Introduction to Logarithms

Definition: Let a, b, and c be positive real numbers such that b≠1. The logarithm of a with base b is denoted by
log b a , and is defined as c=log b a if and only if a=b c.

Reminders:
1. In both the logarithm and exponential forms, b is the base. In the exponential form, c is an exponent; this
implies that the logarithm is actually an exponent. Hence, logarithmic and exponential functions are
inverses.
2. In the logarithmic form log b x , x cannot be negative.
3. The value of log b x can be negative.

Common Logarithms are logarithms with base 10, log x is a short notation for log 10 x .
Natural Logarithms are logarithms to the base e (approx. 2.71828), and are denoted by “ln”. In other words, lnx is
another way of writing log e x .

Activity 1: Rewrite the following exponential equations in logarithmic form, whenever possible.

()
2
2 4
1. 53=125 4. = 7. 7 b=21
3 9
−21
2. 7 = 5. ( 0.01 )−4=10000 8. e 2=x
49
3. 102=100 6. 4 0=1 9. (−2 )2=4

Activity 2: Rewrite the following logarithmic equations in exponential form.

64
1. log m=n 4. log 3 =−3 7. ln 8=a
4
27
1
2. log 4 2= 5. log 3 81=4
2
3. log √5 5=2 6. log 10 0.001=−3

Activity 3: Find the value of the following logarithmic expressions.

1. log 2 32 3. log 9 729 5. log 0.001
2. log 1 7 4. log 5 5 6. log 1 16
2

Common Applications in Real-life of Logarithms

A. Earthquake Magnitude on a Richter Scale

In 1935, Charles Richter proposed a logarithm scale to measure the intensity of an earthquake. He defined
the magnitude of an earthquake as a function of its amplitude on a standard seismograph. The ff. formula produces
2E
the same result but is based on the energy released by an earthquake. R= log 4.4 is the magnitude R of an
3
10
earthquake where E (in joules) is the energy released by the earthquake (the quantity 104.4 joules is the energy
released by a very small reference earthquake).
The formula indicates that the magnitude of an earthquake is based on the logarithm of the ratio between
the energy it releases and the energy released by the reference earthquake.

Example 1: Suppose that an earthquake released approximately 1012 joules of energy. (a) What is its magnitude on
a Richter scale? (b) How much more energy does this earthquake release than the reference earthquake?
12
2 10 2 7.6
Solution: (a) Since E = 1012, then R= log 4.4
= log 10 . By definition, log 107.6 is the exponent by which
3 10 3
2
10 must be raised to obtain 107.6 , then log 107.6 =7.6. Thus R= ( 7.6 ) ≈ 5.1.
3
12
10 7.6
(b) This earthquake releases 4.4 =10 ≈ 39 810 717 times more energy than the reference earthquake.
10
B. Sound Intensity
I
In acoustics, the decibel (dB) level of a sound is D=10 log −12 where I is the sound intensity in watts/
10
2 −12 2
m (the quantity 10 watts/m is the least audible sound a human can hear).
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Example 2: The decibel level of a sound in a quiet office is 10−6 watts/m 2. (a) What is the corresponding sound
intensity in decibels? (b) How much more intense is this sound a human can hear?
−6
10 6
Solution: (a) D=10 log −12
=10 log 10 . By definition, log 106 is the exponent by which 10 must be raised to
10
obtain 106 , then log 106 =6. Thus D=10 log 10 6=10 ( 6 )=60 decibels.
−6
10 6
(b) This sound is −12 =10 =1 000 000 times more intense than the least audible sound a human can
10
hear.
C. Acidity and pH scale
The pH level of water-based solution is defined by pH=−log¿ ¿ , where ¿ is the concentration of
hydrogen ions in moles per liter. Solutions with a pH level of 7 are defined neutral; those with pH < 7 are acidic,
and those with pH > 7 are basic.

Example 3: A 1-liter solution contains 0.000 01 moles of hydrogen ions. Find its pH level.
Solution: Since there are 0.000 01 moles of hydrogen ions in 1 liter, then the concentration of hydrogen ions is 10−5
moles per liter. The ¿−log [ 10−5 ] . Since log 10−5 is the exponent by which 10 must be raised to obtain 10−5 ,
then log 10−5=−5. Thus pH=−log 10−5=−(−5 )=5.

Practice: Answer the following problems.

1. (a) What is the magnitude in the Richter scale of an earthquake that released 1014 joules of energy? (b)
How much more energy does this earthquake release than that of the reference earthquake?
14
2 10 2 9.6 2
Solution: (a) Magnitude R= log 4.4
= log 10 = ( 9.6 )=6.4 . (b) The earthquake released
3 10 3 3
14
10 9.6
4.4
=10 =3 981 071 706 times more energy than that by the reference earthquake.
10
2. Suppose the intensity of sound of a jet during take-off is 100 watts/m 2. (a) What is the corresponding sound
intensity in decibels? (b) How much more intense is this sound than the least audible sound a human can
hear?
2
100 10 14
Solution: (a) Sound intensity D=10 log −12
=10 log −12 =10 log 10 =10 (14 )=140 decibels. (b) This
10 10
2
10 14
sound is −12
=10 more intense than the least audible sound the human can hear.
10
Supplementary Exercises
1. What is the magnitude in the Richter scale of an earthquake that released 10 16joules of energy?
2. A 1-liter solution contains 10-6 moles of hydrogen ions. Determine whether the solution is acidic, neutral or
basic.
3. Suppose you have seats to a concert featuring your favorite musical artist. Calculate the approximate decibel
level associated if a typical concert’s sound intensity is 10-2 W/m2.
4. Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of vinegar that has a Ph level of 3.0
5. To measure the brightness of a star from earth, the brightness of the Star Vega is used as a reference, and is
assigned a relative intensity (lsub0) = 1. The magnitude m of any given star is defined by m = 2.5 log l,
where l is the relative intensity of that star. A. What is the magnitude of Vega? (b) Suppose that light
arriving from another star has a relative intensity of 5.32. What is the magnitude of this star?

Logarithmic Functions, Equations, and Inequalities

Logarithmic Equation Logarithmic Inequality Logarithmic Function
Definition An equation involving An inequality involving Function of the form
logarithms. logarithms. f (x)=logb x (b>0, b≠1)
Example log x 2=4 2
ln x > ( ln x )
2
g ( x )=log 3 x

Determine whether the given is a logarithmic function, a logarithmic equation, a logarithmic inequality, or neither.
1. h ( x )=log 5 x 3. log ( 4 x )=−log ( 3 x+ 5 ) 5. log x ( x −3 )=log 4
2. y=2 log 4 x 4. x log 2 ( x )−1> 0

Basic Properties of Logarithms

Definition: Let b and x be real numbers such that b>0 and b≠1.
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 x
1. log b 1=0 2. log b b =x 3. If x>0, then b log x =x b

Example 1: Find the value of the following using the basic properties of logarithms.
1
a. log 10 b. ln e 3 c. log 4 64 d. log 5 e. 5log 2 5
f. log 1
125
1 −3
Solution: (a) log 10=log 10 10=1 (d) log 5 =log 5 5 =−3
125
3 3
(b) ln e =log e e =3 (e) 2
3
(c) log 4 64=log 4 4 =3 (f) log 1=0 (Property 1)

Example 2: Suppose you have seats to a concert featuring your favourite musical artists. Calculate the approximate
decibel level associated if a typical concert’s sound intensity is 10−2 W /m2.
−2
10 10
Solution: D=10 log −12
=10 log 10 =10 ∙10=100 dB. Thus a concert’s decibel level is 100 dB.
10
Example 3: Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of vinegar that has a pH level of 3.0.
Solution: pH=−log¿ ¿ , 3.0=−log ¿ ¿, −3.0=log ¿ ¿
+¿
−3.0 log H ¿
10 =10 , 10−3.0 =¿. Thus, the hydrogen ion concentration is 10−3.0 moles per liter.
Practice:
1. Find the value of the following.
a. log 7 7 b. e ln 5 c. log 10 x
2
d. log 3 1 e. ln e (x+1) f. log 7 ( 491 )
1
Solution: (a) log 7 7=log 7 7 =1 (d) log 3 1=0
(x+1) (x+1)
(b) e ln 5=5 (Property 3) (e) ln e =log e e =x+1
2

(c) log 10 x =log 10 10x =x 2

2

(f) log 7 ( 491 )=log 7 7

−2
=−2

2. Calculate the sound intensity in watts/m 2 of a 65-decibel sound.

I I I
Solution: D=10 log −12 ,
6.5=10 log −12 , 6.5 log
10
−12

10 10 10 =10
6.5 I
10 = 6.5
−12 , I =10 10
−12 −6
≈ 3.16 x 10 watts/m
2
10
Laws of Logarithms
Let b>0, b≠1 and let nϵɌ. For u>0, v>0, then
1. log b uv=log b u+¿ log b v ¿ (Ex. log 2(3 x )¿ log 2 3+¿ log 2 x ¿)

2. log b ( uv )=log u−¿ log v ¿

b b
4
(Ex. log 3 ( )¿ log 3 4−¿ log 3 5 ¿)
5
3. log b u n=n ∙ log b u (Ex. log 5 36=log 5 62=2 ∙ log 5 6)

Activity 1: Express each expression in terms of logarithms of the factors. Assume each factor is positive.

()
3
3
1. log ( a b2 ) 2. log 3 3. ln [ x ( x −5 ) ]
x
Solution: (1) log ( a b2 )=log a+2 log b (3) ln [ x ( x −5 ) ] =lnx+ ln ⁡( x−5)

( 3x ) =3¿
3
(2) log 3

Activity 2: Condense the expressions as a single logarithm.

2
1. log 2 + log 3 2. 2lnx – lny 3. log 5 x −3 log 5 x 4. 2 – log5
Solution: (1) log 2 + log 3 = log 2 ∙3=log 6 (3)

( )
2
2 x 1 −1
log 5 x −3 log 5 x=log 5 3
=log 5 =log 5 x =−log 5 x
x x

( )
2 2
x 10 100
(2) 2lnx – lny = ln x 2−ln y =ln (4) 2 – log5 = 2 ( log 10 )−log 5=log =log =log 20
y 5 5
Change-of-base formula

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 Any logarithmic expression can be expressed as a quotient of 2 logarithmic expressions with a common
log a x
base. Let, a, b, and x be positive real numbers with a≠1, b≠1: log b x=
log a b
Example: Rewrite the following logarithmic expressions using the change-of-base formula.
1. log 6 4 (change to base 2) 2. log 1 2 (change to base e)
2
log 2 4 2
Solution: log 6 4= = Solution:
log 2 6 log 2 6
ln 2 ln 2
log 1 2= =
1 ln2 ln 2
2
ln ln 1−¿ ln 2= = =−1 ¿
2 0−ln 2 −ln 2
Activity 3: Use a change formula to rewrite the ff. logarithmic expressions.
1
1. log 5 (change to base 10) 2. log √2 9 (change to base 3)
2
1
log
Solution: 1 2 log 1−log 2 0−log 2 −log 2 Solution:
log 5 = = = =
2 log 5 log 5 log 5 log 5
log 3 9 2 2 4
log √2 9= = = =
log 3 √ 2 1
1 log 32
log 3 (2 )2 2 log 3 2
Solving Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities

Property of Logarithmic Equations : If b>1, then the logarithmic function y=log b x is increasing for all
x. If 0<b<1, the the logarithmic function y=log b x is decreasing for all x. This means that log b u=log b v if and
only if u=v.
Example 1: Find the value of x in the following equations by rewriting to exponential form.
a. log 4 ( 2 x )=log 4 10 c. log x 16=2 e. log 2 ( x+ 1 )+ log 2 ( x−1 )=3
b. log 3 ( 2 x−1)=2 2
d. log x =2 f. ( log x )2 +2 log x −3=0
Solution: (a) log 4 ( 2 x )=log 4 10 (e) log 2 ( x+ 1 )+ log 2 ( x−1 )=3
2x = 10 log 2 [ ( x+ 1 ) (x−1) ] =3
x = 5
(b) log 3 ( 2 x−1)=2 ( x +1 ) ( x−1 )=23
2
2 x −1=8
3 =2 x−1 2
9 = 2x – 1 x −9=0
10 = 2x, x = 5 x=± 3

(c) log x 16=2 (f) ( log x )2 +2 log x −3=0

2
x =16 Let log x= A
2
x=± 4 A +2 A−3=0
2 ( A+3 )( A−1 )=0
(d) log x =2
2 2
A=−3∨ A=1
x =10 log x=−3∨log x=1
2
x −100=0 −3 1
x=± 10 x=10 = ∨x=10
1000

Example 2: Use logarithms to solve the value of x in the exponential equation 2 x = 3.

Solution: x
2 =3
x
log 2 =log 3
x log 2=log 3
log 3
x= ≈ 1.58496
log 2

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