the top surface of the frisbee from the water.

a) The density of water is 1000 kg/m3

t lN
𝜌 = u → 𝑀 = 𝜌𝑉 = J1000 )* L (8 𝑚)(14 𝑚)(1.5 𝑚) = 168000 𝑘𝑔
b) Atmosphere pressure is 1.013x105 Pa
s
𝑃 = p → 𝐹 = 𝑃(𝐴) = 1.01𝑥10H 𝑃𝑎(8 𝑚)(14 𝑚) = 1.1𝑥10J 𝑁
c) The mass of the volume of water only directly above the frisbee
exerts pressure on it:
s v("Nb$ w9 v%$(_ %xw;( 9_"#x((
𝑃=p= 9_"#x(( #h_9%'( %_(%
)+,-./ N yu ybm_ ' N
𝑃= m_ '
= m_ ' = m_ '
= 𝜌𝑔ℎ
lN )
𝑃 = (1000 )* )(10 #' )(1 𝑚) = 10,000 𝑃𝑎

126
 § Hydrostatic Pressure
Ø A fluid exerts equal pressure in all directions: Pressure of a fluid is due to the weight of the fluid
above it.
Ø When a fluid is at rest, the force it exerts is always perpendicular to a surface in contact with the
fluid.
Ø A fluid exerts pressure on a submerged object in all directions.
Ø Hydrostatic Equation - Used to calculate the pressure at a point h meters below the surface of a
fluid:
Hydrostatic pressure is the force per unit area exerted on an object under-
water by the column of water above it:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑚𝑔 𝜌𝑉𝑔 𝜌(𝐴ℎ)𝑔
𝑃= = =
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
Hydrostatic Pressure Formula: 𝑷 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉

*The pressure in a uniform liquid is the same at every point ℎ meters below the surface.

§ Gauge Pressure
A pressure gauge indicates pressure above atmospheric pressure. The pressure given by the gauge is
called gauge pressure. To find absolute pressure: Add the measured pressure to atmospheric pressure.
When submerged is water, the pressure on an object is due to the water above, and the atmospheric
above it.
𝑷𝑨𝑩𝑺 = 𝑷𝑨𝑻𝑴 + 𝑷𝑮𝑨𝑼𝑮𝑬
*Atmospheric pressure on Earth’s Surface varies with weather conditions and altitude *air compressible
*The weight of the atmosphere is large. We are not crushed because our cells are close to atmospheric pressure.

Example C: Determine an expression for the absolute pressure at each

of the labeled points.

A: 𝑃p = 𝑃%$) since A is open to the atmosphere.

B: 𝑃z = 𝑃%$) + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
C: 𝑃d = 𝑃%$) + 2𝜌𝑔ℎ
D: The pressure at D is equal to the pressure at B since they
have the same depth: 𝑃{ = 𝑃%$) + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
E: The pressure at E is equal to the pressure at C since they have the same depth:
𝑃q = 𝑃%$) + 2𝜌𝑔ℎ

127
Example D: A cube of wood with sides of 10 m floats at the interface of oil and water as shown. The cube’s
lower surface is 2.0 m below the interface. The density of oil is 600 kg/m3.

a) What is the gauge pressure at the upper face of the block?

b) What is the gauge pressure at the lower face of the block?
c) What is the absolute pressure at the lower face of the block?

a) The top surface is under 2 m of oil, so the pressure is due to the force of the oil only:
lN )
𝑃 = 𝜌w"i 𝑔ℎ = J600 )* L J10 #' L (2 𝑚) = 12,000 𝑃𝑎 = 12 𝑘𝑃𝑎

b) The bottom surface is under all 10 m of oil. Additionally, it is under 2 m of water.

𝑃 = 𝜌w"i 𝑔ℎw"i + 𝜌v%$(_ 𝑔ℎv%$(_
lN ) lN )
→ 𝑃 = J600 )* L J10 #' L (10 𝑚) + J1000 )* L J10 #'L (2 𝑚) = 80,000 𝑃𝑎

c) The absolute pressure is the gauge pressure added to atmosphere pressure:

𝑃 = 80,000 𝑃𝑎 + 10,130 𝑃𝑎 = 90,130 𝑃𝑎 = 90 𝑘𝑃𝑎
This is equal to about 9 atmospheres (9 atm)

Rate your understanding: Pressure

0 1 2 3 4
I’m certainly feeling I can understand fluids I can solve problems I can solve problems I can explain and teach
pressure. with help. involving fluids with involving fluids with no pressure.
minor errors. errors.

128
AP Physics 2 Unit 9: Fluids
9.2 Buoyancy
Focus Question: What is Archimedes’s Principle?

§ Buoyant Force – Upward force on an object in a fluid; the buoyant force acts against gravity.

*An object will float if: The buoyant force is greater than the weight.
*When an object floats, the upward buoyant force on the object is greater than the downward force due to
gravity. There is a buoyant force because pressure increases with depth.

§ Archimedes Principle- The upward buoyant force that is exerted on an

object submerged in a liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced by the object.
𝐹z = 𝑚𝑔
→ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑭𝑩 = 𝝆𝒈𝑽𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅
*An object floats if its density is less than the liquid.

Example A: What fraction of a piece of aluminum (𝜌 = 2700 𝑘𝑔/𝑚K ) will be submerged when floating in
mercury (𝜌 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚K )?

Since the aluminum floats, the buoyant force is equal to its weight.
1 𝐹 = 0 = 𝐹E − 𝐹F → 𝐹E = 𝐹G
𝐹E = 𝜌HIJKLJM 𝑔𝑉NOPQRSKIN
𝐹G = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 𝜌SRLHOTLH 𝑔𝑉SRLHOTLH
When calculating volumes, only the submerged height is used for the
displaced mercury, the total height is used for the volume of the aluminum
itself. Both volumes have the same cross-sectional area.
𝜌v%$(_ 𝑔(𝐴ℎ#hx)(_N(! ) = 𝜌%ih)"&h) 𝑔(𝐴ℎ%ih)"&h) )
ℎ#hx)(_N(! 𝜌%ih)"&h) 2700 𝑘𝑔/𝑚K
= = = 𝟎. 𝟐
ℎ%ih)"&h) 𝜌)(_'h_L 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚K

Example B: The figure shows a floating block of density 640 kg/m3 floating in water.
Calculate the fraction h/L.
𝜌v%$(_ 𝑔𝑉!"#ji%'(! = 𝜌xiw'l 𝑔𝑉xiw'l
𝜌v%$(_ 𝐴(𝐿 − ℎ) = 𝜌xiw'l 𝐴(𝐿)
𝒉
1000𝐿 − 1000ℎ = 640𝐿 → −1000ℎ = −360𝐿 → 𝑳 =. 𝟑𝟔

§ In general, the fraction of an object that is submerged when it floats equals that ratio of the object’s
density to that of the liquid.
In water, the fraction submerged is equal to the specific gravity of the material:
𝜌v%$(_ 𝑔𝑉!"#ji%'(! = 𝜌)%$(_"%i 𝑔𝑉$w$%i
→ 𝜌v%$(_ 𝐴ℎ#hx)(_N(! = 𝜌)%$(_"%i 𝐴ℎ$w$%i
𝜌)%$(_"%i ℎ#hx)(_N(!
→ = = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜌v%$(_ ℎ$w$%i
129
Example C: Totally submerged object: An apple with is hung from a spring scale. When
the object is in the air, the spring scale reads 2.0 N. When the apple is fully submerged in
water, the scale reads 1.5 N.
a) Calculate the density of the apple.
b) The spring scale is removed while the apple is fully submerged. Will the apple
float up or sink?

a) Since the object is at rest, the sum of the forces on it are zero. Weight acts
downward, and the upward force of the spring scale holds it upwards. It is also
pushed up by the buoyant force. Because the spring scale reads 2 N when the apple is not in water,
that is the weight the apple.
| 𝐹 = 0 = 𝐹| + 𝐹z − 𝐹N = 0
Since the apple is fully submerged, all of its volume is used when applying Archimedes’ Principle. The volume
of the apple is its mass dived by its density. The mass the apple is its weight (which is known) divided by
acceleration due to gravity.
𝑚%jji(
→ 𝐹| + 𝜌v%$(_ 𝑔𝑉%jji( = 𝑊%jji( → 𝐹| + 𝜌v%$(_ 𝑔 = 𝑊%jji(
𝜌%jji(
v,001.
N 𝜌v%$(_ 𝑊%jji(
→ 𝜌v%$(_ 𝑔 = 𝑊%jji( − 𝐹# → 𝜌%jji( =
𝜌%jji( 𝑊%jji( − 𝐹#
lN
(1000 )* )(2 𝑁) 𝒌𝒈
→ 𝜌%jji( = = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
2 𝑁 − 1.5 𝑁 𝒎𝟑

b) Since the apple in this problem is more dense than water, it will sink.
When an object is fully submerged in water , it will accelerate up if it is less dense than water. If it is
more dense than water, it will acceleration down.

Example D: A spherical air balloon has a radius of 9.5 m and is filled with helium. What is the maximum mass
lN
that the ball can lift? (𝜌Mq = .18 )K , 𝜌p}r = 1.29 𝑘𝑔/𝑚K ). The mass of the balloon can be neglected, but not
the mass of the helium.

The buoyant force has to support the cargo and the weight of the helium in the balloon.
| 𝐹 = 0 = 𝐹z − 𝑊Mq − 𝑊dpr~•
→ 𝜌p}r 𝑔𝑉 = 𝜌Mq 𝑔𝑉 + 𝑚dpr~• 𝑔
𝑚'%_Nw → (𝜌%"_ − 𝜌Mq )(𝑉)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 4
𝑚'%_Nw = »1.29 K − .18 K ¼ » 𝜋(9.5 𝑚)K ¼ = 4000 𝑘𝑔
𝑚 𝑚 3

Rate your understanding: Buoyancy

0 1 2 3 4
My grade will not stay I can understand fluids I can solve problems I can solve problems Eureka! I can explain
afloat. with help. involving fluids with involving fluids with no and teach fluids.
minor errors. errors.

130
AP Physics 2 Unit 9: Fluids
9.3 Fluid Dynamics
Focus Question: What effects the velocity of flowing ideal fluid?
§ Laminar Flow – Trajectory of each particle is smooth and trajectories
do not cross. Also called “streamline” flow.

§ Turbulent Flow- Flow where trajectories of water particles cross.

Occurs is the flow goes above some critical velocity.

*An eddy current is when current circles back on itself. Eddy currents disrupt the flow of a fluid.
The Ideal Fluid
For fluids in motion, fluids are assumed to be ideal fluids. An ideal fluid has the following properties:
o The fluid exhibits laminar flow.
o The fluid is non-viscous, so there is no drag force.
*Viscosity is analogous to friction for the flow of fluids.
o The fluid is incompressible; the density is the same everywhere in the fluid.
o The fluid is steady.
*velocity, density, and pressure are constant over time.

Equation of Continuity

Mass flow rate stays the same:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝜌𝑉 𝜌𝑉
= → =
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

𝜌𝐴? 𝑣? = 𝜌𝐴= 𝑣=
𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐

Bigger cross section = slower flow. Smaller cross section = faster flow.

*Fluid speeds up where flow is constricted. This is based on conservation of mass.

Example A: Water runs through a water main of with a circular cross section of radius 5 cm2 with a velocity of
6 m/s.
a) Calculate the velocity of the water in the pipe when the pipe tapers down to a cross-section radius of
1.0 cm2.
b) How long will it take the water out of the faucet to fill a 200 L tub?

a) Applying the continuity formula:

p ; p
𝐴? 𝑣? = 𝐴= 𝑣= → 𝑣= = p) ) = Jp) L 𝑣?
' '
m(H '))' ) )
→ 𝑣= = (m(? '))' ) J6 # L = 150 𝑚/𝑠
b) The volume flow rate can be calculated using either cross section:
u C ) )*
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = $ = $ (𝐴) = 𝑣𝐴 = J150 # L (𝜋)(. 01 𝑚)= ) = .047 #
There are 1000 L in a cubic meter:
) %*
=@@ € C
)333 4
%*
= 4.3 𝑠
.@EJ
&

131
Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli’s Equation is derived from applying conservation of

energy to the flow of an ideal fluid:
Going back to Physics 1, the change in energy is due to work
done by outside forces. The work done on the fluid from the
outside forces exerting pressure is equal to the total change in
energy:
𝑊\qn = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈

The work done on each end of the fluid flow is:

𝑊 = 𝐹∆𝑥 = (𝑃𝐴)∆𝑥 = 𝑃𝑉
The net work is then 𝑊\qn = 𝑃? 𝑉 − 𝑃= 𝑉 since both ends of the flow have forces in opposite directions.
? ?
The change in kinetic energy is: ∆𝐾 = = 𝑚𝑣== − = 𝑚𝑣?=
The change in potential energy is: ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦= − 𝑚𝑔𝑦?

The work energy relationship is then:

1 1
𝑃? 𝑉 − 𝑃= 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣== − 𝑚𝑣?= + 𝑚𝑔𝑦= − 𝑚𝑔𝑦?
2 2
Since 𝜌 = 𝑚𝑉, dividing the entire equation by volume yields:
1 1
𝑃? − 𝑃= = 𝜌𝑣== − 𝜌𝑣?= + 𝜌𝑔𝑦= − 𝜌𝑔𝑦?
2 2
𝟏 𝟏
→ 𝑷𝟏 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟏 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒚𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
*Fluid velocity is low where pressure is high and fluid velocity is high where pressure is low.

Example B: A sealed tank contains water filled to a height of h = 8.0

m. The air above the water is at 40 atm of pressure. Water flows out
of a hole at a height a = 5 m above the ground.
a) Find the speed at which the water leaves the whole.
b) Find the horizontal range travel by the water.
c) How does the height a, of the hole affect the horizontal
range of the water?

a) Bernoulli’s equation will be applied for the top of the water

and the opening. The water level at the top is assumed to be
constant (otherwise this is Calc II problem), and the opening is open to the atmosphere, so it is at
atmospheric pressure:
1 1
𝑃" + 𝜌𝑣"= + 𝜌𝑔𝑦" = 𝑃9 + 𝜌𝑣9= + 𝜌𝑔𝑦9
2 2
•# 5yNL# I•$ IyNL$
→ 𝑣9 = h2 J y
L
67 % 67 %
(E@C?.@?C?@5 •%)5>?@@@ * A>?@ ' A(‚ ))I(?.@?C?@5 •%)I>?@@@ * A>?@ ' A(H ))
→ 𝑣9 = ½2( % &
67
% &
= 𝟔𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
?@@@ *
&

132
*If the top of the container is also open to the atmosphere, the equations becomes:
1 1
𝑃" + 𝜌𝑣"= + 𝜌𝑔𝑦" = 𝑃9 + 𝜌𝑣9= + 𝜌𝑔𝑦9
2 2
𝑣9 = h2𝑔¾𝑦9 − 𝑦" ¿
The result above is a statement of Torricelli's Theorem

b) Kinematics, WOW. OMG. This is projectile problem with an initial horizontal velocity of v=63 m/s. The
water accelerates down due to gravity. Such fun.
)
Find time in the air using the y-direction: 𝑣L" = 0, 𝑎 = −10 #' , ∆𝑦 = −5 𝑚, 𝑡 =?

1 2∆𝑦 2(−5𝑚)
∆𝑦 = 𝑣L" 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 = → 𝑡 = ½ =½ ) =1𝑠
2 𝑎 −10 ' #
Find the horizontal displacement since the velocity in the x-direction doesn’t change:
𝑚
∆𝑥 = 𝑣C 𝑡 = J63 L (1 𝑠) = 𝟔𝟑 𝒎
𝑠

c) The low the opening is in the container of the water, the faster the water will travel, giving it a larger
horizontal velocity when it leaves the container. However, a lower opening leads to less time in the air.

Example C: In a hydroelectric power plant, water leaves a dam

from a point 50 m beneath the surface. It enters a pipe of radius
80 cm and is incident on a turbine through a pipe of radius 40 cm.
a) Find the speed of the water as it hits the turbine.
b) Calculate the pressure at point 2.

a) Both the top of the reservoir and the turbine are open to the
atmosphere. Also, the water level of the reservoir is assumed to
be constant, so the velocity at 1 is zero.
1 1
𝑃? + 𝜌𝑣?= + 𝜌𝑔𝑦? = 𝑃= + 𝜌𝑣== + 𝜌𝑔𝑦=
2 2
→ 𝑣= = À2𝑔(𝑦? − 𝑦= ) =
𝑚
𝑣= = h2(10 = )(350 𝑚 − 0 𝑚) = 𝟖𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
𝑠

b) Before applying Bernoulli’s, the speed at 2 needs to be found with continuity:

𝐴K 𝜋(. 40 𝑐𝑚)= 𝑚 𝑚
𝐴= 𝑣= = 𝐴K 𝑣K → 𝑣= = 𝑣K = · ¸ J84 L = 21
𝐴= 𝜋(. 80 𝑐𝑚)= 𝑠 𝑠
Either 1 or 3 can be used as the other point when applying Bernoulli’s. 1 is simpler:
1 1
𝑃? + 𝜌𝑣?= + 𝜌𝑔𝑦? = 𝑃= + 𝜌𝑣== + 𝜌𝑔𝑦=
2 2
1 =
→ 𝑃= = 𝜌𝑔𝑦? − 𝜌𝑣= − 𝜌𝑔𝑦=
2
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
→ 𝑃= = »1000 K ¼ J10 = L (350 𝑚) − »1000 K ¼ J21 L − »1000 K ¼ J10 = L (50 𝑚)
𝑚 𝑠 2 𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 𝑠
→ 𝑃= = 𝟐. 𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑷𝒂

133
 § Venturi Tube – A venturi tube measures pressure different between areas in a
pipe with different diameters in order to measure the flow rate of a fluid. A tube
called a manometer connects sections of the venturi with different known
diameters. The fluid flow speed is found by measuring the height of a fluid in the
manometer, such as mercury.

Example D: Venturi Tube: The section of pipe shown has a cross-

sectional area of 𝐴? =40 cm2 at its wide section and 𝐴= = 10 cm2 at the
narrow portion. Water flows out of the pipe at a rate of 3𝑥10IK 𝑚K /𝑠.
a) Find the maximum velocity of the water.
b) Find the pressure difference between the wide and narrow
sections.
c) Find the different in height between the sections of the
manometer. 𝜌)(_'h_L = 13.6𝑥10K 𝑘𝑔/𝑚K

a) The volume flow rate at 1, where 𝑉 g = 𝐴𝑣

𝐴o 𝑣v = 𝐴\ 𝑣\
)*
𝐴o 𝑣o 3𝑥10IK #
→ 𝑣\ = =Á Â = 3 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴\ 10𝑥10IE 𝑚=
b) In the pipe itself, there is no height difference.
? = ?
𝑃o + = 𝜌𝑣o + 𝜌𝑔𝑦o = 𝑃\ + = 𝜌𝑣\= + 𝜌𝑔𝑦\
? ?
→ 𝑃o − 𝑃\ = = 𝜌𝑣\= − = 𝜌𝑣o
=

=
%*
? lN ) = KC?@8*
→ 𝑃o − 𝑃\ = = J1000 )* L ÃJ3 # L − Á· &
E@C?@89 )'
¸Â Ä = 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

c) The two columns of mercury have the same pressure difference as the wide and narrow sections of the
pipe, since the two ends of the columns are open to these sections of pipe.
𝑃o − 𝑃\ = 𝑃? − 𝑃=
When applying Bernoulli’s, the velocities are canceled out since the mercury levels are constant.
? ?
𝑃? + = 𝜌𝑣?= + 𝜌𝑔𝑦? = 𝑃= + = 𝜌𝑣== + 𝜌𝑔𝑦=
→ 𝑃? − 𝑃= = 𝜌𝑔𝑦= − 𝜌𝑔𝑦?
• I• E=@@ •%
→ 𝑦= − 𝑦? = )yN ' = ?K.ƒC?@* lN/)* )(?@ )/#' ) =. 𝟎𝟑 𝒎

§ Airplane Wings - The shape of an aircraft wing forces air flowing above the wing to travel faster than air
flowing below the wing. The higher pressure below the wing results in a net upward force on the wing.

134
Example F: Airplane Lift – An airplane of wings with an area of 5.0 m2. Air flows over the top of the wing at
250 m/s and under the wing at 210 m/s.
a) Find the mass of the airplane so that the lift on the wing supports the airplane.
b) Suppose an airplane flies where the air is thinner. How does thinner air affect the required size of the
wings?

a) The airplane keeps its altitude since the lift force on the wing cancels out the force of the airplane’s
weight:
| 𝐹 = 𝐹€}sn − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝐹€}sn
→ 𝑚𝑔 = 𝐹€}sn → 𝑚 =
𝑔
The lift force for one wing is 𝐹 = 𝐴∆𝑃. For the two airplane wings, 𝐹€}sn = 2𝐴∆𝑃.

Bernoulli’s formula is applied to find the pressure difference between the top and bottom surfaces of the
wings. The heights of the wings surfaces are assumed to be assumed since the difference is negligible
compared to the difference in speeds:
1 = 1 =
𝑃n•• + 𝜌𝑣n•• + 𝜌𝑔𝑦n•• = 𝑃z•nn•t + 𝜌𝑣z•nn•t + 𝜌𝑔𝑦z•nn•t
2 2
1 = 1 =
𝑃z•nn•t − 𝑃n•• = ∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑣n•• − 𝜌𝑣z•nn•t
2 2
1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 = 𝑚 =
∆𝑃 = »1.2 K ¼ »J250 L − J210 L ¼ = 11040 𝑃𝑎
2 𝑚 𝑠 𝑠
𝐹€}sn 2𝐴∆𝑃 2(5 𝑚)(11040)
𝑚= = = ) = 11040 𝒌𝒈
𝑔 𝑔 10 ' #
b) If the air is thinner, the pressure difference will be smaller, requiring more surface area.

Rate your understanding: Fluid Dynamics

0 1 2 3 4
My understanding of I can understand fluids I can solve problems I can solve problems I can explain and teach
fluids is turbulent at with help. involving fluids with involving fluids with no fluid dynamics.
best. minor errors. errors.

135