DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

22RMK55 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND IPR

COURSE MATERIAL
 22RMK55 - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND IPR

MODULE-2

RESEARCH DESIGN PROCEDURES ( 22RMK55.2 & 22RMK55.3)

Meaning of Research Design – Need for Research design – Features of a Good Design –
Concepts Related to Research Design– Different Research Designs – Basic Principles of
Experimental Designs.

Definition

A detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. A research design will
typically include how data is to be collected, what instruments will be employed, how the
instruments will be used and the intended means for analyzing data collected.

Research Design

The strategic plan for a research project or research programme, setting out the broad
outline and key features of the work to be undertaken, including the methods of data
collection and analysis to be employed, and showing how the research strategy addresses
the specific aims and objectives of the study, and whether the research issues are
theoretical or policy-oriented. Hence also, the process of developing such a document,
choosing between alternative types of study, their relative size, whether triangulation will
be employed, and adjusting plans to the available resources and timetable.

Meaning of Research Design

Decisions pertaining to what, where, when, how much, and by what means with regards
to a study make up a research design. A research design means the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a fashion which aspires to combine
relevance to the research purpose. As such the design consists of an overview of what the
researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational significance to the final
analysis of data.

More explicitly, the design decisions are actually with respect of:

1. What is the study about?

2. The reason why the study being done?

3. Where will we perform the study?

4. Which kind of data is needed?

5. Where can the necessary data be discovered?

6. What time periods will the study contain?

7. What will be the sample design?

8. What methods of data collection will likely be employed?

9. How will the data be analyzed?

10. In what style will the report be organized?

We can break up the entire research design into the following sections:

a) The sampling design that relates to the process of selecting items to be

observed for the provided research;
 b) The observational design that pertains to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
c) The statistical design that concerns with the question of how many
items are to be observed and the way the information and data collected
should be analyzed; and
d) The operational design that is concerned with the techniques through
which the procedures given in the sampling, statistical and observational
designs can be executed.

The key features of a research design are:

(i) It is a plan which describes the sources and kinds of information strongly related to the
research problem.

(ii) It is a strategy indicating which method will be employed for collecting and
examining the data.
(iii) It also consists of the time and cost budgets because most studies are done under
these two limitations.

In a nutshell, research design must, at least, contain

(a) A clear statement of the research problem;

(b) Processes and methods to be utilized for collecting data;

(c) The population to be researched; and

(d) Techniques to be employed in processing and examining data.

Research design is what makes the entire research project work – without it, you’ve
just got a lot of material but absolutely no way of using it correctly or putting it
together.
Need for Research Design

Research design has a significant impact on the reliability of the results obtained. It thus
acts as a firm foundation for the entire research. It is needed because it facilitates the
smooth functioning of the various research operations. It makes the research as efficient
as possible by giving maximum information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money. For construction of a house, we need to have a proper blueprint prepared by an
expert architect. Similarly, we need a proper research design or plan prior to data
collection and analysis of our research project. Preparation of research design should be
done carefully as even a minute error might ruin the purpose of the entire project. The
design helps the researcher to organize his ideas, which helps to identify and correct his
flaws, if any. In a good research design, all the components with each other or go
together with each other in a coherent manner. The theoretical and conceptual framework
must be with the research goals and purposes. Likewise, the data collection strategy must
fit with the research purposes, conceptual and theoretical framework and approach to data
analysis.

The need for research design is as follows:

 It reduces inaccuracy;
 Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;
 Eliminates bias and marginal errors;
 Minimizes wastage of time;
 Helpful for collecting research materials;
 Helpful for testing of hypothesis;
 Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money,
manpower, time, and efforts;
 Provides an overview to other experts;
 Guides the research in the right direction.
Features of good research design?

Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is
reported to be the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields
maximum information and provides a opportunity for considering different aspects of a
problem is considered to be the most appropriate efficient design. Thus the question of a
good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with
the nature of the problem to be studied.

A good research design should satisfy the following four conditions namely objectivity,
reliability, validity and generalization of the findings.

1. Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring
of the responses. The research design should permit the measuring instruments which are
fairly objective in which every observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely
give the same report. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged by
the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to different individuals by
more than one independent observer. This ensures the objectivity of the collected data
which shall be capable of analysis and drawing generalizations.

2. Reliability: Reliability refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For

eg: if a respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give the
same response to that item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response
to the same item, the consistency will be lost. So the researcher should frame the items in
a questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability.

3. Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures

what it is expected to measure. For eg: an intelligence test conducted for measuring the
I.Q should measure only the intelligence and nothing else, and the questionnaire shall be
framed accordingly.
4. Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized
for drawing certain generalizations applicable to a large group from which sample is
drawn. Thus a research design helps an investigator to generalize his findings provided he
has taken due care in defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving appropriate
statistical analysis etc. while preparing the research design. Thus a good research design
is one which is methodologically prepared and should ensure that:

1. The measuring instrument can yield objective, reliable and valid data.
2. The population is clearly defined.
3. Most appropriate techniques of sample selection is used to form an appropriate
sample.
4. Appropriate statistical analysis has been carried out, and The findings of the
study are capable of generalizations.

Qualities of A Good Research Design

The following are some of the qualities of a good research design study:-

1. A study has a good research design when it is structured systematically: One

of the important characteristic of a good research is that it is structured
systematically. This means that the research is planned so that specified steps are
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the defined set of rules. In a
systematic research there is no scope of guessing and intuition in arriving at
conclusions.
2. A study has a good research design when it is structured to be logical: Logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction (reasoning from a part to the whole)
and deduction (the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which
follows from that very premise) are of great value in carrying out a good research.
Logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision
making.
 3. A study has a good research design when it is structured to be empirical: A
good research deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results. Moreover, the research is related basically to one or more aspects
of a real situation.
4. A study has a good research design when it is designed such that it is
replicable: A good research should be replicable so that the research results can
be verified. If a research study is replicable, it will help in building basis for better
decisions.

Research Design: Important Concepts

In order to facilitate a clear and better understanding of the different research designs, it
is initially necessary to define all the various important concepts of research design itself.

1) Dependent and independent variables: A variable is a concept that can take on

different quantitative values. E.g., weight, height, income, etc. A dependent variable can
be defined as the variable, which depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable.
On the other hand, an independent variable can be defined as the variable that is
antecedent to the dependent variable. E.g., if height depends upon age, then height is a
dependent variable, while age is an independent variable.

2) Extraneous variable: Although, the independent variables are unrelated to the study
purpose, they might however affect the dependent variables, known as extraneous
variables. E.g., When a researcher investigates the hypothesis of the relationship between
children’s gains in moral studies achievement and their self-concepts. The self-concept
denotes an independent variable, whereas the moral studies achievement denotes a
dependent variable. However, intelligence may also affect the moral studies achievement,
but as it is unrelated to the study purpose, it will thus be called an extraneous variable.
3) Control: The most significant quality of a good research design is to reduce the
influence/effect of extraneous variables. Control is a technical term, which is used while
designing the study, by reducing the effects of extraneous independent variables. Besides,
in experimental studies, the term control refers to the restraining of experimental
conditions.

4) Confounded relationship: In case the dependent variable is bound by the influence of

extraneous variable, the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is
known to be confused by extraneous variables.

5) Research hypothesis: This can be defined as the prediction or a hypothesized

relationship that needs to be tested by scientific methods. Besides, it is a predictive
statement, which connects an independent variable to a dependent variable. Moreover, a
research hypothesis needs to contain, at least, one independent and one dependent
variable.

6) Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When a research

aims at investigating a research hypothesis, it is known as the hypothesis-testing
research. However, it can be of the experimental or the non-experimental design. On the
other hand, a research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as the
experimental hypothesis-testing research, while the research in which an independent
variable is not manipulated is known as the non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research.

7) Experimental and control groups: When any group is exposed to the usual
conditions of an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as a control group.
Whereas, when the group is exposed to some other special condition, it is known as an
experimental group.

8) Treatments: This can be defined as the different types of conditions under which the
experimental and control groups are put. E.g., In order to determine the comparative
impact of three varieties of fertilizers on a crop yield, the three different varieties of
fertilizers will be treated as three different treatments.

9) Experiment: This can be defined as the process of examining the truth of a statistical
hypothesis, relating to some research problem. E.g., an experiment conducted in order to
research the usefulness of a newly developed medicine.

Moreover, experiments can be of two types:

i. Absolute experiment: The determination of the impact of a fertilizer on a crop yield is

an example of absolute experiment.

ii. Comparative experiment: The determination of the impact of one fertilizer, in

comparison to another fertilizer, is an example of comparative experiment.

10) Experimental units: These represent the pre-determined plots or blocks, where
different types of treatments are used. Moreover, such type of experimental units must be
selected, as well as defined, very cautiously and thoroughly

DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as:

(1) Research design in case of exploratory research studies;

(2) Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and

(3) Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.

Research design in case of exploratory research studies:

Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main
purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or
of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major
emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights.

As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to
provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt
flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined
initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies,
which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant
data. Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such
studies are considered:

(a) The survey of concerning literature;

(b) The experience survey and

(c) The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.

The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method
of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis.

Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be

evaluated as a basis for further research.

It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new
hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done
by others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to review
the available material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.

Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made in one’s area of interest may
as well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the problem. He should also
make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different research contexts to
the area in which he is himself working. Sometimes the works of creative writers also
provide a fertile ground for hypothesis- formulation and as such may be looked into by the
researcher.

Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with
the problem to be studied.

The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships between variables
and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such a survey people who are competent
and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a
representation of different types of experience. The respondents so selected may then be
interviewed by the investigator.

The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of
informants. But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents
should be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously
considered.

Generally, the experience- collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few
hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be discussed
to the respondents well in advance. This will also give an opportunity to the respondents for
doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that, at the time of interview,
they may be able to contribute effectively.

Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more
concisely and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis. This survey may as well
provide information about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research.

Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples is also a fruitful method for suggesting

hypotheses for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience
to serve as a guide.

This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in
which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined, the
unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted.

Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to
draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main features which
make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights.

Now, what sort of examples are to be selected and studied? There is no clear cut
answer to it. Experience indicates that for particular problems certain types of instances
are more appropriate than others. One can mention few examples of ‘insight-stimulating’
cases such as the reactions of strangers, the reactions of marginal individuals, the study of
individuals who are in transition from one stage to another, the reactions of individuals from
different social strata and the like. In general, cases that provide sharp contrasts or have
striking features are considered relatively more useful while adopting this method of
hypotheses formulation.

Thus, in an exploratory or formulative research study which merely leads to insights or

hypotheses, whatever method or research design outlined above is adopted, the only thing
essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so that many different facets of a
problem may be considered as and when they arise and come to the notice of the
researcher.

Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies:

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group. Whereas diagnostic research
studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with
something else.

The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of diagnostic
research studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration
of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of
descriptive research studies. Most of the social research comes under this category.

From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies
share common requirements and as such we may group together these two types of research
studies.
In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly,
what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a
clear cut definition of ‘population’ he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and
accurate information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned.

The research design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must
maximise reliability, with due concern for the economical completion of the research study.
The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the
following:

(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being

made?)

(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be

adopted?)

(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)

(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period

should the data be related?)

(e) Processing and analysing the data.

(f) Reporting the findings.

In a descriptive/diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient
precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done carefully, the
study may not provide the desired information.

Then comes the question of selecting the methods by which the data are to be obtained.
In other words, techniques for collecting the information must be devised. Several methods
(viz., observation, questionnaires, interviewing, examination of records, etc.), with their merits
and limitations, are available for the purpose and the researcher may user one or more of these
methods which have been discussed in detail in later chapters. While designing data-
collection procedure, adequate safeguards against bias and unreliability must be ensured.
Whichever method is selected, questions must be well examined and be made unambiguous;
interviewers must be instructed not to express their own opinion; observers must be trained so
that they uniformly record a given item of behavior. It is always desirable to pre- test the
data collection instruments before they are finally used for the study purposes. In other
words, we can say that “structured instruments” are used in such studies.

In most of the descriptive/diagnostic studies the researcher takes out sample(s) and
then wishes to make statements about the population on the basis of the sample analysis or
analyses.

To obtain data free from errors introduced by those responsible for collecting them, it is
necessary to supervise closely the staff of field workers as they collect and record
information. Checks may be set up to ensure that the data collecting staff perform their
duty honestly and without prejudice. “As data are collected, they should be examined for
completeness, comprehensibility, consistency and reliability.”

The data collected must be processed and analyzed. This includes steps like coding the
interview replies, observations, etc.; tabulating the data; and performing several statistical
computations.

To the extent possible, the processing and analyzing procedure should be planned in
detail before actual work is started. This will prove economical in the sense that the
researcher may avoid unnecessary labor such as preparing tables for which he later finds
he has no use or on the other hand, re-doing some tables because he failed to include
relevant data.

Coding should be done carefully to avoid error in coding and for this purpose the
reliability of coders needs to be checked. Similarly, the accuracy of tabulation may be
checked by having a sample of the tables re-done. In case of mechanical tabulation the
material (i.e., the collected data or information) must be entered on appropriate cards
which is usually done by punching holes corresponding to a given code. The accuracy of
punching is to be checked and ensured.
 Finally, statistical computations are needed and as such averages, percentages and
various coefficients must be worked out. Probability and sampling analysis may as well be
used. The appropriate statistical operations, along with the use of appropriate tests of
significance should be carried out to safeguard the drawing of conclusions concerning the
study.

Finally, the question of reporting the findings comes. This is the task of
communicating the findings to others and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner.
The layout of the report needs to be well planned so that all things relating to the research
study may be well presented in simple and effective style.

Thus, the research design in case of descriptive/diagnostic studies is a comparative design

throwing light on all points narrated above and must be prepared keeping in view the
objective(s) of the study and the resources available. However, it must ensure the
minimization of bias and maximization of reliability of the evidence collected. The said
design can be appropriately referred to as a survey design since it takes into account all
the steps involved in a survey concerning a phenomenon to be studied.

The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of
research studies can be conveniently summarised in tabular form as under:

Type of
study
Research Design
Exploratory or Formulative Descriptive/Diagnostic

Overall design Flexible design (design Rigid design (design

must provide opportunity must make enough
for considering different provision for protection
aspects of the problem) against bias and must
maximise
reliability)
 (i) Sampling Non-probability sampling Probability sampling design
design design (purposive or (random sampling)
judgement sampling) Pre-planned design for

(ii) Statistical No pre-planned design for analysis

design analysis
Structured or well thought

(iii) Observati Unstructured instruments for out instruments for

onal collection of data collection of data

design No fixed decisions about the Advanced decisions about

(iv) Operational operational procedures operational procedures.

design

Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those
where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such
studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will
permit drawing inferences about causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement.
Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we often mean the design of
experiments.
Professor R.A. Fisher’s name is associated with experimental designs. Beginning of such
designs was made by him when he was working at Rothamsted Experimental Station
(Centre for Agricultural Research in England). As such the study of experimental designs
has its origin in agricultural research. Professor Fisher found that by dividing agricultural
fields or plots into different blocks and then by conducting experiments in each of these
blocks, whatever information is collected and inferences drawn from them, happens to be
more reliable. This fact inspired him to develop certain experimental designs for testing
hypotheses concerning scientific investigations. Today, the experimental designs are being
 used in researches relating to phenomena of several disciplines. Since experimental designs
originated in the context of agricultural operations, we still use, though in a technical
sense, several terms of agriculture (such as treatment, yield, plot, block etc.) in
experimental designs.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:

(1) The Principle of Replication;
(2) The Principle of Randomization; and
(3) The Principle of Local Control.

According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more

than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By
doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we
are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide the field
into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. We
can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are
to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide the field into
several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining
parts. We can then collect the data of yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by
comparing the same. The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the
conclusion we draw without applying the principle of replication. The entire experiment
can even be repeated several times for better results. Conceptually replication does not
present any difficulty, but computationally it does. For example, if an experiment requiring
a two-way analysis of variance is replicated, it will then require a three-way analysis of
variance since replication itself may be a source of variation in the data. However, it
should be remembered that replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a
study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the main effects and interactions
can be estimated.
The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experiment,
against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle
indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations
caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of “chance.”
For instance, if we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first half of the parts of a field and
the other variety is grown in the other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may
be different in the first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results would not
be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different
parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling technique i.e., we may apply
randomization principle and protect ourselves against the effects of the extraneous factors
(soil fertility differences in the given case). As such, through the application of the principle of
randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental error.
The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental designs.
Under it the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary
deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that
the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental
error. This means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a
two-way analysis of variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into three
components attributed to treatments (varieties of rice in our case), the extraneous factor (soil

fertility in our case) and experimental error.* In other words, according to the principle of
local control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks,
and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the
treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. Dividing the field into several
homogenous parts is known as ‘blocking’. In general, blocks are the levels at which we
hold an extraneous factor fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to the total
 variability of the data by means of a two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through the
principle of local control we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factor(s) from the
experimental error.

We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories: informal experimental
and formal experimental designs. Informal Research Design experimental designs are
those designs that generally use a less sophisticated form of analysis based on differences
in magnitudes. In contrast, formal experimental designs offer relatively more control and
use precise statistical procedures for analysis.
Important experiment designs are as follows:
(a) Informal Experimental Designs:
(i) Before-and-after without control design
(ii) After-only with control design
(iii) Before-and-after with control design
(b) Formal Experimental Designs:
(i) Completely Randomized Design (CRD)
(ii) Randomized Block Design (RBD)
(iii) Latin Square Designs (LSD)
(iv) Factorial Designs
Before-and-after without control design: In such a design, a single test group or area is
selected, and the dependent variable is measured before the introduction of the treatment.
The treatment is then introduced, and the dependent variable is measured again. The
effect of the treatment would be equal to the level of the phenomenon after the treatment
minus the level of
the phenomenon before the treatment.
After only with control design: In this design, two groups or areas (test area and control
area) are selected, and the treatment is introduced into the test area only. The dependent
variable is then measured in both areas at the same time. Treatment impact is assessed by
subtracting the value of the dependent variable in the control area from its value in the
test area. Before-and-after with control design: In this design, two areas are selected, and
the dependent variable is measured in both areas for an equal period before the treatment.
The treatment is then introduced into the test area only, and the dependent variable is
measured in both for an identical period afterthe introduction of the treatment. The
treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the dependent variable in the
control area from the change in the dependent variables in the test area.
Completely Randomized Design (CRD): CRD involves only two principles, viz., the
principle of replication and the principle of randomization of experimental designs. It is
the most uncomplicated possible design, and its analysis procedure is also more
effortless. The essential characteristic of the design is that subjects are randomly assigned
to experimental treatments or
vice-versa.
Randomized Block Design (RBD) is an improvement over the CRD. In the RBD, the
principle of local control can be applied along with the other two principles of
experimental designs. The variable selected for grouping the subjects is believed to be
related to the measures obtained in respect of the dependent variable.
Latin Square Design (LSD) is an experimental design very frequently used in
agricultural research. The conditions under which agricultural investigations are carried
out differ from those in other studies, for nature plays an essential role in agriculture.
Factorial Designs: Factorial designs are used in experiments where the effects of varying
more than one factor are to be determined. They are significant in several economic and
social phenomena where many factors usually affect a particular problem. Factorial
designs can be of two types: (i) simple factorial designs and (ii) complex factorial
designs.