Received March 20, 2022, accepted May 9, 2022, date of publication May 13, 2022, date of current version

May 27, 2022.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3175011

A Review of BLDC Motor: State of Art, Advanced

Control Techniques, and Applications
DEEPAK MOHANRAJ 1 , RANJEEV ARULDAVID 1 , RAJESH VERMA2 , K. SATHIYASEKAR3 ,
ABDULWASA B. BARNAWI2 , BHARATIRAJA CHOKKALINGAM 1 , (Senior Member, IEEE),
AND LUCIAN MIHET-POPA 4 , (Senior Member, IEEE)
1 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai 603203, India
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha 62529, Saudi Arabia
3 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Prathyusha Engineering College, Chennai 602025, India
4 Faculty of Engineering, Østfold University College, 1757 Halden, Norway

Corresponding authors: Bharatiraja Chokkalingam ([email protected]) and Lucian Mihet-Popa ([email protected])

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
for funding this work through Large Groups Project under grant number: RGP. 2/162/43; and in part by the Department of Science &
Technology, Govt. of India, Promotion of University Research and Scientific Excellence (PURSE), Award Number: SR/PURSE/2021/6.

ABSTRACT Brushless direct current (BLDC) motors are mostly preferred for dynamic applications such
as automotive industries, pumping industries, and rolling industries. It is predicted that by 2030, BLDC
motors will become mainstream of power transmission in industries replacing traditional induction motors.
Though the BLDC motors are gaining interest in industrial and commercial applications, the future of
BLDC motors faces indispensable concerns and open research challenges. Considering the case of reliability
and durability, the BLDC motor fails to yield improved fault tolerance capability, reduced electromagnetic
interference, reduced acoustic noise, reduced flux ripple, and reduced torque ripple. To address these issues,
closed-loop vector control is a promising methodology for BLDC motors. In the literature survey of the
past five years, limited surveys were conducted on BLDC motor controllers and designing. Moreover, vital
problems such as comparison between existing vector control schemes, fault tolerance control improvement,
reduction in electromagnetic interference in BLDC motor controller, and other issues are not addressed.
This encourages the author in conducting this survey of addressing the critical challenges of BLDC motors.
Furthermore, comprehensive study on various advanced controls of BLDC motors such as fault tolerance
control, Electromagnetic interference reduction, field orientation control (FOC), direct torque control (DTC),
current shaping, input voltage control, intelligent control, drive-inverter topology, and its principle of
operation in reducing torque ripples are discussed in detail. This paper also discusses BLDC motor history,
types of BLDC motor, BLDC motor structure, Mathematical modeling of BLDC and BLDC motor standards
for various applications.

INDEX TERMS BLDC motor, torque ripple, current shaping techniques, controlling input voltage, direct
torque control, drive-inverter topology, field orientation control, motor design, fault tolerance control,
electromagnetic interference reduction.

ABBREVIATION EMI Electromagnetic Interference.

ANN Artificial Neural Network. EVs Electric Vehicles.
ASD Adjustable Speed Drives. FC Fault Code.
BEMF Back Electro-Motive Force. FEA Finite Element Analysis.
BLDC Brushless DC Motor. FOC Field Oriented Control.
CF Cost Function. FTC Fault-Tolerant Control.
DTC Direct Torque Control. IEC International Electrotechnical Commission.
EMF Electro Magnetic Field. LISN Line Impedance Stabilization Network.
NdFeB Neodymium Iron Boron.
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and NVH Noise, Vibration, and Harshness.
approving it for publication was Ahmed A. Zaki Diab . MPC Model Predictive Control.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
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PID Proportional Integral Derivative.

PWM Pulse Width Modulation.
SVPWM Space Vector PWM.
VSI Voltage Source Inverter.
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle.
ZSI Z-Source Inverter.

I. INTRODUCTION
A. BACKGROUND
Before 50 years, T. G Wilson and P.H. Trickey conducted
several experiments to run Direct Current (DC) motors with
solid-state commutation which paved the ideology of devel-
oping BLDC motor [1] which is based on Lorentz’s force law.
In recent decades, BLDC motors have been an area of inten-
FIGURE 1. BLDC motor market analysis by market reports.
sive research to facilitate the penetration of electric vehicles in
the automotive industry. Owing to maneuverability, compact
design and lightweight BLDC motors are found to be used
in several industries such as automotive industries, pumping trains, airplanes, etc., Sensor-less control is achieved in
industries, and rolling industries [2]. Since there will be an three principles namely (i) EMF method with zero-crossing,
increase in demand for electric vehicles in the upcoming (ii) observer-based EMF method, and (iii) magnetic
10 years, BLDC motors are expected to play a vital role. anisotropy method [14]. Mostly EMF method with the
The BLDC motors global market is expected to reach a size zero-crossing principle is preferred [9]. While the other two
of 15.2 billion USD by 2025, from an estimated 9.6 billion principles are tedious to control and are not preferred for low-
USD by 2020 as illustrated in Fig. 1. The enormous growth of speed operations.
this machine has lured several applications [3]. Depending on For an efficient control, the speed of the motor and the
the purpose of applications such as static or dynamic, BLDC commutation logics are being controlled in the drive-by col-
motors provide a good response. They need to be designed lecting the inputs from both the drive and the motors such
appropriately to have good magnetic linkage to be used for as the position of the rotor or rotor angle, stator currents,
various applications such as lifting, cutting, and bracing [4]. hysteresis band current, etc., Proper control of switching of
Compared to the other motors, BLDC motors are expected various switches in motor drives confirms the correct rotation
to have higher efficiency, higher torque to weight ratio, and of the motor [10]. Even though there are various methods
lower operating noise [5]. These machines have stationary for controlling the harmonic content in the supply in drives,
flux in between the rotor and stator which primes the motor to we prefer it to control through the Pulse Width Modulation
run with a unity power factor. BLDC motors are driven using (PWM) technique [11]. Among the PWM techniques, specif-
electronically commutated motor drives. Each phase of the ically, everyone prefers to use space vector PWM (SVPWM)
motor is driven via a closed-loop controller. The main usage control. Current control strategies with PWM and hysteresis
of a closed-loop controller is to provide a current pulse to the controllers play a vital role in improving the performance
motor windings to have control over the speed and torque as of the motor drives. Current control strategies with unipo-
both are complementary phenomena in a motor [6]. BLDC lar PWM can be classified as follows: (i) H-PWM-L-ON,
motor is driven with high accuracy that it produces high wear (ii) H-ON-L-PWM, ON-PWM, (iii) PWM-ON, (iv) PWM-
and tear in load conditions. ON-PWM, (v) H-PWM-L-PWM modes [16].
Few circuits use Hall Effect sensors to directly measure
the rotor’s position, whereas few others measure the back B. LITERATURE SURVEY AND MOTIVATION
electromotive force within the non-driven coils to gather the Even though BLDC motors are found to have high efficiency,
position of the rotor, which are known as sensorless con- the durability of the machine is less compared to induction
trols. A general hall sensor fixed BLDC motor contains three motors [12]. To improve the durability of BLDC motors,
dual-directional outputs which are controlled by a circuit the main challenges such as fault tolerance, Electromagnetic
based on digital logic [7]. interference, acoustic noise, torque ripple, and flux ripple
Other sensor-less controllers are made for measuring the should be controlled. Thus, the controlling techniques are
winding current flow caused by the direction of the magnets discussed in this paper.
to get the position of the rotor and estimating parameters Since BLDC motors are used in dynamic applications,
such as back electromotive force (EMF) and flux [8]. Even Reliability control techniques of motor drives are indispens-
though indirect control (sensor-less) provides less response able. Reliability control techniques such as fault-tolerant con-
compared to direct (with sensor) control and the struc- trol (FTC), electromagnetic interference control (EMI), and
tural complexity increases, indirect controls are preferred in acoustic noise control improve the feasibility of the motor
many high-power automotive applications such as electric drive systems in dynamic applications. The generation of

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TABLE 1. Comprehensive and concise literature survey.

EMI and acoustic noises lead to motor failures. Hence, it’s low power machines, (v) concentrating coil winding of the
essential to control the faults in prior. The various control same phase is too difficult, (vi) using magnetic step skewing
used to mitigate EMI and acoustic noise generation are dis- methodology increases structural complexity of the BLDC
cussed. If EMI and acoustic noise lead to the development of machine [25].
fault. The fault-tolerant approach used to work as a backup to Furthermore, vector control techniques such as field orien-
continue the operation. The main use of such a technique is tation control (FOC), direct torque control (DTC), and Model
to maintain continuity in operations. predictive control (MPC) schemes functioned drives are pre-
In [13] fast fault diagnosis is performed with help of a rapid ferred a lot to obtain less torque ripple and good dynamic
counter. Whenever the threshold value increases, the fault is response over various vigorous conditions. FOC functioned
detected. The technique is not reliable for high acceleration drives were found in the year 1972 and DTC functioned
applications. In [14] EMI of the machine is reduced by ana- drives were found in the year 1986. During the invention of
lyzing the dc bus voltage at the frequency domain. On anal- these techniques, the development of embedded controllers
ysis, it found that motor structure can improve or decrease was less [26]. However, the improvement in the develop-
the EMI generated. Table 1 represent the comprehensive and ment of the embedded controller resulted in the improve-
concise literature survey done in this paper. ment of the steady-state and dynamic response characteristics
Torque ripples in motors are also mitigated properly by of the motor controller. The development of various novel
designing the structural symmetry and aligning stator poles computational techniques such as finite control set MPC,
in an optimized manner. This results in the reduction of intelligent control algorithm, particle swarm optimization,
the cogging torque which is one of the main reasons for extended Kalman filter algorithm and fuzzy logic estimation
ripple generation which affects high acoustic noise and EMI functioned drives to improve dynamic response [27]. There-
interference in the machine itself [20]. The main reason fore, this review article undertakes a comprehensive study
behind the cogging torque generation is the communication on the current research on brushless direct current motor
between the permanent magnet and stator silicon core [21], and summarizes the up-to-date technological advancement
[22]. Moreover, concerning the design aspects, the cogging in BLDC motor drive controls. Furthermore, in this paper
torque ripples are reduced by modifying the magnetic circuit the mathematical modeling of motor and motor drives. Reli-
of the machines using various methods such as feedback ability control techniques such as EMI filter using LISN
linearization algorithms, using T-shaped bifurcations teeth in techniques, fault-tolerant control using cost observer tech-
stator slots, closing the slots using a sliding separator, using niques, and acoustic noise control using field programmable
notches in the rotor of low power motors, concentrating coil gate array controller are discussed in this paper. The various
winding in the same phase group, reducing claw pole size, ideology of FTC is compared. EMI control techniques are
magnet step skewing method and U-shaped magnetic poles. compared with suppression levels.
These ideologies were performed conventionally to control The significant contribution in this paper is as follows:
the torque ripple of the BLDC motor through designing [23], • A brief history of BLDC motor and their categories are
[24]. Every ideology discussed has its disadvantages such as discussed in detail with diagrams.
(i) Using modified magnetic circuit reduces torque ripple but • A comprehensive review of advanced control techniques
results in the increase of additional harmonics, (ii) using T such as FTC, EMI control, acoustic noise control, and
shaped bifurcation teeth in stator slot reduces the mechanical torque ripple mitigation are discussed.
strength of BLDC machines, (iii) introducing notches in the • The fundamental theory behind BLDC motor designing
rotor is too difficult, (iv) sliding separators can’t be used in and its types are illustrated with real-time cases.

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FIGURE 2. Organization flow chart.

• The simulation and designing of advanced motor con- configurations such as inner rotor and outer rotor. In [28]
trols are discussed in detail. the outer rotor-designed BLDC motor is discussed. The rotor
• The open challenges and future research opportunities permanent magnet is embedded at the outer surface and stator
are discussed. windings are kept stationary inside. The outer rotor BLDC
Fig. 2. represents the flow and survey organization of the increases the output torque and power density of the motor.
presented paper. In the next section, the various types of The outer rotor BLDC motor is mainly used in electric
BLDC motors and state of art are discussed. vehicles, drones, variable drive industries, water pumping,
and home electronics. In [29] outer rotor BLDC motor is
II. TYPES OF BLDC MOTOR designed, the airgap radius between stator and rotor is mini-
BLDC motor physical design is divided into two parts sta- mized. Thus, increasing the torque capability per unit length
tor and rotor. The classification of BLDC motor types is and current. In [30] structural elements are added to increase
shown in Fig. 4. The motor is constructed with various the stability of the rotor. These improve motor characteristics

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TABLE 2. Comparison of the inner and outer rotor features.

FIGURE 3. Inner rotor.

in dynamic conditions. Fig. 5 depicts the outer rotor-type

BLDC motor. In [31] inner rotor BLDC motor designing is
discussed. Using finite element analysis, the ferrite bonded
magnet used BLDC motor is analyzed.
On experimentation, it found that the inner rotor motor
also provides good power characteristics over dynamic
conditions. In [32] preliminary algorithm of high-speed
ferrite-based BLDC motor is discussed. Magnetic flux
components are improvised by adjusting the mechanical con-
straints. Fig. 3 represents the inner rotor BLDC motor struc-
tures. The comparison of the inner rotor and outer rotor
BLDC is discussed in Table 2.
Depending on the construction of the PM rotor, rotors in
BLDC motor usually consist of permanent magnets and a
shaft. The cross-section of permanent magnets in motors can
be classified into various types such as (i) surface mounted
magnet [33], (ii) inserted magnet [34], and (iii) buried or
embedded type rotor magnets [35], [36]. In this, the buried
or embedded type has more efficiency compared to other Depending on the expectation of the customers, these
types. Table 3 compares the various permanent magnet rotor BLDC motor drives are integrated in different ways such as
structures of the BLDC motor. magnetic field path radial and axial flux. Axial flux motors

FIGURE 4. Types of BLDC motor and control algorithms.

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TABLE 3. Comparison of the various permanent magnet rotor structure.

TABLE 4. Electromagnetic axial and radial flux path difference.

FIGURE 5. Outer rotor (Hub motor).

FIGURE 6. Radial and axial flux. single-phase and three-phase motors are used. Three-phase,
five-phase, and seven-phase motors are preferred for dynamic
applications such as electric vehicles. In [39] multiphase
are more powerful than radial flux motors. In [37] the char- BLDC motor is designed with the help overlapping winding
acteristics of axial flux type BLDC motor are analyzed using strategy. Using an overlapping strategy provides better flux
flux linkage methodology. The mechanical stability of the linkage between the coils. Multiphase motor topologies pro-
BLDC motor is improved by the dual rotor technique. vide good torque characteristics and improved fault tolerance
In [38] three different types of radial flux motors are com- capability. The stator coil winding is star or delta connected.
pared and analyzed. On analysis, it’s found that dual rotor These winding models are preferred depending upon the
type produces good dynamic characteristics. The axial flux application. Star connection is preferred for high torque low-
and radial flux features are compared in Table 4. Fig. 6 rep- speed applications and delta connection is preferred for low
resents the axial and radial flux motor flux linkages flow. torque low-speed applications. Depending on the speed, the
Further, BLDC motor classification based on stator com- number of poles in the rotor is increased.
ponents is discussed. The stator in BLDC can be classified The laminated iron cores are classified as slotted and slot-
based on the number of phases, laminated core types, and less cores. In [40] due to the reaction of the PM flux with the
back EMF. The stator in BLDC can be classified based on the stator’s varying permeance, the slotted stator often generates
number of phases of operation. In static applications, mostly high-order spatial harmonics. This causes a small vibrating

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TABLE 5. BLDC stator slotted and slotless structure features. The reluctance between the stator and rotor are assumed to be
null (i.e., there is no change in the stator and rotor reluctance
angle.) then,
Laa = Lbb = Lcc = L (2)
Lab = Lac = Lba = Lca = Lcb = Lbc = M (3)
Substituting the above equations in equation (1),
    
Vx R 0 0 ia
 Vy  =  0 R 0   ib  + d
Vz 0 0 R ic dt
    
L M M ia ea
×M L M   ib  +  eb  (4)
M M L ic ec
Since the motor is star connected. The stator currents are
considered to be balanced.
ia + ib + ic = 0 (5)
torque on the shaft, which is referred to as cogging torque.
As a result, it reduces operational noise preferred for slotless This is used to simplify the inductance matrix as,
machines. Furthermore, slot-less machines have lower rota-
Mib + Mic = −Mia (6)
tional eddy loss, allowing the motor to run at faster speeds.
Features of slotted and slotless are compared in Table 5. Therefore, the main equation becomes,
The stators are also further classified based on their     
Vx R 0 0 ia
back emf waveforms which are sinusoidal waveform and  Vy  =  0 R 0   ib  + d
trapezoidal waveform. The back emf shape depends on the dt
Vz 0 0 R ic
interconnection between the stator windings and the air gap     
distance. BLDC motor is more efficient for sinusoidal back L−M 0 0 ia ea
emf compared to trapezoidal back emf. These motors are × 0 L−M 0  ib  + eb 
a little bit costlier due to the use of more copper windings 0 0 L−M ic ec
compared to trapezoidal back EMF BLDC motors [39]–[41]. (7)
Mathematical modeling of BLDC motors is needed for Since the back EMF of BLDC motor is trapezoidal. The
designing and constructing BLDC motors. The mathematical back EMF equations are given as,
modeling of BLDC motors is discussed in detail. The position    
of the BLDC motor can be estimated by designing the model ea fas (θr )
of a conventional DC motor which can be represented by  eb  = ωm λm  fbs (θr )  (8)
winding resistance, the inductance of the winding coils, and ec fcs (θr )
the back electromotive force [41]. where ωm the rotating speed of the motor, λm is the flux
A three-phase BLDC motor has three individual phase linkage of the motor fas (θr ), fbs (θr ) and fcs (θr ) represents the
windings and a permanent magnet rotor. Modeling functions of back EMF for various magnitude instants. The
rotor-induced currents are neglected due to the high resistivity flux linkages between the stator and rotor are made smooth.
of magnets and silicon core [42]. Hence the electromagnetic torque developed by the BLDC
The three-phase voltage equations for windings are mod- motor is given by the following expression:
eled as follows,
1
  
vx R 0 0
 
ia Te = ∗ (ea ia + eb ib + ec ic ) (9)
ωm
 vy  =  0 R 0   ib  + d
dt The obtained phase voltage equation looks similar to the
vz 0 0 R ic
     armature voltage equation of the direct current machine. The
Laa Lab Lac ia ea equation of motion of motor drive,
×  Lba Lbb Lbc   ib  +  eb  (1)
dω
Lca Lcb Lcc ic ec + Fω(t)
Te − Tm = J (10)
dt
where vx , vy, and vz are phase voltages of the BLDC motor,
where J is the combined inertia, F is the mechanical friction
R is the stator resistance of the BLDC motor, ia , ib and ic
co-efficient. Mechanical speed of the motor is related by,
are the stator currents of the BLDC motor, Laa , Lbb and
Lcc represent the stator inductance of the BLDC motor, ea , dθr
Pωm = (11)
eb , and ec represent the back EMF of the BLDC motor. dt
The resistance of the machine is assumed to be equal. where P is the number of poles of the motor.

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FIGURE 8. BLDC axial flux integrated inverter mounted [159].

FIGURE 7. The power circuit of scalar control of BLDC motor.

are reduced [44], [45]. The motor drive systems are classified
as (i) Radially housing mounted, (ii) Radially stator iron
Combining all the relevant equations, the system in state- mounted, (iii) Axially housing mounted, (iv) Axially stator
space equation becomes, iron mounted. The integrated motor drive figure is depicted
in Fig. 8.
x = Ax + Bu + Ce (12) While reviewing the types and structure of BLDC motors,
Were, various technical challenges that need to be considered while
designing and constructing BLDC motors are discussed.
x = ia ib ic ωm θr
 
(13)
R
 
0 0 −λm fas (θr ) 0 A. REDUCED MASS
 −L − M
 R  The designed motor should have less weight. The designed
0 − 0 −λm fbs (θr ) 0 motor may be used for various applications such as traction,
 
L−M

pumping, household, etc. Depending on the purpose, the
 
 R 
A= 0 0 − −λm fcs (θr ) 0 designed motor weight may vary but a motor with less weight
 L−M 
B can be used for various applications. Reduced mass is much
 
 λm fas (θr ) λm fbs (θr ) λm fcs (θr ) − 0
 
 J  related to reducing volume. For applications such as hand
 P  tools, the motor used requires high power and reduced vol-
0 0 0 0
2 ume. Hence, the designed motor should be of small size [46].
(14)
 1 
B. HIGH EFFICIENCY
0 0 0
 L−M  The main purpose of migrating from a conventional motor
 1 
 0 0 0  system (i.e., induction motor) to a BLDC motor is for improv-
L−M
 
B=  1

 (15) ing the competence of the system. This is achieved by design-
 0 0 0  ing a motor with less torque ripple, improved flux linkage,
 L−M 
 1  and thermal stability of the system [64].
0 0 0
L− M

1 C. LOW COST
 −L − M 0 0  Usually BLDC motors run with motor drives. These drives
 1 
may be integrated or kept separately. Motors and motor drives
C = 0 − 0 (16)
 
are usually very high in cost. Keeping a drive separately may

 L−M 
 1  increase the installation cost using wiring cables, individual
0 0 −
L−M wiring, etc., Cost reduction in motor design is done using
The BLDC motor operates with Quasi-sinusoidal phase various component materials while manufacturing [47].
current and trapezoidal back EMF provided by the rotor
switching table from Table 6. D. IMPROVED FAULT TOLERANCE
Fig. 7 depicts the power circuit for the scalar control of the While designing a BLDC motor, it is very much necessary
BLDC motor [43]. The power switches (T1 to T6 ) are IGBT to detect the rotor position for providing the commutation
devices and are controlled by PWM signals (Sa , Sb , Sc ). in power switches. These rotor position detectors are hall
With the above setup, the BLDC motor can also be clubbed sensors, speed sensors, stator flux coils, etc. In heavy appli-
together in the future. Hence the motor transmission losses cations such as electrical vehicle tractions, it is very difficult

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TABLE 6. Switching operation for scalar control of BLDC motor.

to continue the operation if there is any fault in the rotor global standards of BLDC motors are reviewed in the next
position sensors. Hence, it is very necessary to improve the section.
fault tolerance of the motor [48].
III. STANDARDS AND APPLICATIONS
E. IMPROVED THERMAL STABILITY A. STANDARDS
Technologies must be developed which is very useful in The efficiency of the system is one of the key factors to
improving the thermal stability of the system. Thermal sta- improve the feasibility of a product.
bility can be improved by using winding materials with less Standards of efficiency for motors are set and given by
resistance, stator core with high flux linkage, and interior governing bodies of that particular region such as the Inter-
permanent magnet with high flux linkage. In certain cases, national Electro-technical Commission (IEC) in Europe and
the thermal stability can also be improved by improving the the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
cooling system. In some static scenarios, motor drive systems in the United States of America. Present IEC motor standards
are integrated with motors which may lead the motor to have four levels [50].
operate in high temperatures. Hence, proper cooling must be These IEC 60034-30-1 efficiency classes are categorized
provided to the system [49]. into four are the following
1. IE1 (standard efficiency)
F. LESS NOISE 2. IE2 (high efficiency)
The acoustic noise generation in BLDC motor is due to the 3. IE3 (premium efficiency)
electromagnetic forces, structural design, and odd harmonics 4. IE4 (super premium efficiency)
development in the motor windings. A good BLDC machine The Standard given to the motor defines the efficiency of
has fewer acoustic noises developed. This can be reduced by either a 50 Hz or a 60 Hz motor drive with a single-phase
skewing rotor and stator slots incorrect angles, and commu- winding or three-phase windings built with the BLDC motor
tating power switch at the correct instant [50]. drive with an output power higher than 120W [52].
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) of
G. HIGH VIBRATION the United States of America has provided the guidelines for
In the general case, whenever a motor is operated by drives motor efficiency standards. The standards are classified as,
there will be the generation of common-mode voltages in the 1. Old Standard Efficiency Motor
cable which connects drive and motor and bearing currents in 2. Prior NEMA EE
the yoke of the motor. This leads to frosting, spark tracks on 3. NEMA Energy
the bearing. Hence, the motor also experiences more vibra- 4. NEMA Premium
tion. This can be reduced by the proper grounding of devices Like the International Electro-technical Commission stan-
using dv/dt filters, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) dards, the NEMA requirements for efficiency also increase
filters [50]. with higher output power. For most of the standards, the
assumptions are made in such a way that each motor drive
H. REDUCTION IN POWER ELECTRONICS COST is manufactured and optimized for a specific application with
Usage of power electronics drives in industry or household different sectors as shown in Fig. 9. In this section, we are
purposes may lead to an increase in the overall expense of the reviewing the various standards of BLDC motors in various
system. These motor drives may be integrated with motors or applications [53].
kept separated. The cost reduction depends on major factors Both inner and outer rotor-based BLDC motors are used in
such as materials, manufacturing process, standardization, diverse applications due to their advantages of high torque-
and modularization [51]. Owing to the various challenges and weight ratio, compact size, etc. However, depending upon the
state of art of BLDC motors, the various applications and required speed of less than 500rpm, 501 to 2000 rpm, 2001 to

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FIGURE 9. Applications of BLDC motors in diverse sector.

10000rpm, and above 1000rpm, the BLDC motor types are comforting systems, etc., [55]. Table 7 shows a comparison
selected for specific applications. of several electric vehicles and their power rating and power
train drive type, operating voltage, power, and battery used
B. ELECTRIC VEHICLE across the world.
By exploring several countries and their development in Increased fault tolerance capability, reduced EMI and
electric vehicle transformation, during the first half of the reduced torque and flux ripples increase the reliability of the
decade, electric vehicle sales were soaring. By now more than BLDC motor in the EV application. In electric vehicles, the
10 million electric vehicles are on the road. In this 47% of the conducted emission sources are characterized in a particular
vehicles are only from China. Similarly in several countries, frequency which leads to distortion of the system. In [56]
more than 1% of its market share is contributed towards the EMI sources which are spread through cables, and their
electric vehicles. BLDC motors are preferred for lightweight mitigation method are discussed. Power cables generate more
electric vehicles. Especially BLDC hub motors are used in EMI due to conductive sources and mismatching frequencies.
electric scooters due to the advantage of retrofitting. BLDC These EMI are mitigated by predicting distributed element
hub motors are driven using both sensor and sensor-less parameters at the resonant frequency of the system. This
motor controllers. In [54] using hub motors in lightweight improves the reliability of BLDC motor systems. Similarly,
electric vehicles improves the Back EMF by 3%. The main improving fault tolerance capability also increases the relia-
disadvantage of using hub motors is (i) increases the weight bility of the system. In [57] a time-efficient fault detection
at the power-driven side which decreases the vehicle sta- algorithm for BLDC, motors in electric vehicles applications
bility, (ii) Delivering uniform torque is too difficult and are discussed. When BLDC motors are subjected to fault
(iii) Mechanical stress experienced by hub motors is more conditions, the speed of the machine fluctuates instead of
compared to normal BLDC motor. IE-2, IE-3, or IE-4 effi- being constant, the back EMF of the machine also varies,
ciency standards-based BLDC motors are used in EVs. and change in phase sequence leads to stator faults. Thus, the
Fig. 10 shows the BLDC hub motor structure and its subparts. fault conditions are detected. The efficient FTC is performed
The motor controller specifications are not standardized till by model-based techniques which are discussed in detail in
now, several manufacturers produce two-wheeler electric a further section. Torque ripples in BLDC motors in EV
vehicles of their customized standards such as operating volt- applications effects shaft failures, increased vibrations, and
age 24 V and 48 V battery power from 40Ah-100Ah, motor acoustic noises. In [58] torque ripples and flux ripples are
power till 6 kW. BLDC motors are not only preferred for reduced by using the DTC algorithm which reduces stator
power transmission in electric vehicles. We can use BLDC iron losses using compensation and improves torque per
motors for applications such as turbochargers, blowers, seat ampere of the machine.

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TABLE 7. BLDC motor specifications for EVs in different ranges from India, China, the U.K., and the USA.

FIGURE 10. (a) Hub motor structure. (b) Stator winding Connection. (c) Tire rim. (d) Without stator winding. (e) Motor rear cover.

In the future, multi-motor concepts are given special algorithm which benefits in the reduction of torque ripple and
importance in electric vehicle applications. Hence, the BLDC acoustic noises.
motor-driven electric vehicles with four motors at each wheel Hence, EVs of multi motoring concept drive with huge
are discussed in this paper. The advantages and disadvantages noise. Acoustic noises are reduced by using a vector control
of multi-motor concepts are also discussed. In [59] electric algorithm. In multi motor-driven EVs, Regenerative braking
cars are driven using four hub wheel motors is discussed. affects more energy storage compared to single motor-driven
Driving hub motor at low speed increases the acoustic noises. EVs. In [60] the e-differential technique will be based on
Hence, EVs of multi motoring concept drive with huge Ackerman-Jeantaud geometry. Fig. 11. depicts the block dia-
noise. Acoustic noises are reduced by using a vector control gram of electrical differential for a multidrive system.

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FIGURE 12. Submersible pump motor model.

FIGURE 11. Block diagram of electrical differential for electric vehicle.

a semi-modular rotor means one rotor module is kept fixed at

C. WATER PUMPING one end and the other rotor module is kept floating in the other
BLDC motors are preferred for pumping applications due end. The dual-stack stator helps in increasing the flux density
to their nature of saving energy. The standards are preferred and decreasing the current density to obtain the constant
depending upon the power ranges. IE-1 is preferred for low- torque outputs. For controlling the cogging torque develop-
power pumping applications. IE-2 and IE-3 are preferred ment, the designed rotor magnets are skewed to a certain
for mid and high-power applications. For efficient usage, angle. Various parameters are to be considered while design-
these BLDC motors are integrated with renewable energy ing a submersible motor such as (i) selection of rotor magnet
sources such as solar energy. In [61] a water pumping system heights, (ii) selection of rotor outer radius, (iii) selection of
electrified using a photovoltaic system is employed. To obtain the slot-pole combination. Submersible motor-driven using
the maximum amount of energy from the solar board. Zeta induction motor makes the system rugged and efficiency
converter, maximum power point tracking is engaged. These is less. Hence, submersible motor-driven using a brushless
applications are tested for various dynamic conditions. Since direct current motor is preferred for reducing the torque ripple
the converter is operated in continuous current mode, vari- of the BLDC motor.
ous stresses in switches are reduced on its components. The
MPPT (maximum power point tracking) is designed using D. DRONE
a PI controller in such a way that it avoids perturbation in The Drone (unmanned aerial vehicles) operation character-
the systems. On driving through solar panels, torque ripples istics are suitable for BLDC motor type single rotor and
are reduced by maintaining the solar output voltage constant. multirotor models as shown in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14. The
In [62] a pumping system, electrified using solar power is flight of drones may operate manually, auto-pilot assistance,
discussed. When solar power is not used for water pumping, and autonomous aircraft. These drones need thrust to flow
excessive power is connected to the grid for the utilization of in the air. Hence, we use electric motors for developing
people. thrust in the air, especially BLDC motors are used. Mostly
The motor is operated through a three-phase drive and IE-2 standard micropower BLDC motors are preferred for
is connected to a single-phase grid. To control the voltage drone application. The main challenge in drones is to main-
source inverter in both directions (supply-side and grid side), tain constant torque in the BLDC motor to maintain high
a single phase-phase locked loop control is used. In addition thrust at the base and fault tolerance capability for improv-
to this in [63], the power flow control in the grid is discussed. ing continuity in operations. In [67] BLDC motor behav-
The power flow control is done using a boost converter. ior is analyzed in a time-domain function drone. A signal
In [64] a method of controlling solar panels without a DC-DC based on chaos using the density of maxima algorithm is
converter is discussed in solar water pumping applications. used to improve the performance of the drone instead of
A diode is connected in series to avoid the reverse flow a fast Fourier transform. BLDC motor exhibited extremely
of current. The MPPT is controlled using the voltages and good characteristics in the proposed algorithm of drones. For
current obtained from the motor side. The motor signals are improving drone stability, the calculations are made simple.
converted as the desired signal for MPPT using a saw-tooth In [68] FOC-controlled motor drive for drone algorithm is
converter. Hence, using the BLDC motor in water pumping discussed. And FOC-controlled drone provides less torque
applications not only increases efficiency but also helps in the and flux ripple compared to scalar control techniques, when
efficient cost of productivity. Fig. 12. represents the motor a Fourier transform function uses vector control technique
model of the BLDC motor used in a water pump application. the computation intricacy of the machine is reduced. And
In [65], [66] the design of a submersible motor powered the response of the drone is too efficient and the drone runs
by photovoltaic cells is discussed. The designed motor con- for more hours. In [69] the drone characteristic is improvised
sists of a semi-modular dual-stack. In a dual-stack rotor, by using a Halbach array-based BLDC motor and response

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FIGURE 13. (a) Many Single rotors in a drone. (b) Single rotor motor model. (c) Volume size of motor. (d) Motor internal parts. (e) Motor
mounting.

FIGURE 14. (a) Multirotor front view. (b) Multirotor drone model. (c) Multirotor view. (d) Multirotor internal part.

surface method. The Usage of Halbach array magnets and of BLDC motor is affected in industry and torque ripple
response face method reduces the losses of BLDC motors and effects are reviewed. In [70] a sensor less control algorithm
improves the power characteristics. for BLDC motor for reciprocating compressors is discussed.
The peak current magnitude causes the demagnetization of
E. INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS permanent magnets in the rotor. These demagnetization cur-
In Industry, BLDC motors are preferred for various applica- rents are measured. The control algorithm is designed that
tions such as automation robots, hoists, elevators, conveyor commutation depends on the level of phase currents. The
belts, and CNC machines. Since BLDC motor has the advan- proposed technique improves the power and torque charac-
tage of providing fine torque in static applications without teristics. In [71] scalar controlled BLDC motors for industrial
any ripples in torque compared to other motors these BLDC applications are discussed. The realization of PWM signals
motors are preferred a lot. Inherent to the above advantages in the motor controller is done with help of input and output
BLDC motor provides less inertia, high torque, and extensive ports in the microcontroller.
operating speed. This simplifies the operation and improves the stability
The main challenges of BLDC motors in the industry are of the operation. In [72] torque developed in BLDC motors
improving fault-tolerant capability, reducing EMI, and torque is reduced by model-based power control schemes. Active
and flux ripple control. In this section, how the reliability and reactive powers are used to control the torque of the

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The faults in a BLDC motor drive are classified into four

types - (i) power switch open-circuit, (ii) power switch short
circuit fault, (iii) DC-link capacitor short circuit fault, and
(iv) hall-sensor failure. FTC can be classified into four tech-
niques (1) replication FTC, (2) Failure oblivious computing
FTC, (3) Recovery shepherding FTC, and (4) circuit breaker
FTC. In BLDC motor drive systems replication FTC method
is implemented. Replication FTC is considered with provid-
ing numerous instances of the system and switching it into
one of the remaining instances in case of any failure in the
system. For efficient fault-tolerant control, a model-based
approach is mostly preferred. This model-based approach
FIGURE 15. BLDC motor end-user demand future analyze. works on the principle of state estimation where the math-
ematical model of the system is predicted and the cost func-
tion (CF) estimation is performed. When the estimated cost
function and threshold model are not similar. Fault code
BLDC machine. Torque is controlled by seven voltage vectors
(FC) is generated. Thus, the FTC algorithm is performed.
and flux is controlled by two voltage vectors which help in
Fig. 16 represents the basic block diagram of fault tolerance
efficient control.
control.
In BLDC, failure is considered with sensors
F. HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES out-performance in providing gate pulses. In [76] LRGF
Traditionally single-phase induction motors were preferred neural network scheme is implemented for fault diagnosis and
for household applications which led to more energy con- detecting faults are also discussed. The neural algorithm is
sumption. Hence, it is necessary to develop a motor sys- compared with the conventional motor drive algorithm, if any
tem with high energy efficiency and energy star require- fault is detected the adaptive control system will manifest
ment. Energy star deals with power reduction, robustness, a certain signal as output. Using these signals, the incipient
and high performance. BLDC motors are used to save power fault of the system is calculated using the incipient threshold
in many household applications such as washing machines, and tolerance time. The neural network used in this system
water pumping, fan, air conditioner. These motors provide detects faults such as voltage leaks in drivers, mechanical and
a good power factor as these motors run with help of electrical faults of the system can also be detected. In [77] the
a motor controller. In [73] inverter module is developed failure of the hall-effect sensor in aerospace BLDC motors is
using silicon-controlled rectifiers. Using silicon-controlled analyzed. The analysis includes tests such as performance
rectifiers reduces the cost by 30 percent. In [74] space inspection, visual inspection, x-ray inspection. These tests
vector-based commutation is used for Fan application. Using are done to check the corrosion content in the corresponding
SVPWM decreases the acoustic noise developed in the sensor. The validation of the hall sensors after the corrosion
machine. In [75] a digital control-based BLDC motor drive is is also discussed.
discussed. The main advantage of digital control is improv- The ultimate need for fault tolerance diagnosis is also
ing the response of the drive. The developed torque is also shown in [77]. In [78] a direct redundant FTC for the
reduced. three-phase brushless direct current motor is discussed. The
Fig.15. depicts the end-user demand of BLDC motor on various instant at which gate pulses are generated are shown
particular applications. From 2022 to 2028, it is analyzed that and these instants are compared with the generation of
BLDC motors will be used mostly in consumer electronics, gate pulse generation with fault. Direct redundant control is
automotive, and industrial applications. Motors from 500- achieved by using two hall sensor modules parallelly. The
10000 RPM are preferred a lot. Inner rotor motors are mostly algorithm is designed in such a way that when one hall
preferred to outer rotor motors. While reviewing the various sensor is faulted. The output generated from other hall sensor
applications of BLDC motors, the most challenging part is modules is automatically chosen. The method of producing
improving the fault-tolerant capability, reducing the torque fault in gate pulse generation is also discussed. In [79] a
ripples, and reducing the EMI. In the upcoming section, method is used to detect the stator inter-turn fault in the BLDC
reliability control techniques and torque ripple mitigation motor. With help of stator inter currents during normal con-
techniques based on BLDC motor applications are reviewed. ditions is compared with the stator inter currents during fault
conditions, the difference is converted as the energy spend.
IV. RELIABILITY CONTROL TECHNIQUES This parameter is compared with a threshold for fault detec-
A. FAULT-TOLERANCE CONTROL tion. Since this process should be expeditious wavelet speed
Fault tolerance control (FTC) is a censorious process that is controller is used. In [80] simultaneous faults are taken into
ultimately needed for complicated applications such as elec- account. Simultaneous faults are classified into four types and
trical vehicles, robotics, and certain dynamic applications. hall sensor faults are classified into six types to attain fast FTC

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FIGURE 16. Fault-tolerant control technique.

TABLE 8. Fault diagnosis technology comparative analysis.

the time transition for each hall sensor is calculated accu- and FTC is discussed. The EMI is controlled by using stray
rately and the degree of rotation is also taken into account. capacitance between cables and the ground plate. FTC is
When a mismatch is encountered between threshold time achieved by ten legs and five modules topology. The FTC
and real-time signal generation, reconstructed signals are capability is investigated using the meantime failure analysis.
generated automatically. In [81] FTC for multiphase motors The various fault and techniques are compared in Table 8.
is discussed. The main purpose of using multiphase motors
is to achieve high torque and power density. FTC is achieved
by controlling the faulty phase currents with the healthy phase B. ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE CONTROL
currents. In [82] the FTC is achieved by an additional phase Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI) is defined as electro-
leg and fault protective circuits. When there is the detection magnetic signals which interfere with electrical equipment
of open-circuit faults in both buck converter and inverter such as motor, variable frequency drives, power converters,
region, FTC is achieved by choosing the redundant switch etc., EMI is an undesirable disturbance to an electric circuit.
present in between inverter and motor. In [84] FTC three- EMI affects machine performance, efficiency, etc., EMI can
phase BLDC motor is discussed. FTC is achieved by using be classified into (i) radiated EMI and (ii) conductive EMI.
a modular architecture where three individual control loops Fig. 17. represents the basic block diagram of the electro-
which regulate the phase current for each phase gate pulse. magnetic interference algorithm [86]. Conductive EMI is the
The errors are regulated by PI controllers. In [85] a BLDC electromagnetic interference between the source and victim
motor drive system that has less electromagnetic interference which is caused through conductors and Radiative EMI is

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FIGURE 17. Electromagnetic interference control.

the electromagnetic interference between the source and then signals makes the control algorithm complex (ii) the parame-
victim caused through a wireless medium [87]. ter designing complexity increases. In [93] to reduce the EMI
Conducted EMI is found to occur at lower frequencies. It is content wait-free phase continuous carrier frequency modula-
further classified as differential mode and common mode. tion technique is used. WPCFM and digital synthesizer theory
Common mode EMI source is found to be at high source and is combined to obtain a fast response and effective EMI con-
low impedance. Differential mode EMI is caused by pulsating trol. In [91] spectrum modulation technique is used to control
currents. the EMI content. The spectrum modulation techniques reduce
Techniques used to mitigate EMI are classified as follows: the EMI to 5-10dB.
1. EMI filter and shielding
2. Random modulation
3) CHAOTIC PWM
3. Chaotic PWM
The pulses for various power switches in the inverter are
developed using various PWM techniques. This technique
1) EMI FILTERS AND SHIELDING
not only reduces the torque ripple of the machine, but it also
EMI filters are used to reduce the interference in transmission owes to reducing various losses and improving the reliability
lines and power cables. EMI filters provide high input resis- of the converter. The development of EMI is also reduced.
tance to control the frequency content. The main objective of In [92] complementary PWM technique is used to mitigate
the EMI filter reduces the interference between other elec- the electromagnetic emissions in a three-phase inverter. The
tronic devices. EMI filters are further classified as (i) Active common-mode emissions are controlled by the bipolar PWM
filters, (ii) Passive filters, and (iii) Hybrid filters. LISN is technique. Thus, owing to a reduction in EMI. The various
used to stabilize the impedance present in the circuit and pure EMI techniques and their suppression levels are compared in
power without EMI content. Table 9.
In [88] an organized EMI filter was designed to separate
the unwanted noise in a three-phase inverter. The noise level
was reduced to 40dB µV. In [89] Angle modulated switch- C. ACOUSTIC NOISE CONTROL
ing strategy is used to control the EMI in a BLDC motor Acoustic noise control for motor drive systems is one of
drive. The advantage of using this scheme to reduce the the most researched topics by scholars [96]. Only a few
EMI filter size to 50% and the noise level is suppressed to papers are discussed for BLDC motors. Acoustic noise is
10dB µV. In [90] passive filters are designed to control the caused due to many reasons. The major reasons are (i) Torque
EMI generated by the machine. The inductor and capacitor ripple generation (ii) electromagnetic fluctuation (iii) non-
are connected parallel and controls the dv/dt and di/dt spikes ideal spatial distribution of flux density between rotor per-
in the circuit. The stages of LC are increased depending upon manent magnet and the stator slot openings (iv) generation
the dv/dt and di/dt changes. of the harmonic component due to non-ideal distortion of
radial flux. The intricacy in the algorithm increases with
2) RANDOM MODULATION controlling electromagnetic fluctuation and torque ripple of
In random modulation, the switching frequency is varied the BLDC machine. These acoustic noises and vibrations
depending upon the given random signals. Whenever opti- affect increasing EMI content and bearing current generation.
mal switching frequency is given to the power switch. The generation of bearing is one of the most important topics
The unwanted power losses generated are reduced. The which many researchers focus to mitigate. Bearing current
disadvantages of this technique are (i) computing random generation leads to motor bearing lock [97].

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TABLE 9. Comparison of EMI Control technique and its suppression level.

FIGURE 18. Source of acoustic noise.

The acoustic noise generation depends on various sources permanent magnet is measured instantaneously on various
such as mechanical noise, noises developed due to efficient load conditions and analyzed various remedy actions to
designing, electromagnetic fluctuation, poor alignment, and reduce the acoustic noise developed. The effective method
aerodynamics of the machine. Fig. 18 depicts the various was found to be using slotted stator slots and an embedded
sources of acoustic noises and the transmission path of the permanent magnet rotor. In [100] optimized pole magnetic
system. strategy is used to control the field harmonics and analyzed
One of the most difficult operations in acoustic noise con- the origin of the acoustic noise issue. In [101] the torque
trol is analyzing the root cause of the issue and measuring and flux ripples are predicted as stator currents. In sinu-
the amount of noise generated [98]. The amount of noise soidal commutated BLDC motors, due to field weakening
generated is measured using a microphone and accelerom- radial forces developed are reduced. To optimize this issue,
eter integrated with embedded controllers Fig. 19 depicts a moving band technique with special quadrilateral elements
the block diagram of the methodology used to analyze the is used.
acoustic noise issue. During the analysis, it was found that the developed tech-
Many researchers have discussed several topologies to nique reduces acoustic noises by 30%. In [102] the third
reduce acoustic noise for BLDC motors both in design harmonic component in air gap flux density is eliminated. The
and motor-drive system control algorithm topology. In [99] third harmonic component is managed by forming optical
the field distribution in between the air gap region of the notches in the rotor. Using notches in the rotor reduces the air

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FIGURE 19. Acoustic noise control.

gap in the BLDC motor which helps in reducing the acoustic

noise developed by the motor. In [103] the acoustic noise
developed is reduced by using a voltage regulation circuit for
a single-phase BLDC machine which is used for fan appli-
cation. Fans generate more noise due to their aerodynamic
design and the humming noise also increases with variation in
speeds. The designed voltage regulator consists of an inductor
connected parallel to the series resistance and the capacitor
element. The developed technique reduced 16.1% of devel-
oped acoustic noises compared to conventional techniques.
FIGURE 20. Phase current and Back EMF waveforms.
In [104] the acoustic noise development is analyzed by
using a novel digital PWM technique. The digital PWM is
developed for a scalar-controlled BLDC motor drive sys-
tem. The odd-order harmonics are reduced. The developed
technique reduces the noise content to 15-30dB. In [105] a
sinusoidal BLDC machine is designed to control the acoustic
noises in machine. Using this method, the electromagnetic
fluctuation is controlled. While analyzing various acoustic
noise control techniques, it found that on loaded condition
increase in toque ripple improves the acoustic noise genera-
tion six times. Reduced torque ripple and flux ripple reduce
the acoustic noise generated in BLDC machines.
FIGURE 21. Phase current and Back EMF waveforms.
V. TORQUE RIPPLE MITIGATION
A. SOURCES OF TORQUE RIPPLE
3) CONTROL OF MOTOR
Torque ripples are developed due to several reasons [106].
Torque ripples are developed from motor control through
Various sources for the development of torque ripple are
inefficient commutation strategies and internal gate control
discussed below and shown in Fig. 22.
schemes.
Ideally, the torque ripple is constant due to the in-phase
1) STRUCTURE OF MOTOR back EMF and quasi square wave stator current. But prac-
The structure of the motor depends on various factors such tically this is not possible due to the nonzero inductance of
as power, speed, loading perspective, etc., these structure- the stator winding which leads to the development of torque
based factors are constrained with reasons such as airgap, flux ripple. The following graphs represent the effect of phase
linkage, non-sinusoidal back-EMF. currents on torque waveforms.
Fig. 20 shows that the incoming current in phase B reaches
2) NATURE OF MOTOR a steady-state before current phase A reaches zero. Torque
The motor nature depends on the various materials that we ripple is due to the commutation of motor current. tr and tf
have used during the construction process. Hence, pick- are the rise time and fall time respectively.
ing the correct material is very important. The main fac- The outgoing current in phase A becomes zero before the
tors are Cogging torque, Reluctance torque, Electromagnetic current in phase B reaches a steady state as shown in Fig. 21.
torque. Torque dip is due to the commutation of motor current.

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FIGURE 22. Sources of torque ripple in BLDC motor.

implementation of such a system, the researcher has

used a digital signal controller using a microcontroller
(STM32F407). In this technique the rotor positions are
obtained by implementing the encoders, after inserting the
rotor, the encoder pre-set details are reset, and then for high
hold on torque, the duty cycles of PWM signals are increased.
Thus, the step bugging operation is achieved. In [107],
a comparative study of FOC schemes and DTC schemes for
five-phase permanent magnet motor is discussed. Five phase
permanent magnet motors are in use as they have reduced
FIGURE 23. Phase current and back EMF waveforms.
torque harmonic content compared to three-phase permanent
magnet motors. The stator flux orientation control is imple-
mented by obtaining the relative position d-axis and q-axis of
The slope of outgoing current in phase A becomes equal stator and rotor teeth. The development of the dq-axis in the
to the slope of incoming current in phase B. At this commu- stator is very important for implementing vector control.
tation, instant torque remains constant and is represented in In [108], FOC control for a BLDC machine is discussed.
Fig. 23. Cogging torque profile is suitably included in q-axis current
reference, which must be then precisely tracked to mitigate
a: TECHNIQUES OF TORQUE RIPPLE MITIGATION torque ripple and speed ripple caused by cogging torque.
In recent years many types of research have been done This technique is also used to mitigate acoustic noise and
in torque ripple mitigation in BLDC motors which mainly vibration. Therefore, the dynamic equations are obtained
include (i) Field orientation control technique, (ii) Direct using two-pole electrical machines, and then these equations
torque control technique, (iii) Current shaping techniques, are converted to two-coordinate system by realizing them
(iv) Controlling input voltage, (v) Intelligent control, and with a reference locking with d-axis waveforms. In [109],
(vi) Drive-inverter topology the FOC control system for the BLDC motor is discussed.
FOC control technique to drive BLDC motor-based compen-
B. FIELD ORIENTATION CONTROL TECHNIQUE sation torque ripple. By mismatching, the non-trapezoidal
One of the ancient techniques for torque ripple mitigation is back EMF and stator current the torque fluctuation can be
FOC. Fig. 24 depicts the block diagram of the FOC control controlled by an active and reactive power control loop.
algorithm of the BLDC motor. In a permanent magnet motor, Implemented two vector control finite control set model pro-
the desirable output is obtained when the rotor and stator flux vides good steady-state and fast torque response.
linkages are 90◦ .
In FOC, the feedbacks are obtained as voltage and cur- C. DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL TECHNIQUE
rent vectors. The development of space vector pulse width In the direct torque control technique, the variables relating to
modulation schemes led many researchers in the develop- the flux linkage and torque are used to select the voltage vec-
ment of the latest inventions in FOC. The stator currents are tors. These details are processed and the errors are obtained.
mostly characterized as (1) Torque and (2) Flux. In [106] These errors with further reference signals are processed in
the difficulties of inserting rotor at correct angles in a a hysteresis controller. Using DTC, the torque is controlled
permanent magnet motor is discussed elaborately. For the by controlling the flux of the system. DTC technique is

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FIGURE 24. Field orientation control of BLDC motor.

FIGURE 25. Direct torque control of BLDC motor.

mostly preferred as it can verify its control schemes and is reduced by integrating the CSFTC-DTC scheme with a
is easier to operate. Fig. 25. depicts the block diagram of neutral point clamped multilevel inverter. The CSFTC main-
the DTC technique of the BLDC motor. In [110], [111], tains the switching frequency constant. However, the pro-
a DTC scheme with an active null vector control strategy posed technique reduces the output torque but the strategy
is discussed elaborately. In the proposed strategy the signs used for controlling is very complex.
of error are determined by the two-level flux and torque
hysteresis comparator. Here the torque slopes, the switching D. CURRENT SHAPING TECHNIQUE
time is calculated with the above inputs, and the torque of the The current shaping technique refers to dodging the gate
motor can be estimated. This scheme has the advantage of pulse generation in power switches of VSI when an abnor-
comparing torque and flux responses of various vectors. mal event such as overcurrent, speed up, and overloading is
Twelve-step direct torque control is introduced to control detected. Fig. 26. depicts the block diagram of the current
the vectors with help of a five-level hysteresis controller. shaping technique of the BLDC motor. Generally, the steps
In the proposed scheme the vectors are divided into twelve followed by this scheme are sensing high current, recognizing
sectors which means for every thirty degrees of rotation, overcurrent events, turning off logic, and re-enabling action
the current and voltage parameter is uploaded to the con- for high current detection. In [114], a technique where the
troller [112]. It has been discussed clearly that torque rip- torque ripples are reduced by using the small capacitors is
ples can be mitigated by maintaining constant current and discussed. The charging and discharging of the capacitor may
varying the frequency from low to high by using the DTC return high voltage to the input system which might damage
technique. Stator fluxes are controlled by using hysteresis the drive system. A new turn-off logic scheme is introduced
controllers. In [113], the Torque ripple of the induction motor which would not affect the power switches.

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auto-calibrating the phase shift. The dc bus details are

obtained for processing these details to the controller.

E. CONTROLLING INPUT VOLTAGE

BLDC motors are used in several applications as they have
high torque to speed ratio, high efficiency, fast dynamic
response, lesser maintenance, etc., Fig. 27 depicts the control
diagram of input voltage controlling technique of torque rip-
ple mitigation of BLDC motor. The special features are trape-
zoidal back EMF and quasi square wave fed phase current.
Torque ripples are generated when there is in-equivalency
predicted between back EMF and quasi square wave fed
FIGURE 26. Current shaping technique of BLDC motor.
phase current. In this phase, we are going to investigate a tech-
nique for controlling torque ripple by controlling the input
voltage. This scheme for controlling the input voltage has
been investigated by several researchers. Controlling ways of
Changing the turn-off logic means keeping one switch the input voltage can be categorized as PWM schemes and
down during the current limit. In [115], current hystere- varying dc-link voltage. Usually, torque ripple is caused by
sis control to control the BLDC motor current directly is the commutation of power switches. This commutation can
discussed in detail. In addition, a novel transition control be controlled using the PWM scheme. In [118], a neoteric
method is also discussed. The non-commutation phase should method for reducing torque ripple during both conduction
be constant during commutation interval for proper current and commutation through a closed-loop operation using a
hysteresis control. The outgoing phase current should reduce PWM scheme with buck converter is discussed elaborately.
as quickly as possible. The sum of the absolute value of The PWM schemes are categorized into two steps, firstly con-
the incoming phase and outgoing phase current should be trolling the commutation using PWM schemes and secondly
constant. by using buck converter which converts vin to vout .
By implementing this technique, the switching losses can In [119], a novel PWM scheme using a bootstrap circuit
be reduced. In [116], torque ripple mitigation using one cycle is discussed. The conventional six-step inverter is integrated
control is discussed in detail. This technique explains a new with a bootstrap circuit and a new PWM driving scheme
topology where back EMF and rotor position information is is introduced. The theoretical results are convincing with
neglected. One cycle control means each switch is operating the performance. In [120], the various PWM schemes are
for one-third of the fundamental cycle which means it is analyzed. Compared to conventional PWM schemes, digital
turned on for sixty electrical degrees and operating in PWM PWM is economic and more effective proved by experimental
for the next sixty electrical degrees. Even order harmonics results. In [121], a method for reducing torque ripple is inves-
are also reduced using this scheme. In [117], torque rip- tigated using the technique of varying input voltage. In this
ple is reduced by finding the correct commutation point by technique, the diode of the upcoming phase power switch

FIGURE 27. Controlling input voltage of BLDC motor.

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FIGURE 28. Intelligent controller of BLDC motor.

FIGURE 29. Drive inverter topological control of BLDC motor.

will switch on during the commutation of the outgoing phase the gate pulse generating algorithm of the conventional sys-
switch. This may improve the speed of ripples. To reduce tem. Using this strategy, a new method is observed and gate
it, the outgoing phase switch is kept on even after the phase pulse is generated. The output of the concerned technique
outgoes. In [122], converter topology for both modified sin- contains fewer torque ripples.
gle end primary inductance converter and three-level neutral
point clamped multilevel inverter is integrated and investi- G. DRIVE INVERTER TOPOLOGY
gated in detail. These integrated topologies give good results Z-source inverters (ZSI) are single-stage power converters
compared to the previously discussed topologies. with voltage buck-boost capabilities. The z-source is placed
in between the voltage source and inverter to boost the
F. INTELLIGENT CONTROL voltage from the voltage source. The advancement in this
Controlling torque and flux without a controller is impossible. feature led to the development of quasi-Z-source, switched
Hence, a controller is necessary for every mitigation tech- inductor z-source, etc., Fig. 29. Depicts the block diagram of
nique Compared to the other techniques, implementing an drive inverter topology operated motor controller of BLDC
advanced controller has the advantage of analyzing several motor. In [128], a drive system integrated with quasi-Z-source
parameters. Conventional PI and PID controllers are used is discussed in detail. Since quasi-Z-source is meant for
in industries and several applications. Fig. 28. depicts the increasing the source voltage, a shutdown network is installed
block diagram of intelligent control technique of torque ripple in-between z-source and voltage source for controlling the
mitigation of BLDC motor. In [124], a fuzzy logic estimator output voltages. A new control system for space vector
is investigated to reduce the torque ripples. modulation is also discussed. The torque ripple mitigation
The function of this neural scheme concept-based con- is achieved by a hybrid topology of two processes predic-
troller is to regulate the commutation angle to maintain the tive control and voltage-based torque ripple mitigation. The
slew rates of the commutated phase while keeping the non- results are evidence that this technique has more advan-
commutating phase current constant. In this scheme, both tages than the conventional technique constant dc source.
the motor winding parameters and output parameters such [129] discusses the model and design of a permanent magnet
as torque are analyzed and a new commutation is gener- brushless dc motor which is fed by a Z source inverter.
ated. In [125], an integrated loss minimization control and a The paper discusses the limitations of permanent magnet
wavelet speed controller performance are discussed in detail. BLDC motor (PMBDCM) and explains about two techniques
The speed errors between actual and command speeds are to overcome the limitations of PMBDCM powered by fuel
given as input to the loss minimization controller. These cell, of which one technique is using Z-source inverter. The
outputs are processed using power processing units which paper discusses the advantages of Z source fed PMBDCM
helps us to reduce the torque ripples of the drive output. like higher efficiency, bucked/boosted voltage ability, and
In [126], a spider web-based algorithm integrated with a small feasibility of adjustable speed drive systems with motors like
capacitor for varying dc-link voltage is discussed in detail. PMBDCM.
The algorithm and feedback are compiled and used to The ZSI is coupled with PWM to get 120o square wave-
generate the switching sequences. In [127], the torque ripple forms which are said to be apt for the system.
of the BLDC motor is reduced by using a model predictive Various state-space models such as the impedance source
control algorithm the learning is done for varying speed and network and voltage source fed permanent magnet brushless

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TABLE 10. Comparison of various torque ripple mitigation techniques of BLDC motors.

dc motor are compared and the equivalent circuit of both voltage stresses were also minimized. In [131] discusses the
the systems are shown to bring in a comparative difference control methods of ZSI and compares voltage boost and
between the two systems. The simulation waveforms are also modulation index. The paper initially discusses the PWM
depicted which show that the system works like a VSI fed technique used in a 3 phase VSI whose gating sequence for
permanent magnet BLDC motor. After the first second when voltage boost can be applied to ZSI with a few modifications
the necessary boosted function is fed to the system, it displays in the shoot through. A few equations of voltage boost and
shoot through intervals, and the capacitor voltage is boosted voltage stress are shown and depicted and the comparisons
up to 400V. Along with this, the torque and rotor speed also are put forward using the equations. The simulation of maxi-
increases to their rated values. Two boost control methods for mum boost control shows that the voltage gain is the same for
a Z source inverter are shown in [130]. the same modulation index and increase modulation index.
The paper discusses the flaws of a normal voltage source The paper shows the two control methods used for extracting
inverter whose maximum boosted voltage cannot exceed the the maximum boosted voltage of the ZSI and also shows a
DC bus voltage. The system shows the design of boost con- clear study on the relationship between boosted voltage and
trol which gives maximum output value for any modulation modulation index.
index. To reduce the cost of the boost control, there should
be a constant shoot-through duty cycle or duty ratio which VI. CONTROL TECHNIQUES EQUATIONS AND
is shown in this paper for five different modulation curves. COMPARISON
A comparison of several control methods is conducted and The comparison of various torque ripple mitigation tech-
it is concluded that the maximum boost control for the ZSI niques of the BLDC motor is illustrated in Table 10. The
eliminated low-frequency ripples in the output frequency and above-mentioned topologies are mentioned and compared

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FIGURE 30. Control techniques mathematical equation.

in terms of the adopted technique, advantages, and disad- recommended for both scalar and vector control schemes.
vantages. The topological equations used to control various The simulation results proving the most efficient control
torque ripple mitigation techniques are depicted in Fig. 30. techniques and motor results are discussed in the upcoming
In a comparison of various torque ripple mitigation sections.
techniques dealt with control schemes, it is inferred that
controlling torque ripple at a wide speed range is too dif- VII. DESIGN PLATFORM FOR BLDC MOTOR
ficult. The input voltage-controlled technique is favorable The design and development of high-performance BLDC
with less computational intricacy, easy to implement, and motors for various applications are given in [136]. The tech-
provides good behavior for dynamic applications such as nology used to develop the design optimum balanced solution
electric vehicles, pumping applications, etc., Compared to the of various factors like cost, power density, torque density,
above-mentioned techniques, vector control techniques such max speed, efficiency, simplicity for ease in manufacturing,
as intelligent control, current shaping technique, DTC and etc., are discussed.
FOC provides good dynamic behavior on contrary to com- Designing of BLDC motor for light electric vehicle appli-
putational intricacy. Multi-level inverter topologies are also cations is carried out in this section. The 2 kW BLDC motor

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design, analysis, and optimization techniques are using the

following steps in Ansys software.
1. BLDC motor sizing
2. Motor architecture
3. Electromagnetics
• 2D simulation
• 3D simulation
4. Multiphysics simulations
• Thermal
FIGURE 31. Motor design models.
• Structural
• Modal
TABLE 11. BLDC motor geometry dimension.
• Computational fluid mechanics
5. Dyno testing

A. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC DESIGN
Selection of motor topology, slot-pole ratio, winding layout,
Stator, and rotor geometry [137].

B. THERMAL DESIGN
Selection winding class, Varnish type, potting material selec-
tion. Design of cooling jacket based on accurate boundary
conditions [138].

C. STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Analysing and optimizing stress concentration areas in vari-
ous motor components. Calculation of various safety factors
for structural components and improvising using geometry and Fig. 32 represents the procedures involved in designing
optimization [140]. BLDC motor.

D. NVH DESIGN E. INNER ROTOR

Model results simulation & Mode shapes validation at both The inner rotor BLDC motor inside is acting as rotor mag-
component and assembly levels. Iterating various Slot-pole net mounted and stator winding is connected outside. The
configurations to achieve an optimum natural frequency and advantage of the inner rotor magnet is its ability to dissipate
sound pressure levels [139]. heat, lower inertia ratio, and ability to produce force impacts
The motor sizing procedure starts from the drive duty cycle on heat [142]. The number of measurements was carried out
calculation based on vehicle speed rpm or motor speed. The both electrical and mechanical dimensions to fine-tune the
diameter of the wheel and the height of the tire calculate the data as shown in Table 11. The key dimensions to design both
motor speed. Here, the motor can be designed concerning inner and outer BLDC are stator outer diameter, stator inner
both the outer rotor and inner rotor for optimized geom- diameter, rotor outer diameter, rotor inner diameter, magnet
etry dimensions. The electromagnetic design was carried thickness, airgap, and slot. The magnetic flux distribution and
out 2D and 3D for analyzing all Multiphysics simulation flux line pattern are shown in Fig. 33. The static and dynamic
parameters for both inner and outer rotors. The material characteristics of the inner rotor are designed using Ansys
Neodymium ferrite boron selected for rotor high-cost rare FEA simulation for Multiphysics parameters. Maximum flux
earth magnet has high coercivity, high energy density, and distribution is 1.66T when the rotor rotates 0 to 360 degrees
high remanence [141]. measured in each position. The interaction between inner
The M19-29grade non-oriented silicon steel material lami- rotor rotation permanent magnet and stator slot coils results
nated in the stator side has a high energy density. The winding in maximum torque, rated torque, efficiency, core loss, power,
connected is whole coiled using Copper with minimum loss flux pattern with speed characteristics transient condition.
properties. The rotor position changes from the initial condition to
Motor width bottom, tooth width, back iron length, and attain the peak torque is 39 Nm. When the rotor position
slot depth the optimized geometry parameters are selected changes torque starts decreasing and at the rated speed it
using several iterations that include different dimensions to attains 16Nm.
get high performance, Multiphysics parameter simulation From speed vs power characteristics, speed is increas-
output for highly efficient and cost-effective prototype motor. ing linearly, and when it reaches rated speed 1000rpm it
Fig. 31 represents the various steps involved in designing reaches the maximum power of 2 kW. At very low speed the

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FIGURE 32. Motor design step by step procedure.

FIGURE 35. Outer rotor flux distribution and magnetic flux lines.

FIGURE 33. Inner rotor flux distribution and magnetic flux lines.
torque compared to the inner rotor. In the design aspect, the
outer rotor when compared to the inner rotor, the minimum
rated current or lower duty cycle occurs at rated speed. Max-
imum flux distribution is 1.86 Tesla when the rotor rotates
from 0 to 360 degrees measured in each position as shown
in Fig. 35 [143].
The optimized geometry simulation output waveform for
the outer rotor is shown in Fig. 39. The rotation of motor
rotor position is plotted between cogging torque and speed
characteristics.
The geometry parameters are optimized for the same
dimensions mentioned in Table 11. The interaction between
outer rotor rotation permanent magnet and stator slots coils
maximum torque, rated torque, efficiency, core loss, power,
flux pattern with speed characteristics transient conditions is
discussed in [144]. The outer rotor cogging torque vs rotor
FIGURE 34. Inner rotor cogging torque, torque, power, and efficiency.
rotation speed, and the outer rotor magnet cogging torque is
very low compared to inner rotor torque as shown in Fig. 36.
In output torque vs rotor position graph, at the initial rotor
efficiency starts to increase and it reaches a maximum of 88% start position, the torque reaches a maximum is 35 Nm. When
at 1800rpm. For rated speed 1500 rpm, efficiency is 82% and the rotor changes the initial position, speed starts to increase
core loss reduced maximum all are depicted in Fig. 34. as rated torque decreases, it reaches 14 Nm at a rated speed of
1000 rpm. In the output power vs rotor speed characteristics
F. OUTER ROTOR (HUB MOTOR) at a rated speed of 1000 rpm, the power reaches 1.75 kW.
The outer rotor or in wheel motor stator slot winding is In the efficiency vs rotor position speed, at rated 1000 rpm
connected inside and the rotor magnet is mounted outside. the efficiency reaches 88% and comparison results of main
The primary advantage of the hub motor is low cogging parameters are listed in Table 12.

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FIGURE 38. FOC fed torque and flux response at 1000 rpm.

FIGURE 36. Outer rotor cogging torque, torque, power, and efficiency.

TABLE 12. FEA simulation results BLDC 2 kW, 1000 rpm.

FIGURE 39. DTC fed torque and flux response at 500 rpm.

FIGURE 37. FOC fed Torque and flux response at 500 rpm.

VIII. CONTROL TECHNIQUES SIMULATION RESULTS

The simulation results of various control algorithms such
FIGURE 40. DTC fed torque and flux response at 1000 rpm.
as FOC, DTC, and intelligent control are verified using
MATLAB software and results are discussed as follows. The
speed parameters are varied to show the difference in results 1000 rpm respectively. The torque reference is maintained
obtained. as 15 Nm during the whole simulation.
The features of FOC, DTC, and Intelligent control tech- The Intelligent control strategy results are shown in
niques are compared. And found that intelligent control Fig. 41 and Fig. 42. BLDC flux, speed, and torque are
schemes are more efficient compared to other techniques. obtained at 500 rpm, and 1000 rpm respectively. The torque
In intelligent control schemes: (i) dq vector transformation reference is maintained as 15 Nm during the whole simula-
is obviated, (ii) No traditional PWM algorithms are applied, tion.
(iii) hysteresis controllers aren’t used as indirect torque con- Table 13, 14, 15 represent the results and discussion of
trol, and (iv) switching frequency is reduced compared to torque ripples, flux ripples, and current THD of FOC, DTC,
other control schemes. The FOC control strategy results and Intelligent control. The results are obtained as standard
are shown in Fig. 37 and Fig. 38. BLDC flux and torque deviation values. Thus, proving that the intelligent control
are obtained at 500 rpm, and 1000 rpm respectively. The technique is more efficient compared to other techniques.
torque reference is maintained as 15 Nm during the whole
simulation. IX. BLDC MOTOR HARDWARE RESULTS
The DTC control strategy results are shown in Fig. 39 and The hardware analysis, performance, and designing of the
Fig. 40. BLDC flux and torque are obtained at 500 rpm, and BLDC motor controller using vector control is done and

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TABLE 16. Motor controller parameters.

FIGURE 41. Intelligent control fed torque and flux response at 500 rpm.

FIGURE 42. Intelligent control fed Torque and flux response at 1000 rpm.

TABLE 13. Results of FOC.

FIGURE 43. Hardware BLDC hub type motor setup.

TABLE 14. Results of DTC.

TABLE 15. Results of intelligent control.

FIGURE 44. Vector switching states at low speed.

the results are verified with help of Altair embed software.

The parameters used for the field orientation control sim-
ulation are shown in Table 16. To optimize the output, the
proportional-integral controller parameters Kp are changed
from 0.04474 s to 0.015 ms and Ki to 0.04474 ms. These
Altair embed results are obtained during 500 and 1000 rpm
of the motor.
The proposed experiment hardware platform is shown in FIGURE 45. Vector switching states at high speed.

Fig. 43 which includes a BLDC motor, regulated power

supply, Altair embed software, mixed scale oscilloscope, and The vector switching states at various speed conditions are
DRV C2-H2 motor controller which uses TMS320F280 DSP shown in Fig. 44 and Fig. 45. From the above results, it is
as a microcontroller. This Altair embed software is an emu- inferred that the analyzed vector control technique produces
lator which can be used for coding various microcontrollers minimum vector switching state transition. And hence the
using visual simulation. operation happens with less switching frequency.

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TABLE 17. Hardware results of vector control.

algorithm. The values are obtained as standard deviation

values. In the upcoming sections, the future scopes of BLDC
motor researches are discussed from the result findings.
FIGURE 46. Phase current and line-line voltage waveform at medium
speed
X. FUTURE CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
A. LITERATURE WORK
The BLDC motor designing, and the analysis of BLDC motor
controllers are discussed in this paper. During the initial
stages, BLDC motors were controlled using scalar control
techniques. Nowadays researchers prefer vector control tech-
niques such as FOC, DTC, and intelligent control techniques
such as PSO optimization, MPC, etc., These techniques pro-
vide good response over various static and dynamic condi-
tions and produce less torque and flux ripples. These vector
control techniques increase the structural and computational
complexity which is realized that these vector control tech-
FIGURE 47. Phase current and line-line voltage waveform at High speed. niques are practically difficult [145].
Thus, nowadays researchers are trying to reduce these
complexities. Researchers are trying to reduce the gener-
ated torque and flux ripple generated in each vector control
technique such as controlling input voltage, current shaping
techniques, and drive inverter topology [146]. In controlling
the input voltage technique, researchers are trying to reduce
the torque ripples by reducing the spikes in DC-DC con-
verter output, and in the PWM-based technique, as well as
to use the space vector PWM technique with more vectors.
In the current shaping technique researchers are trying to
improve the response of the drive-by excluding the hystere-
FIGURE 48. Current THD and Voltage THD generation. sis controller. In the conventional drive inverter topology-
based research papers, 3L-neutral point clamped inverters are
controlled using the scalar control technique, and Z-source
The motor back EMF and phase current results are
inverters are used to reduce the torque ripples [147]. Nowa-
obtained from the analyzed vector control topology by chang-
days, researchers are trying to reduce the torque ripples of
ing the speed of the BLDC motor from 500 rpm and 1000 rpm
3L-NPC MLI by using MCPWM and SVPWM techniques
and shown in Fig. 47 and Fig. 48. From the obtained results,
for BLDC motors.
we can observe that the vector control technique provides
a good response. From the hardware results, we can infer
that during the change in speed the frequency of the switch- B. FUTURE TRENDS
ing operation is also varied. The current THD and volt- • The motor vibrations and torque ripple of the BLDC
age THD results of the analyzed vector control scheme are motor should be reduced significantly without obvious
shown in Fig. 52. Since the switching frequency of the pro- torque decline and reduction inefficiency.
posed operation is 15 kHz, the current THD and voltage • Reducing the cost of the BLDC motor using alternate
THD is observed at 15 kHz. The voltage THD value rises ferrite magnet material to improve efficiency.
to 4 volts and the current THD value rises to 200 mA. • Analysis of control schemes should be improved for a
Hence the obtained hardware results provide a good response wide speed range.
over various conditions and the THD values are less for • Hybrid control topologies such as Predictive torque con-
the smooth operation of the machine. Table 17 depicts the trol and DTC clubbed or predictive current control and
torque ripple, flux ripple, and THD generated by the proposed FOC should be developed and analysed.

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TABLE 18. Review of various torque ripple mitigation techniques. electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles is increasing.
BLDC motors are gaining more interest in EV applications
due to their simple, robust, and high-efficiency ability. This
paper reviews various types of BLDC motors, their standards,
applications, torque ripple mitigation techniques, and BLDC
motor control techniques, in addition to a discussion on the
development of a design platform for BLDC motors. A cur-
rent study reveals that,
• Currently, outer surface rotor-type BLDC motors such
as Hub motors are used widely for commercial applica-
tions.
• The BLDC motor control drive is used to overcome
fault-tolerant control, electromagnetic interference con-
trol, and acoustic noise control techniques are discussed.
• Outer surface rotor-type motors are more popular due
to the minimum cogging torque leading to high load-
ing effect, high power, and increased efficiency. These
motors have a lower requirement of cooling for the rotor
as they are exposed to the outer atmosphere receiving
ambient air cooling.
• Torque ripples in BLDC motors are more at low speeds
and less at high speeds. However, Axial-type BLDC
motors have higher efficiency and higher torque than
the other types of EV motors. Hub motor is used in EV
due to its advantage of compact size and retrofitting type
model.
• Intelligent controller stands superior amongst the var-
ious control techniques used for BLDC motors as it
reduces torque ripples better than the other types of
• Direct torque control topology can be developed with controllers.
help of reference voltage vectors for BLDC motor and • Design and FEA analysis of an inner rotor type BLDC
its complexity can be reduced. motor and an outer rotor type BLDC motor have been
• Multi-level inverter topologies can be developed using presented in this paper. The simulation results substan-
vector control technique for BLDC motor. tiate the effectiveness of the outer surface rotor-type
• BLDC motor drives can be developed with SVPWM and BLDC motor. Hardware results also confirm the simu-
MLI concepts. SVPWM concepts can be initiated with lation results.
fewer vectors. • Finally, the challenges in BLDC motor current control
• Intelligent control concepts can be developed with less techniques and future opportunities are discussed for
complexity by reducing the torque and flux control vec- future researchers.
tors in control schemes.
• BLDC motor controllers should be developed in such a APPENDIX
manner that it produces less torque ripple during faulty Ac = cross-sectional area of a conductor in mm
conditions with extra power switches. Acu = area of a copper conductor in a slot in m2
• Bearing current reduction can be given more importance Bg = Air gap flux density in the middle 1200 of a poles
while discussing EMI reduction for BLDC motor drive Wb/m2
system Bmax = Maximum flux density in Wb/m2
• FTC algorithm for inverter multiple switch tube prob- Dc = Diameter of the conductor in mm
lems should be approached. ds = slot depth in mm
• FTC based Artificial neural network algorithm must be Dsteel = Density of steel in kg/m3
discussed for various faults such as stator intern fault and Eb = Back EMF of the motor in volts
demagnetization fault. Ec = EMF induced per conductor in volts
Et = EMF induced in a turn in volts
XI. CONCLUSION g = air gap in mm
The automobile industry is migrating towards eco-friendly Ic = current through a conductor in amps
transportation with less pollution, hence attention towards Iphase = phase current in amps.

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Is = current in a DC source in amps T = 2PBg Ic ns LRsi

J = maximum current density in Amps/m2
Kfill = slot fill factor Therefore P = 2p
L = active length of the motor in mm L -Length of the conductor
lt = length of turn in m B- Magnetic flux density
Nph = several phases. I-Current through conductor
ns = total number of turns in a slot θ- Angle between L and B
Ns = number of slots
P = number of poles B. BLDC BACK EMF EXPRESSION
Ploss cu = copper loss in watts EMF in one conductor
Ploss core = core loss in watts
φτ s = flux in slot pitch in Wb. Ec = Bg Lv
φt = flux in the tooth in Wb Ec = Bg Lwm Rsi
ρcu = resistivity of copper in ohm-cm
Rph = Resistance of phase in ohms. EMF in one turn
Rro = Rotor outer radius in mm. Et = 2Bg Lwm Rsi
Rsi = stator inner radius in mm.
Rso = stator outer radius in mm. EMF in one Coil
Rt = Resistance of a turn in ohms
Ecoil = 2Bg Lns Wm Rsi
SPP = slot pole phase.
τc = coil pitch. EMF in one phase
τs = slot pitch.
V = linear velocity of a rotor in m/sec. Ephase = PBg Lns Wm Rsi
Vcu = volume of copper in m3 . Back EMF in BLDC motor
Vrotor = volume of the rotor in m3 .
Vstator = volume of stator in m3 . Eb = 2PBg Lns Wm Rsi
wbi = back iron length in mm
wcu = weight of copper in Kg C. STATOR WINDING DESIGN
ωm = Angular velocity of the rotor in m/sec Maximum current density in a conductor
Wmotor = weight of motor in Kg r
Wstator/rotor = Weight of stator/ rotor in Kg Ic Ac
Ac = ; Dc = 2
Wt = tooth width in mm j π
Coil pitch
A. DESIGN BLDC MOTOR TORQUE EQUATION  
Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field 2π Rsi + 12 ds l
τc =
F = IL ∗ B P
lt = 2L + 2τc
F = BIL sin θ
Force on one conductor D. STATOR SLOT DESIGN
Slot area
Fc = Bg Ic L
Acu
As =
Torque on one turn Kfill
Tc = Bg Ic LRsi Slot fill factor
Torque on one coil Rro = Rsi − g; Ns = P ∗ Nph
2πRsi
Tt = 2Bg Ic LRsi τs =
Ns
Tcoil = 2Bg Ic ns LRsi
Slot pitch
Torque on one phase
φτ s = φt
Tphase = 2ρBg Ic ns LRsi
τs LBg = wt L Bmax
Torque developed in Motor
Trapezoidal slot area
T = 2 ∗ 2pBg Ic ns LRsi Bg
Ic = Iphase = Is Wt = τs ; wsb = τs − wt
Bmax
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1
As =(wst + wsb ) ∗ ds [9] G. Sotyaramadhani, A. Wikarta, and M. N. Yuniarto, ‘‘Different approach
2 of fuzzy logic algorithm implementation for increasing performance of
2π (Rsi + ds ) axial BLDC motor,’’ in Proc. AIP Conf., 2018, Art. no. 060010.
wst = − wt [10] S. De, M. Rajne, S. Poosapati, C. Patel, and K. Gopakumar, ‘‘Low induc-
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Stator back iron Aerosp. Conf., Mar. 2011, pp. 1–11, doi: 10.1109/AERO.2011.5747464.
[11] E. Yeşilbağ, Y. Ertuğrul, and L. Ergene, ‘‘Axial flux PM BLDC motor
2πRsi Bg πRsi design methodology and comparison with a radial flux PM BLDC
LBg = wbi LBmax ; wbi =
2p Bmax P motor,’’ TURKISH J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci., vol. 25, pp. 3455–3467,
2017.
Rso = Rsi + ds + wbi [12] S. Sakunthala, R. Kiranmayi, and P. N. Mandadi, ‘‘A study on
industrial motor drives: Comparison and applications of PMSM and
Weight of the BLDC motor BLDC motor drives,’’ in Proc. Int. Conf. Energy, Commun., Data
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method of torque ripple reduction for BLDC motor,’’ IEEE Trans. Magn., Mechatronics, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 1501–1511, Jun. 2021, doi: 10.1109/
vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 1–6, Jan. 2020, doi: 10.1109/TMAG.2019.2950953. TMECH.2020.3022379.

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[148] A. Bosso, C. Conficoni, D. Raggini, and A. Tilli, ‘‘A computational- RANJEEV ARULDAVID received the undergradu-
effective field-oriented control strategy for accurate and efficient elec- ate degree from the SRM Institute of Science and
tric propulsion of unmanned aerial vehicles,’’ IEEE/ASME Trans. Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, in 2021.
Mechatronics, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 1501–1511, Jun. 2021, doi: 10.1109/ He is currently pursuing his internship with the
TMECH.2020.3022379. E-Mobility Research Centre, Department of Elec-
[149] A. Khazaee, H. A. Zarchi, G. A. Markadeh, and H. M. Hesar, ‘‘MTPA trical and Electronics Engineering, SRM Institute
strategy for direct torque control of brushless DC motor drive,’’ IEEE of Science and Technology, under DST SERB
Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 68, no. 8, pp. 6692–6700, Aug. 2021.
Core Research Grant, File no.: CRG/2019/005483.
[150] M. S. Trivedi and R. K. Keshri, ‘‘Evaluation of predictive current control
His research interests include electric vehicle,
techniques for PM BLDC motor in stationary plane,’’ IEEE Access, vol. 8,
pp. 46217–46228, 2020. e-motor design, motor controllers, and power
[151] P. Mishra, A. Banerjee, and M. Ghosh, ‘‘FPGA-based real-time imple- converters for EVs.
mentation of quadral-duty Digital-PWM-Controlled permanent mag-
net BLDC drive,’’ IEEE/ASME Trans. Mechatronics, vol. 25, no. 3,
pp. 1456–1467, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1109/TMECH.2020.2977859. RAJESH VERMA received the B.E., M.E., and
[152] F. Naseri, E. Farjah, E. Schaltz, K. Lu, and N. Tashakor, ‘‘Predic- Ph.D. degrees in electronics and communication
tive control of low-cost three-phase four-switch inverter-fed drives engineering from MNNIT, Prayagraj, in 1994,
for brushless DC motor applications,’’ IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, 2001, and 2011, respectively. He has work expe-
Reg. Papers, vol. 68, no. 3, pp. 1308–1318, Mar. 2021, doi: 10.1109/ rience of more than 20 years of teaching and
TCSI.2020.3043468.
administration at many reputed institutes in India,
[153] B. Chokkalingam, A. Yusuff, M. Tariq, and T. Bhekisiph, ‘‘Torque-
including MNNIT and many others. He also
ripple mitigation for BLDC using integrated converter connected
three-level T type NPC-MLI,’’ in Proc. Int. Conf. Electr., Elec- worked in telecom industry for four years at
tron. Comput. Eng. (UPCON), Nov. 2019, pp. 1–6, doi: 10.1109/ New Delhi, India. He is an Associate Professor
UPCON47278.2019.8980096. with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
[154] M. Salehifar, M. Moreno-Eguilaz, G. Putrus, and P. Barras, ‘‘Sim- King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia. His research interests include
plified fault tolerant finite control set model predictive control of computer networks, MAC protocols, wireless and mobile communication
a five-phase inverter supplying BLDC motor in electric vehicle systems, sensor networks, peer-to-peer networks, and M-2-M networks.
drive,’’ Electr. Power Syst. Res., vol. 132, pp. 56–66, Mar. 2016, doi:
10.1016/j.epsr.2015.10.030.
[155] M. Perotti, ‘‘On the influence of the load parasitics on the CM con- K. SATHIYASEKAR was born in Erode,
ducted EMI of BLDC motor drives,’’ in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Environ.
Tamil Nadu, India. He received the B.E. degree
Electr. Eng. IEEE Ind. Commercial Power Syst. Eur. (EEEIC/I&CPS
in electrical and electronics engineering from
Eur.), Jun. 2020, pp. 1–6, doi: 10.1109/EEEIC/ICPSEurope49358.
2020.9160663. the University of Madras, in 1999, the M.Tech.
[156] E. Agamloh, A. von Jouanne, and A. Yokochi, ‘‘An overview of electric degree in high voltage engineering from SAS-
machine trends in modern electric vehicles,’’ Machines, vol. 8, no. 2, TRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, in 2002,
p. 20, Apr. 2020, doi: 10.3390/machines8020020. and the Ph.D. degree in high voltage engineering
[157] B. Sarlioglu, C. T. Morris, D. Han, and S. Li, ‘‘Benchmarking of electric from Anna University, Chennai, India, in 2010.
and hybrid vehicle electric machines, power electronics, and batteries,’’ He is currently a Professor with the Department
in Proc. Int. Aegean Conf. Electr. Mach. Power Electron. (ACEMP), Intl of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Conf. Optim. Electr. Electron. Equip. (OPTIM) Int. Symp. Adv. Elec- Prathyusha Engineering College, Chennai. Under his guidance, 13 scholars
tromech. Motion Syst. (ELECTROMOTION), Sep. 2015, pp. 519–526. had completed their doctorate degree and eight others are currently pursuing
[158] BLDC Surface Mount. Accessed: May 21, 2022. [Online]. Avail- the Ph.D. degree with Anna University. He has been an Expert Member for
able: https://www.edn.com/brushless-dc-motors-part-i-construction-and- Ph.D. Viva-Voce Examination (University Nominee). He received a fund
operating-principles/ of Rs. 2.5 crores from the Ministry of MSME for Business Incubation
[159] [Online]. Available: https://www.alliedmotion.com/product-overview/ Cell and also received fund from MNRE, Government of India, for FDP
[160] [Online]. Available: https://www.kdedirect.com/blogs/news/90457923-
Program. He is an Editorial Board Member of the International Journal of
the-best-brushless-motors-for-heavy-lift
Advanced Research in Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineer-
[161] [Online]. Available: https://www.electricalelibrary.com/en/2017/10/10/
brushless-motors/ ing. He received the Award of ‘‘Certificate of Outstanding Contribution in
[162] [Online]. Available: https://www.rt.com/usa/313081-shotgun-shell- Reviewing’’ from the International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy
drone-shooting/ Systems (Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands). He received the Best Paper
[163] Design Evaluation Including Sizing, Optimization, Efficiency Maps. Award at the International Conference on Digital Factory 2008, held at CIT,
Accessed: Jan. 9, 2022. [Online]. Available: http://emotorseng.com/ Coimbatore. He is a reviewer for reputed journals, such as IEEE, Elsevier,
recent-projects/ Technical Gazette, and Australian journals.
[164] Rotor Laminations. Accessed: Dec. 25, 2021. [Online]. Available:
http://www.jystator.com/hpr%E2%80%930_413_15.html/stator
ABDULWASA B. BARNAWI received the B.Sc.
degree in electrical power engineering from the
DEEPAK MOHANRAJ received the bachelor’s Yanbu Industrial College, the master’s degree in
degree (Hons.) in electrical and electronics engi- electrical engineering from the University of New
neering and the master’s degree in power electron- Haven, West Haven, CT, USA, and the Ph.D.
ics and drives from Anna University, in 2007 and degree in electrical engineering from the Depart-
2011, respectively. He is currently pursuing the ment of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sci-
Ph.D. degree with the SRM Institute of Science ence, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA.
and Technology, Chennai, India. He has gained He is an Assistant Professor with the Department
11 years of teaching experience in engineering of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering,
colleges. Currently, he is doing his research work King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia. His current research interests
with the E-Mobility Research Centre, Department include renewable energy integration, power systems planning, generation
of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and adequacy evaluation, energy management (applying priced-based demand
Technology. His research interests include electric vehicle, e-motor design, response strategies), smart grid, and dynamic electricity pricing such as time
motor controllers, and power converters for electric vehicles. of use (TOU), critical peak pricing (CPP), and real-time pricing (RTP).

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D. Mohanraj et al.: A Review of BLDC Motor: State of Art, Advanced Control Techniques, and Applications

BHARATIRAJA CHOKKALINGAM (Senior LUCIAN MIHET-POPA (Senior Member, IEEE)

Member, IEEE) received the Bachelor of was born in 1969. He received the bachelor’s
Engineering degree in electrical and electron- degree in electrical engineering, the master’s
ics engineering from the Kumaraguru College degree in electric drives and power electron-
of Technology, Coimbatore, India, in 2002, the ics, and the Ph.D. and Habilitation degrees in
Master of Engineering degree in power electron- electrical engineering from Politehnica University
ics engineering from the Government College of Timisoara, Romania, in 1999, 2000, 2002, and
Technology, Coimbatore, in 2006, and the Ph.D. 2015, respectively. From 1999 to 2016, he was
degree, in 2015. He completed his first postdoc- with Politehnica University Timisoara. He has also
toral fellowship at the Centre for Energy and worked as a Research Scientist with Danish Tech-
Electric Power, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Tshwane nical University, from 2011 to 2014; and with Aalborg University, Denmark,
University of Technology, South Africa, in 2016, with the National Research from 2000 to 2002. He held a postdoctoral position with Siegen University,
Foundation funding. He completed his second postdoctoral fellowship with Germany, in 2004. Since 2016, he has been working as a Full Professor in
the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northeastern energy technology with Østfold University College, Norway. He is also the
University, Boston, USA, where he is a Visiting Researcher Scientist. He is a Head of the Research Laboratory ‘‘Intelligent Control of Energy Conversion
Visiting Researcher with the University of South Africa. He was collaborated and Storage Systems’’ and is one of the Coordinators of the master’s degree
with leading Indian overseas universities for both teaching and research. program in ‘‘green energy technology’’ with the Faculty of Engineering,
He has completed six sponsored projects from various government and Østfold University College. He has participated in more than 15 interna-
private agencies. He also singed MoU with various industries. Currently, he is tional grants/projects, such as FP7, EEA, and Horizon 2020. He has been
running two funded research projects in wireless charging of EV and UAV awarded more than ten national research grants. He has published more than
under DST SERB Core Research Grant, Government of India. He is currently 130 papers in national and international journals and conference proceedings,
an Associate Professor with the Department of Electrical and Electronics and ten books. His research interests include modeling, simulation, control,
Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur and testing of energy conversion systems; and distributed energy resources
Campus, Chennai, India. He has authored more than 110 research arti- (DER), components, and systems, including battery storage systems (for
cles, which are published in international journal, including various IEEE electric vehicles and hybrid cars and vanadium redox batteries), as well
TRANSACTIONS. His research interests include power electronics converter as interactive buildings in smart grids. He has served as a Scientific and
topologies and controls for PV and EV applications, PWM techniques for Technical Program Committee Member for many IEEE conferences. He was
power converters and adjustable speed drives, wireless power transfer, and invited to join the Energy and Automotive Committees by the President and
smart grid. He was the award recipient of DST and the Indo–U.S. Bhaskara the Honorary President of the Atomium European Institute, working in close
Advanced Solar Energy, in 2017. He is an award recipient of the Young cooperation with and under the umbrella of the EC and EU Parliament; and
Scientists Fellowship, Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology, was also appointed as the Chairperson of the AI4People, Energy Section.
in 2018. Since 2017, he has been a Guest Editor of five special issues of Energies
(MDPI), Applied Sciences, Majlesi Journal of Electrical Engineering, and
Advances in Meteorology.

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