EnggTree.

com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

A system is a combination of components connected to perform a required action.

The control component of a system plays a major role in altering or maintaining the
system output based on our desired characteristics. There are two types of control
systems: manual control and automatic control. For example, in manual control, a man
can switch ON or OFF the bore well motor to control the level of water in a tank. On the
other hand, in automatic control, level switches and transducers are used to control the
level of water in a tank. Control systems have naturally evolved in our ecosystem. In
almost all living things, automatic control regulates the conditions necessary for life by
tackling the disturbance through sensing and controlling functionalities. They operate
complex systems and processes and achieve control with desired precision. The
application of control systems facilitates automated manufacturing processes, accurate
positioning and effective control of machine tools. They guide and control space vehicles,
aircrafts, ships and high-speed ground transportation systems. modern automation of a
plant involves components such as sensors, instruments, computers and application of
techniques that involve data processing and control. It is essential to understand a system
and its characteristics with the help of a model, before creating a control for it. The
process of developing a model is known as modeling. Physical systems are modeled by
applying notable laws that govern their behavior. For example, mechanical systems are
described by Newton’s laws and electrical systems are described by Ohm’s law,
Kirchhoff’s laws, Faraday’s laws and Lenz’s law. These laws form the basis for the
constitutive properties of the elements in a system.
BASIC ELEMENTS IN CONTROL SYSTEMS
In recent years, control systems have gained an increasingly importance in the
development and advancement of the modern civilization and technology. Disregard the
complexity of the system; it consists of an input (objective), the control system and its
output (result). Practically our day-to-day activities are affected by some type of control
systems. There are four basic elements of a typical motion control system. These are
 Controller
 Amplifier

EE3503
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

 Actuator
 Feedback
 Error detector
The complexity of each of these elements will vary depending on the types of applications
for which they are designed and built. A dynamical system manipulates entities such as
energy, material, information, capital investment etc. It is characterized by relationships
among certain variables that are chosen in its description. Usually inputs (causes) and
outputs (effects) are important variables, which are connected by relations. Although a
relationship is a function of time, the properties embedded in it may be time-invariant. A
system may have only one input and one output. Such a system is termed a single-input-
single-output (SISO) system. Some may be multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO)
systems. Large systems are characterized by several levels of organization, in a hierarchy.
Figure 1 shows the schematic diagrams of systems indicating such features. The fields of
systems, control and information processing are closely related to the science of
cybernetics. Cybernetics attempts to understand the behavior of the system in nature. This
understanding leads to the knowledge enabling us to improve the performance of natural
or man-made processes.

Figure 1.1.1 Basic Elements in Control Systems

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by I.J.Nagrath, M.Gopal, Page: 5]

EE3503
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.2 OPEN AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS

In recent years, control systems have gained an increasingly importance in the
development and advancement of the modern civilization and technology. Figure shows
the basic components of a control system. Disregard the complexity of the system; it
consists of an input (objective), the control system and its output (result). Practically our
day-to-day activities are affected by some type of control systems. There are two main
branches of control systems:
1) Open-loop systems and 2) Closed-loop systems

Control Systems

Open-loop Closed-loop
Systems Systems

Figure 1.2.1 Classification of Control Systems

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.2]

OPEN LOOP SYSTEMS

A control system that cannot adjust itself to the changes is called open-loop control
system. In general, manual control systems are open-loop systems. The block diagram of
open-loop control system is shown in figure.

Figure 1.2.2 Block diagram of open loop system

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.2]

Here, r(t) is the input signal, u(t) is the control signal/actuating signal and c(t) is the output
signal. In this system, the output remains unaltered for a constant input. In case of any
discrepancy, the input should be manually changed by an operator. An open loop control
system is suited when there is tolerance for fluctuation in the system and when the system
parameter variation can be handled irrespective of the environmental conditions.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
1. Electric Hand Drier-Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your hand
under the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2. Automatic Washing Machine-This machine runs according to the pre-set time

irrespective of washing is completed or not.
3. Bread Toaster-This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.
4. Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker-These machines also function for pre adjusted time
only.
5. Timer Based Clothes Drier-This machine dries wet clothes for pre-adjusted time,
it does not matter how much the clothes are dried.
6. Light Switch-Lamps glow whenever light switch is on irrespective of light is
required or not.
7. Volume on Stereo System-Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of output
volume level.
Advantages of Open Loop Control System
a) Simple in construction and design
b) Economical
c) Easy to maintain
d) Generally stable
e) Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.
Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System
a) They are inaccurate
b) They are unreliable
c) Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.
CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS
Any system that can respond to the changes and make corrections by itself is
known as closed loop control system. The only difference when compared to open loop
system is the presence of feedback action. The block diagram of a closed loop system is
shown in the figure. Here, r(t) is the input signal, e(t) is the error signal/actuating signal,
u(t) or m(t) is the control signal/manipulated signal, b(t) is the feedback signal and c(t) is
the controlled output. Here, the output of the machine is fed back to a comparator (error
detector). The output signal is compared with the reference input, r(t) and the error signal,

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

e(t) is sent to the controller. Based on the error, the controller adjusts the air conditioners
input [control signal u(t)]. This process is continued till the error gets nullified.

Figure 1.2.3 Block diagram of closed loop system

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.3]

Both the manual and automatic controls can be implemented in a closed loop system.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
1) Automatic Electric Iron-Heating elements are controlled by output temperature of
the iron.
2) Servo Voltage Stabilizer-Voltage controller operates depending upon output
voltage of the system.
3) Water Level Controller-Input water is controlled by water level of the reservoir.
4) Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar-The direction of missile is
controlled by comparing the target and position of the missile.
5) An Air Conditioner-An air conditioner functions depending upon the temperature
of the room.
6) Cooling System in Car-It operates depending upon the temperature which it
controls.
Advantages of Closed Loop Control System
a) Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of non-
linearity.
b) Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of feedback signal.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

c) Bandwidth range is large.

d) Facilitates automation.
e) The sensitivity of system may be made small to make system more stable.
f) This system is less affected by noise.
Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System
a) They are costlier.
b) They are complicated to design.
c) Required more maintenance.
d) Feedback leads to oscillatory response.
e) Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback.
f) Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a stable closed
loop system.

S. No. Open loop control system Closed loop control system

1 Inaccurate Accurate

2 Unreliable Reliable

Unstable. It can be stabilized using the

3 Stable
feedback or by reducing sensitivity

4 Bandwidth is small Bandwidth is large

5 System is affected by noise System is less affected by noise

6 Cheap Costly

Complex construction since a greater

7 Simple in construction
number of components are present

8 Requires less maintenance Requires more maintenance

9 Overall gain is high Overall high is reduced due to feedback

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.3 MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL AND ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS

The general classification of mechanical system is of two types namely
translational and rotational systems.

Figure 1.3.1 Classification of mechanical system

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.21]

MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEMS

The model of mechanical translational systems can obtain by using three basic
elements mass, spring and dashpot. When a force is applied to a translational mechanical
system, it is opposed by opposing forces due to mass, friction and elasticity of the system.
The force acting on a mechanical body is governed by Newton’s second law of motion.
For translational systems it states that the sum of forces acting on a body is zero.
Force balance equations of idealized elements:
Inertia force, fm(t)
Consider an ideal mass element shown in figure, which has negligible friction and
elasticity. Let a force be applied on it. The mass will offer an opposing force which is
proportional to acceleration of a body.

Figure 1.3.2 Mechanical translational element: Mass

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.21]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Let f(t) - applied force, fm - opposing force due to mass,

𝑑 2𝑥
𝑓𝑚 ∝ 2
𝑑𝑡
By Newton's second law,
𝑑 2𝑥
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑀 2
𝑑𝑡
Damper force, fb(t)
Consider an ideal frictional element dash-pot shown in fig. which has negligible mass
and elasticity. The dashpot’s opposing force which is proportional to velocity of the body.

Figure 1.3.3 Mechanical translational element: Dashpot

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.23]

Let f = applied force, f b = opposing force due to friction

𝑑𝑥
𝑓𝑏 ∝
𝑑𝑡
By Newton's second law,
𝑑𝑥
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑏 = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
Spring force, fk(t)
Consider an ideal elastic element spring is shown in fig. This has negligible mass and
friction.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1.3.4 Mechanical translational element: Spring

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.24]

Let f = applied force, f k = opposing force due to elasticity

𝑓𝑘 ∝ 𝑥
By Newtons second law,
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑘 = 𝐾𝑥
According to D’Alembert’s principle, “The algebraic sum of the externally applied
forces to any body is equal to the algebraic sum of the opposing forces restraining motion
produced by the elements present in the body.” A simple translational mechanical system
and its free body diagram are shown in figures 1.3.5 (a) and (b) respectively.

Figure 1.3.5 Mechanical translational system and its free body diagram
[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.25]

𝑑 2𝑥
𝑓𝑚 = 𝑀 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑓𝑏 = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑓𝑘 = 𝐾𝑥
𝑑 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝑚 + 𝑓𝑏 + 𝑓𝑘 = 𝑀 2 + 𝐵 + 𝐾𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEM

The modeling of a linear passive rotational mechanical system can be obtained by
using three basic elements: inertia, rotational spring and rotational damper. The modeling
of a rotational mechanical system is similar to that of a translational mechanical system
except that the elements undergo a rotational instead of a translational movement. The
opposing torques due to inertia, rotational spring and rotational damper act on a system
when the system is subjected to a torque. Using D’Alembert’s principle, for a linear
passive rotational mechanical system, the sum of all the torques acting on a body is zero
(i.e., the sum of applied torques is equal to the sum of the opposing torques on a body).
Angular displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration are the variables used
to describe a linear passive rotational mechanical system. In rotational mechanical
systems, the energy storage elements are inertia and rotational spring and the energy
dissipating element is the rotational viscous damper. The analogous of the energy storage
elements in ana electrical circuit are the inductors and the capacitors and the analogous
of energy dissipating element in an electrical circuit is the resistor.
Torque balance equations of idealized elements:
Inertia Torque, Tj(t)
When a torque T(t) is applied to an inertia element J, it experiences an angular
acceleration and it is shown in figure 1.3.6.

Figure 1.3.6 Mechanical rotational element: Inertia

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.38]

According to Newton’s second law, the inertia torque is proportional to the angular
acceleration.
𝑑 2𝜃
𝑇𝑗 (𝑡) ∝ 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2𝜃
𝑇𝑗 (𝑡) = 𝐽 2
𝑑𝑡

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

where J is the moment of inertia (kg-m2/rad), θ(t) is the angular displacement (rad) and
Tj(t) is measured in Newton-meter (N-m).
Damping Torque, Tb(t)
When a torque, T(t) is applied to a damping element, B, it experiences an angular
velocity and it is shown in figure 1.3.7.

Figure 1.3.7 Mechanical rotational element: Dashpot

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.38]

The damping torque is proportional to the angular velocity. Therefore,

𝑑𝜃
𝑇𝑏 (𝑡) ∝
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝑇𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
where, B is the viscous friction coefficient (N-s/m), θ(t) is the angular displacement (rad).
Damper element with two angular displacements and a single applied torque is shown in
figure 1.3.8.

Figure 1.3.8 Mechanical rotational element: Dashpot

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.39]
𝑑𝜃1 𝑑𝜃2
𝑇𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝐵 ( − )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Here, Tb(t) is measured in Newton-meter.
Torsional/Rotational Spring Torque, Tk(t)
When a torque T(t) is applied to a spring element, K, it experiences ana angular
displacement and it is shown in figure 1.3.9.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1.3.9 Mechanical rotational element: Dashpot

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.39]

According to Hooke’s law, spring torque is proportional to the angular displacement.

𝑇𝑘 (𝑡) ∝ 𝜃
𝑇𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝜃
where, K is the spring constant (N-m/rad).
A spring element with two angular displacements is given in figure 1.3.10.

Figure 1.3.10 Mechanical rotational element: Dashpot

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.40]

𝑇𝑘 (𝑡) = 𝐾(𝜃1 − 𝜃2)

Here, Tk(t) is measured in Newton-meter.
According to D’Alembert’s principle, “The algebraic sum of the externally applied
torques to any body is equal to the algebraic sum of the opposing torques restraining
motion produced by the elements present in the body.” A simple rotational mechanical
system and its free body diagram are shown in figures 1.3.11 (a) and (b) respectively.

Figure 1.3.11 Mechanical rotational system and its free body diagram
[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.40]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝑑 2𝜃
𝑇𝑗 = 𝐽 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝑇𝑏 = 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑘 = 𝐾𝜃
𝑑 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑇𝑗 + 𝑇𝑏 + 𝑇𝑘 = 𝐽 2 + 𝐵 + 𝐾𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Translational mechanical system Rotational mechanical system
Force (F) Torque (T)
Velocity (v) Angular velocity (ω)
Displacement (x) Angular displacement (θ)
Mass (M) Moment of inertia (J)
Damping coefficient (B) Rotational damping (B)
Spring constant (K) Rotational spring constant (K)

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.4 ELECTRICAL ANALOGY OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

FORCE-VOLTAGE ANALOGY
Consider a simple translational mechanical system as shown in figure 1.4.1.

Figure 1.4.1 Translational mechanical system

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.51]

Using D’ Alembert’s principle, we have,

Sum of the applied forces = Sum of the opposing forces

Consider a series RLC circuit as shown in figure 1.4.2.

Figure 1.4.2 Series RLC circuit

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.52]

Using KVL, the integro-differential equations can be written as

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

FORCE-CURRENT ANALOGY
Consider a simple parallel RLC circuit as shown in figure 1.4.3.

Figure 1.4.3 Parallel RLC circuit

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.52]

Using KCL, the integro-differential equations can be written as follows:

where, conductance, G=1/R.

On comparing with the mechanical translational system equation, we get,

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

TORQUE-VOLTAGE ANALOGY
Consider a simple rotational mechanical system as shown in figure 1.4.4.

Figure 1.4.4 Rotational mechanical system

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.71]

Using D’ Alembert’s principle, we have,

Sum of the applied torques = Sum of the opposing torques

Consider a series RLC circuit as shown in figure 1.4.5.

Figure 1.4.5 Series RLC circuit

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.72]

Using KVL, the integro-differential equations can be written as

On comparing with the mechanical rotational system equation, we get,

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

TORQUE-CURRENT ANALOGY
Consider a simple parallel RLC circuit as shown in figure 1.4.6.

Figure 1.4.6 Parallel RLC circuit

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 1.73]

Using KCL, the integro-differential equations can be written as follows:

where, conductance, G=1/R.

On comparing with the mechanical rotational system equation, we get,

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.5 ELECTRICAL ANALOGY OF THERMAL SYSTEMS

There are two fundamental physical elements that make up thermal networks,
thermal resistances and thermal capacitance. There are also three sources of heat, a power
source, a temperature source, and fluid flow.
Example:
In practice temperature when we discuss temperature, we will use degree Celsius
(ºC), while SI unit for temperature is to use Kelvins (0ºK = - 273.15ºC). Generally
reference temperature (T1) is taken and all temperatures are measured relative to this
reference. Reference temperature is assumed to be constant.

Figure 1.5.1 Network elements of thermal systems

[Source: “Linear Control System Analysis and Design” by John J. D’Azzo, Page: 76]

Thermal resistance
Consider the situation in which there is a wall, one side of which is at a temperature
T1, with the other side at temperature T2, the wall has a thermal resistance of R12.
Thermal capacitance
In addition to thermal resistance, objects can also have thermal capacitance (also
called thermal mass). The thermal capacitance of an object is a measure of how much
heat it can store. If an object has thermal capacitance its temperature will rise as heat
flows into the object, and the temperature will lower as heat flows out. To understand
this, envision a rock in the sun. During the day heat goes in to the rock from the sunlight,
and the temperature of the rock increases as energy is stored in the rock as an increased
temperature. At night energy is released, and the rock cools down. We represent a thermal
capacitance in isolation in diagrams (and equations) as shown in Figure (in the drawing
at the left the coil represents a power source and the stippled object is the thermal
capacitance). In the thermal analogy, one end of the capacitor is always connected to the
constant ambient temperature. The electrical model will always have one side of the

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

capacitance connected to ground, or reference. Also, we could write the equation as = q

but since T1 is constant, it can be removed from the derivative. The thermal capacitance
of an object is determined by its mass and specific heat.
C = mcp
Where C is the thermal capacitance, m is the mass in kilograms, and c p is the specific
heat in J/(kg-ºK). it is always assumed that the capacitor is at a single uniform
temperature, though this is obviously a simplification in many cases.
𝑑𝑇2
𝐶 =𝑞
𝑑𝑡
Power source (or heat source)
A common part of a thermal model is a controlled power source that generates a
predetermined amount of power, or heat, in a system. This power can either be constant
or a function of time. In the electrical analogy, the power source is represented by a
current source. An example of a power source is the quantity q in the diagrams for the
thermal capacitance, above. In practice a power source is often an electrical heating
element comprised of a coil of wire that is heated by a current flowing through it.
Therefore, we use a diagram of a coil of wire to represent the power source. An ideal
power source generates power that is independent of temperature.
Temperature source
An ideal temperature source maintains a given temperature independent of the
amount of power required. Ambient temperature is considered to be reference
temperature).
Mass Transfer (Fluid Flow)
If fluid with specific heat cp J/kg-ºK) flows into a system with a flow rate of G
kg/sec and a temperature of TmºC above reference, and flows out at a temperature of
ToutºC below reference then the rate of heat flow into the system is given by

We can cancel the K and ºC since a temperature difference (Tin – Tout) is the same in
Kelvin r Celsius. If you carefully observe this equation, it makes sense intuitively. Heat
into s system goes up with mass flow rate into the system (increased mass flow, yields

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

increased heat flow). Heat into a system also goes up with the specific heat of the mass
(Higher specific heat indicates increased capacity to store heat). Finally, heat into system
increases with an increased inflow temperature, or a decreased outflow temperature (if
the temperature difference between inflow and outflow increases, more heat is being
taken from the fluid). Note, the mass flow rate at the input and output must be equal to
the mass (and thermal capacitance) of the system would be changing. This is not allowed
for the systems being studied (time-invariant systems).
Energy balance
To develop a mathematical model of a thermal system we use the concept of an
energy balance. The energy balance equation simply states that at any given location, or
node, in a system, the heat into that node is equal to the heat out of the node plus any heat
that is stored (heat is stored as increased temperature in thermal capacitances). The terms
used in the equations is mentioned below:

Additional heat stored in a body whose temperature is raised from θ 1 to θ2 is given by

Rate of heat flow through a body in terms of the two boundary temperatures θ3 to θ4

The thermal resistance determines the rate of heat flow through the body. This is
analogous to the resistance of a resistor in an electric circuit, which determines the current
flow.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

SIMPLE MERCURY THERMOMETER

Consider a thin glass-walled thermometer filled with mercury that has stabilized at a
temperature θ1. It is plunged into a bath of temperature θ0 at t=0. In its simplest form, the
thermometer can be considered to have a capacitance C that stores heat and a resistance
R that limits the heat flow. The temperature at the center of the mercury is θm.The flow
of heat into the thermometer is

The heat entering the thermometer is stored in the thermal capacitance and is given by

These equations can be combined to form

Differentiating the above equation and rearranging the terms gives,

The thermal network is drawn as in figure 1.5.2. Thus, the state equation is

Figure 1.5.2 Network representation of a thermometer

[Source: “Linear Control System Analysis and Design” by John J. D’Azzo, Page: 77]

In general, Heat in = Heat out + Heat stored

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.6 TRANSFER FUNCTION

The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is
defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response function) to the
Laplace transform of the input (driving function) under the assumption that all initial
conditions are zero.
Open loop transfer function: G(s)
Loop transfer function: G(s)H(s)
Closed loop transfer function:
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.7 SERVOMOTOR
Servo Motor also called control motors, are used in feedback control systems as
output actuators and does not use for continuous energy conversion. The principle of the
Servomotor is similar to that of the other electromagnetic motor, but the construction and
the operation are different. Their power rating varies from a fraction of a watt to a few
hundred watts. Rotor inertia of the motors is low and have a high speed of response. The
rotor of the Motor has the long length and smaller diameter. They operate at very low
speed and sometimes even at the zero speed. Servo motor is widely used in radar and
computers, robot, machine tool, tracking and guidance systems, processing controlling.
AC SERVOMOTORS
Servo motors are generally an assembly of four things: a DC motor, a gearing set,
a control circuit and a position-sensor (usually a potentiometer). The position of servo
motors can be controlled more precisely than those of standard DC motors, and they
usually have three wires (power, ground & control). AC Servo Motors are divided into
two types 2 and 3 Phase AC servomotor. Most of the AC servomotor are of the two-phase
squirrel cage induction motor type. They are used for low power applications. The three
phase squirrel cage induction motor is now utilized for the applications where high-power
system is required. An AC servo motor is essentially a two-phase induction motor with
modified constructional features to suit servo applications as shown in figure 1.7.1.

Figure 1.7.1 Symbolic representation of AC Servomotor

[Source: “Control Systems: Principles and Design” by M. Gopal, Page: 132]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

It has two windings displaced by 90 o on the stator. One winding, called as reference
winding, is supplied with a constant sinusoidal voltage. The second winding, called
control winding, is supplied with a variable control voltage which is displaced by -- 90 o
out of phase from the reference voltage.
The major differences between the normal induction motor and an AC servo motor are
1. The rotor winding of an ac servo motor has high resistance (R) compared to its
inductive reactance (X) so that its X / R ratio is very low.
2. For a normal induction motor, X / R ratio is high so that the maximum torque is
obtained in normal operating region which is around 5% of slip.
The torque speed characteristics of a normal induction motor and an ac servo motor are
shown in figures 1.7.2 and 1.7.3.

Figure 1.7.2 Torque speed characteristics of AC motors

[Source: “Control Systems: Principles and Design” by M. Gopal, Page: 131]

Figure 1.7.3 Torque speed characteristics of AC servomotor

[Source: “Control Systems: Principles and Design” by M. Gopal, Page: 133]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

The torque-speed characteristic of a normal induction motor is highly nonlinear and has
a positive slope for some portion of the curve. This is not desirable for control
applications. as the positive slope makes the systems unstable. The torque speed
characteristic of an ac servo motor is fairly linear and has negative slope throughout. The
rotor construction is usually squirrel cage or drag cup type for an ac servo motor. The
diameter is small compared to the length of the rotor which reduces inertia of the moving
parts. Thus, it has good accelerating characteristic and good dynamic response. The
supplies to the two windings of ac servo motor are not balanced as in the case of a normal
induction motor. The control voltage varies both in magnitude and phase with respect to
the constant reference vulture applied to the reference winding. The direction of rotation
of the motor depends on the phase (± 90°) of the control voltage with respect to the
reference voltage. For different rms values of control voltage the torque speed
characteristics are shown in Figure. The torque varies approximately linearly with respect
to speed and also controls voltage. The torque speed characteristics can be linearized at
the operating point and the transfer function of the motor can be obtained.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

DC SERVOMOTOR
A DC servo motor is used as an actuator to drive a load. It is usually a DC motor of low
power rating. DC servo motors have a high ratio of starting torque to inertia and therefore
they have a faster dynamic response. DC motors are constructed using rare earth
permanent magnets which have high residual flux density and high coercively. As no
field winding is used, the field copper losses am zero and hence, the overall efficiency of
the motor is high. The speed torque characteristic of this motor is flat over a wide range,
as the armature reaction is negligible. Moreover, speed in directly proportional to the
armature voltage for a given torque. Armature of a DC servo motor is specially designed
to have low inertia. DC Servo Motors are separately excited DC motor or permanent
magnet DC motors. The figure (a) shows the connection of Separately Excited DC Servo
motor and the figure (b) shows the armature MMF and the excitation field MMF in
quadrature in a DC machine. This provides a fast torque response because torque and flux
are decoupled. Therefore, a small change in the armature voltage or current brings a
significant shift in the position or speed of the rotor. Most of the high-power servo motors
are mainly DC.
(a) Armature controlled DC servo motor
The physical model of an armature controlled DC servo motor is given in
The armature winding has a resistance Ra and inductance La.

Figure 1.7.4 Armature controlled DC motor with load

[Source: “Control Systems: Principles and Design” by M. Gopal, Page: 117]

The field is produced either by a permanent magnet or the field winding is separately
excited and supplied with constant voltage so that the field current, if is a constant. When

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

the armature is supplied with a DC voltage of e a volts, the armature rotates and produces
a back emf, eb. The armature current ia depends on the difference of eb and en. The
armature has a permanent of inertia J, frictional coefficient B0. The angular displacement
of the motor is θ. The torque produced by the motor is given by
𝑇𝑀 = 𝐾𝑇 𝑖𝑎
𝑒𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏 𝜔
𝑑𝑖𝑎
𝐿𝑎 + 𝑅𝑎 𝑖𝑎 + 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑒𝑎
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜔
𝐽 + 𝐵𝜔 + 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑇𝑀
𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transform,
𝑇𝑀 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠)
𝐸𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑏 𝜔(𝑠)
𝐿𝑎 𝑠𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) + 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) + 𝐸𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝐸𝑎 (𝑠)
𝐽𝑠𝜔(𝑠) + 𝐵𝜔(𝑠) + 𝑇𝑤 (𝑠) = 𝑇𝑀 (𝑠)
where KT is the motor torque constant. The back emf is proportional to the speed of the
motor and hence
On solving,
𝜔(𝑠) 𝐾𝑇 /𝑅𝑎
=
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵 + 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑏 /𝑅𝑎
𝜔(𝑠) 𝐾𝑚
=
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑚 𝑠 + 1
where,
𝐾𝑇
𝐾𝑚 =
𝑅𝑎 𝐵 + 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑏
𝑅𝑎 𝐽
𝜏𝑚 =
𝑅𝑎 𝐵 + 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑏
Km – motor gain constant, τm – motor time constant
(b) Field controlled DC servo motor
The schematic diagram of a field controlled DC servo motor is shown in figure 1.7.5.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1.7.5 Field controlled DC servomotor

[Source: “Control Systems: Principles and Design” by M. Gopal, Page: 120]

𝑇 = 𝐾𝑇𝑓 𝑖𝑓
𝑑𝑖𝑓
𝐿𝑓 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓 = 𝑒𝑓
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜔
𝐽 + 𝐵𝜔 + 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑇𝑀
𝑑𝑡
Taking Laplace transform,
𝑇(𝑠) = 𝐾𝑇𝑓 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠)
𝐿𝑓 𝑠𝐼𝑓 (𝑠) + 𝑅𝑓 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠) = 𝐸𝑓 (𝑠)
𝐽𝑠 2 𝜃(𝑠) + 𝐵𝑠𝜃(𝑠) + 𝑇𝑤 (𝑠) = 𝑇𝑀 (𝑠)
𝜃(𝑠) 𝐾𝑇𝑓 𝐾𝑇𝑓 /𝑅𝑓 𝐵 𝐾𝑚
= = =
𝐸𝑓 (𝑠) 𝑠(𝐽𝑠 + 𝐵)(𝑅𝑓 + 𝑠𝐿𝑓 ) 𝐽 𝐿𝑓 𝑠(𝜏𝑚 𝑠 + 1)(1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑓 )
𝑠( 𝑠 + 1)(1 + 𝑠 )
𝐵 𝑅𝑓
where, motor gain constant, 𝐾𝑚 = 𝐾𝑇𝑓 /𝑅𝑓 𝐵
𝐽
motor time constant, 𝜏𝑚 =
𝐵
𝐿𝑓
field time constant, 𝜏𝑓 =
𝑅𝑓

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.8 BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

A system that can change its output in accordance with change in input is known
as a closed loop system. This can be implemented by introducing a feedback path in an
open-loop system and manipulating the input that is applied to the system. Such as closed-
loop system can be represented by using a block diagram shown in figure 1.8.1.

Figure 1.8.1 Simple block diagram representation

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 3.2]

BLOCK
The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input
and single output.

SUMMING POINT
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or
more inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs
the summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of the inputs
based on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by one. The
following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output,
Y as sum of A and B.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

NODE
The node is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more than
one branch. That means with the help of node, we can apply the same input to one or
more blocks, summing points. In the following figure, the node is used to connect the
same input, R(s) to two more blocks.

The advantages of block diagram representation are:

(i) It facilitates easier representation of complex systems.
(ii) Calculation of transfer function by block diagram reduction techniques is
easy.
(iii) Performance analysis of a complex system is simplified by determining its
transfer function.
(iv) It facilitates easier access of individual elements in a system that is represented
by a block diagram.
(v) It facilitates visualization of operation of the whole system by the flow of
signals.
The disadvantages of block diagram representation are:
(i) It is difficult to determine the actual composition of individual elements in a
system.
(ii) Representation of a system using block diagram is not unique.
(iii) The main source of signal flow cannot be represented definitely in a block
diagram.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

RULES FOR BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION

Rule Rule
Block diagram Equivalent block diagram
No.
1 Blocks in cascade

2 Blocks in parallel

Moving a summing
3 point behind the
block
Moving a summing
4 point ahead of the
block
Moving a branch
5 point behind the
block
Moving a branch
6 point ahead of the
block

Eliminating a
7
feedback loop

Interchanging the
8
summing point

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.9 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

The diagrammatic or pictorial representation of a set of simultaneous linear
algebraic equations of a more complicated system is known as signal flow graph (SFG).
It shows the flow of signals in the system. It is important to note that the flow of signals
in SFG is only in one direction. To represent the set of algebraic equations using SFG, it
is necessary that those algebraic equations are to be represented in the s-domain. The
transfer function of the system which is represented by SFG can be obtained by using
Mason’s gain formula. The dependent and independent variables in the set of algebraic
equations are represented by the nodes in the SFG. The branches are used to connect
different nodes present in SFG. The connection between the different nodes is based on
the relationship given in the algebraic equation. The arrow and the multiplication factor
indicated on the branch of SFG represent the signal direction. The SFG and the block
diagram representation of a system yield the same transfer function; but when a system
is represented by SFG, the transfer function is obtained easily and quickly without using
the SFG reduction techniques. The terminologies used in SFG rae explained with the help
of SFG of a system as shown in figure 1.9.1.

Figure 1.9.1 Signal flow graph of a system

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 4.1]

Node: The variables present in the set of algebraic equations are represented by a point
called node.

Figure 1.9.2 Node in signal flow graph

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 4.2]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Branch
The line segment joining the two nodes with a specific direction is known as a branch.
The specific direction is indicated by an arrow in the branch.

Figure 1.9.3 Branch in signal flow graph

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by S.Salivahanan, R.Rengaraj, G.R.Venkatakrishnan, Page: 4.2]

MASON’S GAIN FORMULA

A technique to reduce a signal flow graph to a single transfer function requires the
application of one formula. The transfer function of a system represented by a signal flow
graph is

where, k – number of forward path

Pi – ith forward path gain
Δ – 1- (sum of individual loop gains)+(sum of product of two non-touching
loop gains)-(sum of product of three non-touching loop gains)+……
Δi – 1- (Δ of the loop non-touching the ith forward path)
Steps to determine the transfer function of a system using SFG Method
Step 1: Identify the number of forward paths.
Step 2: Identify the individual loops and find their respective loop gains.
Step 3: Identify the two non-touching loops and find the product of their gains.
Step 4: Identify the three non-touching loops and find the gain product and so on…
Step 5: Calculate the Δ value.
Step 6: Calculate the Δi value.
Step 7: Use Mason’s gain formula to calculate the transfer function value, T.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Characteristics Block Diagram Signal flow graph

More since the diagrams Less since there is no

Time Consumption have to be redrawn necessary to redraw the
repeatedly diagrams

Block Diagram reduction

Technique applied Mason’s gain formula
technique
Representation of Blocks are used to Nodes are need to
elements represent the element. represent the elements

Represented along the

Representation of transfer Represented inside the
branches above the arrow
function of each element block of each element
ahead

Present and hence the Present, but there is no

Feedback paths formula, (G/(1±GH)) is need for any formulae to
used to reduce the paths reduce the paths
Self-loops Absence of self-loops Presence of self-loops
Summing points and
Present in block diagram Absence in SFG
takeoff points

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2.1 TIME RESPONSE

The time response of the system is the output of the closed loop system as a
function of time. It describes the behavior of a system and contains much information
about it with respect to time response specification. Time response is formed by the
transient response and the steady state response.
Time response = Transient response + Steady state response
Transient time response
Transient response (Natural response) describes the behavior of the system in its
first short time until arrives the steady state value and this response will be our study
focus. If the input is step function then the output or the response is called step time
response and if the input is ramp, the response is called ramp time response, etc.
y(t) = ytr(t) + yss(t)
The transient response is defined as the part of the time response that goes to zero as time
becomes very large. Thus yt(t) has the property
Lim yt(t) = 0, t --> ∞
The time required to achieve the final value is called transient period. The transient
response may be exponential or oscillatory in nature. Output response consists of the sum
of forced response (form the input) and natural response (from the nature of the
system).The transient response is the change in output response from the beginning of
the response to the final state of the response and the steady state response is the output
response as time is approaching infinity (or no more changes at the output).
Steady State Response
The steady state response is the part of the total response that remains after the transient
has died out. For a position control system, the steady state response when compared to
with the desired reference position gives an indication of the final accuracy of the system.
If the steady state response of the output does not agree with the desired reference exactly,
the system is said to have steady state error.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2.2 TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

The desired performance characteristics of control systems are specified in terms
of time domain specifications. Systems with energy storage elements cannot respond
instantaneously and will exhibit transient responses, whenever they are subjected to
inputs or disturbances. The desired performance characteristics of a system of any order
may be specified in terms of the transient response to a unit step input signal. The
response of a second order system for unit step input with various values of damping ratio
is shown in figure 2.2.1.

Figure 2.2.1 Time Response

[Source: “Modern Control Engineering” by Katsuhiko Ogata, Page: 229]

The transient response of a system to a unit step input depends on the initial conditions.
Therefore, to compare the time response of various systems it is necessary to start with
standard initial conditions. The most practical standard is to start with the system at rest
and so output and all time derivatives before t=0 will be zero. The transient response of
a practical control system often exhibits damped oscillation before reaching steady state.
A typical damped oscillatory response of a system is shown in figure 2.2.2.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 2.2.2 Transient and steady-state response analyses

[Source: “Modern Control Engineering” by Katsuhiko Ogata, Page: 230]

The transient response characteristics of a control system to a unit step input is specified
in terms of the following time domain specifications:
1. Delay time, td: It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the steady state
value for the first time.
1 + 0.7𝜁
𝑡𝑑 =
𝜔𝑛
2. Rise time, tr: It is the time required for the response to reach 100% of the steady state
value for under damped systems. However, for over damped systems, it is taken as
the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of the steady state value.
The unit step response of second order system for underdamped case is given by,
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)
√(1 − 𝜁 2 )
At t = tr, c(t) = c(tr) = 1
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑟
𝑐(𝑡𝑟 ) = 1 − sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃) = 1
√(1 − 𝜁 2 )

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

−𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑟
sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃) = 0
√(1 − 𝜁 2 )
Since −𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑟 ≠ 0, the term, sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃) = 0,
When Φ = 0, π, 2π, 3π,…. sin Φ = 0
𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃 = 𝜋
𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 = 𝜋 − 𝜃
𝜋−𝜃
𝑡𝑟 =
𝜔𝑑
On constructing right angled triangle,
√(1 − 𝜁 2 )
tan 𝜃 =
𝜁

−1
√(1 − 𝜁 2 )
𝜃 = tan
𝜁
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 √(1 − 𝜁 2 )

√(1 − 𝜁 2 )
𝜋 − tan−1 ( )
𝜁
𝑡𝑟 =
𝜔𝑛 √(1 − 𝜁 2 )
3. Peak time, tp: It is the time required for the response to reach the maximum or peak
value of the response. To find the expression for peak time, t p, differentiate c(t) with
respect to ‘t’ and equate to zero.
𝑑
𝑐(𝑡)|𝑡=𝑡𝑝 = 0
𝑑𝑡
The unit step response of under damped second order system is given by
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)
√(1 − 𝜁 2 )
Differentiating c(t) with respect to ‘t’,
𝑑 −𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 −𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = (−𝜁𝜔𝑛 ) sin( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃) + ( ) cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)𝜔𝑑
𝑑𝑡 √(1 − 𝜁 2 ) √(1 − 𝜁 2 )

Put 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 √(1 − 𝜁 2 ),
𝑑 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = (𝜁𝜔𝑛 ) sin( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃) − ( ) cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)𝜔𝑛 √(1 − 𝜁 2 )
𝑑𝑡 √(1 − 𝜁 )2 √(1 − 𝜁 )2

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝜔𝑛 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
= [𝜁 sin( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃) − (√(1 − 𝜁 2 ))cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)]
√(1−𝜁 2 )

𝜔𝑛 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
= [cos 𝜃 sin( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃) − sin 𝜃 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)]
√(1−𝜁 2 )

𝜔𝑛 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
= [sin( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃 − 𝜃)]
√(1−𝜁 2 )

𝜔𝑛 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
= [sin( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡)]
√(1−𝜁 2 )
𝑑
At t = tp, 𝑐(𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝜔𝑛 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑝
[sin( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 )] = 0
√(1 − 𝜁 2 )
Since, 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑝 ≠ 0, the term, [sin( 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 )] = 0
When Φ = 0, π, 2π, 3π,…. sin Φ = 0
𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 = 𝜋
𝜋
𝑡𝑝 =
𝜔𝑑
On substituting, we get,
𝜋
𝑡𝑝 =
𝜔𝑛 √(1 − 𝜁 2 )
4. Peak overshoot, Mp: It is defined as the difference between the peak value of the
response and the steady state value. Iris usually expressed in percent of the steady
state value. If the time for the peak is tp, percent peak overshoot is given by,
𝑐(𝑡𝑝 )−𝑐(∞)
Maximum percent overshoot =
𝑐(∞)

𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ∞
𝐴𝑡 𝑡 = ∞, 𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑐(∞) = 1 − sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃) = 1 − 0 = 1
√(1 − 𝜁 2 )
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑝
𝐴𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝 , 𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) = 1 − sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃)
√(1 − 𝜁 2 )
𝜋
−𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑛 √(1−𝜁2 )
𝑒 𝜋
=1− sin (𝜔𝑑 + 𝜃)
√(1−𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑑
𝜋
−𝜁
√(1−𝜁2 )
𝑒
=1− sin(𝜋 + 𝜃)
√(1−𝜁 2 )

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝜋 𝜁𝜋
−𝜁
√(1−𝜁2 ) √(1−𝜁2 )
𝑒 𝑒
=1− sin(𝜃) = 1 + √(1 − 𝜁 2 )
√(1−𝜁 2 ) √(1−𝜁 2 )

𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) − 𝑐(∞)
%𝑀𝑝 =
𝑐(∞)
𝜋𝜁
2
%𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 √(1−𝜁 ) × 100
5. Settling time, ts: It is the time taken by the response to reach and stay within a specified
error. It is usually expressed as percentage of final value. The usual tolerable error is
2% and 5% of the final value.
The response of second order system has two components. They are
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
a. Decaying exponential component,
√(1−𝜁 2 )

b. Sinusoidal component, sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)

In these terms, the decaying component term dampens or reduces the oscillations
produced by sinusoidal component. Hence, the settling time is decided by the exponential
component. The settling time can be found out by equating exponential component to
percentage tolerance errors.
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡𝑠
For 2% tolerance error band, at t = ts, = 0.02
√(1−𝜁 2 )

For least values of 𝜁, 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠 = 0.02

On taking natural logarithm on both sides, we get,
−𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠 = ln(0.02) = −4
4
𝑡𝑠 = = 4𝑇
𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡𝑠
For 5% tolerance error band, at t = ts, = 0.05
√(1−𝜁 2 )

For least values of 𝜁, 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠 = 0.05

On taking natural logarithm on both sides, we get,
−𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠 = ln(0.02) = −3
3
𝑡𝑠 = = 3𝑇
𝜁𝜔𝑛

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

4
𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡𝑠 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝜁𝜔𝑛
3
𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡𝑠 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 5% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝜁𝜔𝑛
The performance of a system is usually evaluated in terms of the following qualities:
 How fast it is able to respond to the input?
 How fast it is reaching the desired output?
 What is the error between the desired output and the actual output, once the
transients die down and steady state is achieved?
 Does it oscillate around the desired value?
 Is the output continuously increasing with time or is it bounded?
 These are the specifications to be given for the design of a controller for a given
system.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2.3 TYPES OF TEST INPUT

The knowledge of input signal is required to predict the response of a system. In
most of the systems, the input signals are not known ahead of time and also it is difficult
to express the input signals mathematically by simple equations. The characteristics of
actual input signals are a sudden shock, a sudden change, a constant velocity and a
constant acceleration. Hence test signals which resembles these characteristics are used
as input signals to predict the performance of the system. The commonly use test input
signals are impulse, step, ramp, acceleration and sinusoidal signals.
Standard Input Signals
1. Step signal 2. Unit step signal
3. Ramp signal 4. Unit ramp signal
5. Parabolic signal 6. Unit parabolic signal
7. Impulse signal 8. Sinusoidal signal
STEP SIGNAL
The step signal is a signal whose value changes from zero to A at t=0 and remains
constant at A for t > 0. The step signal resembles an actual steady input to a system. A
special case of step signal is unit step in which A is unity.
RAMP SIGNAL
The ramp signal is a signal whose value increases linearly with time from an initial
value of zero at t=0. The ramp signal resembles a constant velocity input to the system.
A special case of ramp signal is unit ramp signal in which the value of A is unity.
PARABOLIC SIGNAL
In parabolic signal, the instantaneous value varies as square of the time from an
initial value of zero at t=0. The sketch of the signal with respect to time resembles a
parabola. The parabolic signal resembles a constant acceleration input to the system. A
special case of parabolic signal is unit parabolic signal in which A is unity.
IMPULSE SIGNAL
A signal of very large magnitude which is available for very short duration is called
impulse signal. Ideal impulse signal is a signal with infinite magnitude and zero duration
but with an area of A. The unit impulse signal is a special case, in which A is unity. Since
perfect impulse cannot be achieved in practice, it is usually approximated by a pulse of

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

small width but with area, A. Mathematically an impulse signal is the derivative of a step
signal. Laplace transform of the impulse function is unity.

Figure 2.3.1 Standard test signals

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by I J Nagrath, M Gopal, Page: 196]

Input r(t) R(s)

Step input A A/s

Ramp input At A/s2

Parabolic input At2/2 A/s3

Impulse input δ(t) 1

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2.4 FIRST AND SECOND ORDER SYSTEM RESPONSE

Transfer Function
 It is the ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input with
zero initial conditions.
 One of the types of modeling a system
 Using first principle, differential equation is obtained
 Laplace Transform is applied to the equation assuming zero initial conditions
Order of a system
 Order of a system is given by the order of the differential equation governing the
system
 Alternatively, order can be obtained from the transfer function
 In the transfer function, the maximum power of s in the denominator polynomial
gives the order of the system
Dynamic Order of Systems
 Order of the system is the order of the differential equation that governs the
dynamic behaviour
 Working interpretation: Number of the dynamic elements / capacitances or holdup
elements between a manipulated variable and a controlled variable
 Higher order system responses are usually very difficult to resolve from one
another
 The response generally becomes sluggish as the order increases
SYSTEM RESPONSE
First-order system time response
Transient
Steady-state
Second-order system time response
Transient
Steady-state

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

FIRST ORDER SYSTEM

Response of First Order System for Unit Step Input
The standard form of closed loop transfer function of first order system is
𝐶(𝑠) 1
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝑠𝑇
If the input is unit step, then r(t) and R(s)=1/s
1 1 1
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠) = ×
1 + 𝑠𝑇 𝑠 1 + 𝑠𝑇
Applying partial fraction expansion,
𝐴 𝐵
𝐶(𝑠) = +
𝑠 1 + 𝑠𝑇
On solving,
1 1
𝐶(𝑠) =
−
𝑠 𝑠+1
𝑇
On taking inverse Laplace transform, the response in time domain is obtained as,
𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇
Hence, the input and output signal of the first order system is given by,

Figure 2.4.1 Response of first order system to unit step input

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.20]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

LTI second-order system

Figure 2.4.2 Closed loop for second order system

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.20]

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)
𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) ( ) 𝜔𝑛2
𝑠(𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛
= = 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
1+( )
𝑠(𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛
where, 𝜁 is the damping ratio, ωn is the natural frequency
DAMPING RATIO
It is the ratio of critical damping to actual damping.
CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION
𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0

𝑠 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 √𝜁 2 − 1
The roots of characteristic equation are:
The two roots are imaginary when 𝜁 = 0 (undamped system)
The two roots are real and equal when 𝜁 = 1 (critically damped system)
The two roots are real but not equal when 𝜁 > 1 (overdamped system)
The two roots are complex conjugate when 0 < 𝜁 < 1 (underdamped system)

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Response of Second Order System for Unit Step Input

Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order system. Laplace transform
of the unit step signal is
R(s) = 1/s
Transfer function of the second order closed loop transfer function is
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
Case 1: Undamped system
When 𝜁 = 0,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝜔𝑛2
For unit step input, R(s) = 1/s,
𝜔𝑛2 1 𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) = 2 ( )=
𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑠 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 𝜔𝑛2 )

Taking inverse Laplace transform,

𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

Figure 2.4.3 Response of undamped second order system to unit step input
[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.22]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Case 2: Underdamped system

When 0 < 𝜁 < 1,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 = {𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + (𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 } + 𝜔𝑛2 − (𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2
= (𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝑛2 (1 − 𝜁 2 )
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝑛2 (1 − 𝜁 2 )
For unit step input, R(s)=1/s,
𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) =
𝑠((𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝑛2 (1 − 𝜁 2 ))
By applying partial fraction,
𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
𝐶(𝑠) = +
𝑠 ((𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝑛2 (1 − 𝜁 2 ))
On solving, we get,
1 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝐶(𝑠) = −
𝑠 ((𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝑛2 (1 − 𝜁 2 ))
1 𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝐶(𝑠) = − −
𝑠 ((𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝑛2 (1 − 𝜁 2 )) ((𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝑛2 (1 − 𝜁 2 ))

1 𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝐶(𝑠) = − 2 − 2
𝑠
((𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 + (𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2 ) ) ((𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 + (𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2 ) )

1 𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛
𝐶(𝑠) = − 2
𝑠
((𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 + (𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2 ) )

𝜁 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2
− 2
√1 − 𝜁 2 ((𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔 )2 + (𝜔 √1 − 𝜁 2 ) )
𝑛 𝑛

On taking inverse Laplace transform,

𝜁
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
√1 − 𝜁2

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − ((√1 − 𝜁 2 ) cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜁 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡))
√1 − 𝜁2

We know, sin 𝜃 = √1 − 𝜁 2 , cos 𝜃 = 𝜁

𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − (sin 𝜃 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡))
√1 − 𝜁 2

𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − (sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)))
√1 − 𝜁2

Figure 2.4.4 Response of underdamped second order system to unit step input
[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.24]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Case 3: Critically damped system

When 𝜁 = 1,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 2𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 )2
For a step input, R(s)=1/s
𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 )2
By applying partial fractions,
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐶(𝑠) = + +
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 (𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 )2
On solving, we get
1 1 𝜔𝑛
𝐶(𝑠) = − −
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 (𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 )2
By taking inverse Laplace transform,
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡

Figure 2.4.5 Response of critically damped second order system to unit step input
[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.25]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Case 4: Overdamped system

When 𝜁 > 1,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 = {𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 + 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛2 − 𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛2 }
= (𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 − 𝜔𝑛2 (𝜁 2 − 1)
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 − 𝜔𝑛2 (𝜁 2 − 1)
For unit step input, R(s)=1/s,
𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) =
𝑠[(𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 )2 − 𝜔𝑛2 (𝜁 2 − 1)]
𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2 )(𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 − 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2 )

By applying partial fraction,

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐶(𝑠) = + +
𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔 + 𝜔 √1 − 𝜁 2 ) (𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔 − 𝜔 √1 − 𝜁 2 )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

By applying inverse Laplace transform,

1 −(𝜁𝜔𝑛 +𝜔𝑛 √𝜁 2 −1)𝑡

𝑐(𝑡) = [1 + ( )𝑒
2(𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1)(√𝜁 2 − 1)

1 −(𝜁𝜔𝑛 −𝜔𝑛 √𝜁 2 −1)𝑡

−( )𝑒 ]
2(𝜁 − √𝜁 2 − 1)(√𝜁 2 − 1)

Figure 2.4.6 Response of over damped second order system to unit step input
[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.27]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2.5 ERROR COEFFICIENTS

There are two different types of error coefficient representation namely,
a) Static error constants
b) Generalized error coefficients
STATIC ERROR CONSTANTS
Positional error constant, 𝐾𝑝 = lim 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
𝑠→0

Velocity error constant, 𝐾𝑣 = lim 𝑠𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

𝑠→0

Acceleration error constant, 𝐾𝑎 = lim 𝑠 2 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

𝑠→0

GENERALIZED ERROR COEFFICIENTS

𝐶𝑜 = lim 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑠→0

𝑑𝐹(𝑠)
𝐶1 = lim
𝑠→0 𝑑𝑠

𝑑 2 𝐹(𝑠)
𝐶2 = lim
𝑠→0 𝑑𝑠 2
1
where, 𝐹(𝑠) =
1+𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

Relation between static error constants and generalized error coefficients

1
𝐶𝑜 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝
1
𝐶1 =
𝐾𝑣
1
𝐶2 =
𝐾𝑎

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2.6 STEADY STATE ERROR

The deviation of the output of control system from desired response during steady
state is known as steady state error. It is represented as e ss. We can find steady state error
using the final value theorem as follows.
ess=lim 𝑒(𝑡)
t→∞

ess=lim 𝑠𝐸(𝑠)
s→0

where, E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal, e(t)

Figure 2.6.1 Closed loop control system

[Source: “Control Systems Engineering” by I J Nagrath, M Gopal, Page: 213]

𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐸(𝑠)
𝐸 (𝑠) = 𝑅 (𝑠) − 𝐶 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠) − 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐸(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
𝐸 (𝑠)(1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻 (𝑠)) = 𝑅(𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐸 (𝑠) =
(1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻 (𝑠))
𝑠𝑅(𝑠)
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝐸(𝑠) = lim
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 (1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻 (𝑠))

When a control system is excited with standard input signal, the steady state error may
be zero, constant or infinity. Its value depends on the type number and input signal.
a) Type-0 system will have a constant steady state error when the input is step signal
b) Type-1 system will have a constant steady state error when the input is ramp signal
c) Type-2 system will have a constant steady state error when the input is parabolic
signal
1
For unit step input, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
1+𝐾𝑝
1
For unit ramp input, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐾𝑣
1
For unit parabolic input, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐾𝑎

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Static error constants for various type number of systems

Type number of system
Error constants
0 1 2 3
Kp Constant ∞ ∞ ∞

Kv 0 Constant ∞ ∞
Ka 0 0 Constant ∞

Steady state error for various types of input

Type number of system
Input signal
0 1 2 3
1
Kp 0 0 0
1 + 𝐾𝑝
1
Kv ∞ 0 0
𝐾𝑣
1
Ka ∞ ∞ 0
𝐾𝑎

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2.7 ROOT LOCUS CONSTRUCTION

The root locus is a graphical representation in s-domain and it is symmetrical about
the real axis. Because the open loop poles and zeros exist in the s-domain having the
values either as real or as complex conjugate pairs.
Rules for Construction of Root Locus
The following rule structure is followed for constructing a root locus.
Rule 1 − Locate the open loop poles and zeros in the ‘s’ plane.
Rule 2 − Find the number of root locus branches.
We know that the root locus branches start at the open loop poles and end at open loop
zeros. So, the number of root locus branches N is equal to the number of finite open loop
poles P or the number of finite open loop zeros Z, whichever is greater.
Mathematically, we can write the number of root locus branches N as

Rule 3 − Identify and draw the real axis root locus branches.
If the angle of the open loop transfer function at a point is an odd multiple of 180 0, then
that point is on the root locus. If odd number of the open loop poles and zeros exist to the
left side of a point on the real axis, then that point is on the root locus branch. Therefore,
the branch of points which satisfies this condition is the real axis of the root locus branch.
Rule 4 − Find the centroid and the angle of asymptotes.
 If P=Z
then all the root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open loop
zeros.
 If P>Z
then Z number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open
loop zeros and P−Z
number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at infinite open loop
zeros.
 If P<Z

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

then P number of root locus branches start at finite open loop poles and end at finite open
loop zeros and Z−P number of root locus branches start at infinite open loop poles and
end at finite open loop zeros.
So, some of the root locus branches approach infinity, when P≠Z. Asymptotes give the
direction of these root locus branches. The intersection point of asymptotes on the real
axis is known as centroid.
We can calculate the centroid α by using this formula,

Angle of asymptotes,

where,
q=0,1,2,....,(P−Z)−1
Rule 5 − Find the intersection points of root locus branches with an imaginary axis.
We can calculate the point at which the root locus branch intersects the imaginary axis
and the value of K at that point by using the Routh array method and special case (ii).
 If all elements of any row of the Routh array are zero, then the root locus branch
intersects the imaginary axis and vice-versa.
 Identify the row in such a way that if we make the first element as zero, then the
elements of the entire row are zero. Find the value of K for this combination.
 Substitute this K value in the auxiliary equation. You will get the intersection
point of the root locus branch with an imaginary axis.
Rule 6 − Find Break-away and Break-in points.
 If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop poles, then
there will be a break-away point in between these two open loop poles.
 If there exists a real axis root locus branch between two open loop zeros, then
there will be a break-in point in between these two open loop zeros.
[Note − Break-away and break-in points exist only on the real axis root locus branches.]
Follow these steps to find break-away and break-in points.
1. Write K in terms of s from the characteristic equation 1+G(s)H(s)=0

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2. Differentiate K with respect to s and make it equal to zero. Substitute these values
of s in the above equation.
3. The values of s for which the K value is positive are the break points.
Rule 7 − Find the angle of departure and the angle of arrival.
The Angle of departure and the angle of arrival can be calculated at complex conjugate
open loop poles and complex conjugate open loop zeros respectively.
Angle of departure,

Angle of arrival,

where,

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2.8 ROUTH HURWITZ CRITERION

Consider a closed-loop transfer function
𝑏0 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑚 𝐵(𝑠)
𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 𝐴(𝑠)
where the ai’s and bi’s are real constants and m ≤ n. An alternative to factoring the
denominator polynomial, Routh’s stability criterion, determines the number of closed-
loop poles in the right-half s-plane.
Algorithm for applying Routh’s stability criterion
The algorithm described below, like the stability criterion, requires the order of A(s) to
be finite.
1. Factor out any roots at the origin to obtain the polynomial, and multiply by −1 if
necessary, to obtain
𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑎0 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛 > 0
2. If the order of the resulting polynomial is at least two and any coefficient a i is zero or
negative, the polynomial has at least one root with nonnegative real part. To obtain
the precise number of roots with nonnegative real part, proceed as follows. Arrange
the coefficients of the polynomial, and values subsequently calculated from them as
shown below:
sn a0 a2 a4 a6 ⋯
sn-1 a1 a3 a5 a7 ⋯
sn-2 b1 b2 b3 b4 ⋯
sn-3 c1 c2 c3 c4 ⋯
sn-4 d1 d2 d3 d4 ⋯
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
s2 e1 e2
s1 f1
s0 g0

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

The array is generated until all subsequent coefficients are zero. Similarly, cross
multiply the coefficients of the two previous rows to obtain the c i, di, etc. Until the nth
row of the array has been completed. Missing coefficients are replaced by zeros. The
resulting array is called the Routh array. The powers of s are not considered to be part
of the array. We can think of them as labels. The column beginning with a0 is
considered to be the first column of the array. The Routh array is seen to be triangular.
It can be shown that multiplying a row by a positive number to simplify the calculation
of the next row does not affect the outcome of the application of the Routh criterion.
where, the coefficients bi are,
𝑎1 𝑎2 − 𝑎0 𝑎3
𝑏1 =
𝑎1
𝑎1 𝑎4 − 𝑎0 𝑎5
𝑏2 =
𝑎1
𝑎1 𝑎6 − 𝑎0 𝑎7
𝑏3 =
𝑎1
⋮
3. Count the number of sign changes in the first column of the array. It can be shown
that a necessary and sufficient condition for all roots of (2) to be located in the left-
half plane is that all the ai are positive and all of the coefficients in the first column be
positive.
Example: Generic Cubic Polynomial
Consider the generic cubic polynomial:
𝑎0 𝑠 3 + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 + 𝑎3 = 0
where all the ai are positive. The Routh array is
s3 𝑎0 𝑎2
s2 𝑎1 𝑎3
𝑎1 𝑎2 − 𝑎0 𝑎3
s1
𝑎0
s0 𝑎3

So, the condition that all roots have negative real parts is
𝑎1 𝑎2 > 𝑎0 𝑎3

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Example: A Quadratic Polynomial.

Next, we consider the fourth-order polynomial:
𝑠 4 + 2𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 5 = 0
Here we illustrate the fact that multiplying a row by a positive constant does not change
the result. One possible Routh array is given at left, and an alternative is given at right,
s4 1 3 5
s3 2 4 0
s2 1 5
s1 -6
s0 5

Also,
s4 1 3 5
s3 2 4 0
1 2 0
s2 1 5
s1 -3
s0 5

In this example, the sign changes twice in the first column so the polynomial equation
A(s) = 0 has two roots with positive real parts.
Necessity of all coefficients being positive
In stating the algorithm above, we did not justify the stated conditions. Here we show
that all coefficients being positive is necessary for all roots to be located in the left half-
plane. It can be shown that any polynomial ins, all of whose coefficients are real, can be
factored into a product of a maximal number linear and quadratic factors also having real
coefficients. Clearly a linear factor (s+a) has nonnegative real root if a is positive. For
both roots of a quadratic factor (s2+bs+c) to have negative real parts both b and c must
be positive. (If c is negative, the square root ofb2−4cis real and the quadratic factor can
be factored into two linear factors so the number of factors was not maximal.) It is easy
to see that if all coefficients of the factors are positive, those of the original polynomial

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

must be as well. To see that the condition is not sufficient, we can refer to several
examples above.
Example: Determining Acceptable Gain Values
Consider a system whose closed-loop transfer function is
𝐾
𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) + 𝐾
Characteristic equation
𝑠 4 + 3𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 𝐾 = 0
Routh array is
s4 1 3 K
s3 3 2
s2 7/3 K
s1 (14-9K)/7
s0 K

For the system to be stable, the elements of the first column of the Routh array should be
positive. Based on that condition, the s1 row yields the condition that, for stability,
(14 − 9𝐾)
>0
7
(14 − 9𝐾) > 0
14 > 9𝐾
14
>𝐾
9
The s0 row yields the condition that, for stability,
K>0
Hence, the system is stable when the value of K lies in the range of
0 < K < 14/9

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Special Case: Zero First-Column Element.

If the first term in a row is zero, but the remaining terms are not, the zero is replaced by
a small, positive value of ϵ and the calculation continues as described above. Here’s an
example:
𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 2 = 0
Routh array is
s3 1 1
s2 2 2
s1 0≅𝜖
s0 2

Special Case: Zero Row

If all the coefficients in a row are zero, a pair of roots of equal magnitude and opposite
sign is indicated. These could be two real roots with equal magnitudes and opposite signs
or two conjugate imaginary roots. The zero row is replaced by taking the coefficients of
dP(s)/ds, where P(s), called the auxiliary polynomial, is obtained from the values in the
row above the zero row. The pair of roots can be found by solving dP(s)/ds= 0. Note that
the auxiliary polynomial always has even degree. It can be shown that an auxiliary
polynomial of degree 2n has n pairs of roots of equal magnitude and opposite sign.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2.9 TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

 Two types of inputs can be applied to a control system
 Command Input or Reference Input yr(t)
 Disturbance Input w(t)
(External disturbances w(t) are typically uncontrolled variations in the load on a
control system). In systems controlling mechanical motions, load disturbances may
represent forces. In voltage regulating systems, variations in electrical load area major
source of disturbances.
In general, the closed loop transfer function of a system is denoted as M(s).

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

3.1 FREQUENCY RESPONSE

The response of a system for the sinusoidal input is called sinusoidal response. The
ratio of sinusoidal response to sinusoidal input is called sinusoidal transfer function of
the system and in general, it is denoted by, T(jω). The sinusoidal transfer function is the
frequency domain representation of the system and so it is also called frequency domain
transfer function.
The frequency domain transfer function T(jω) is a complex function of ω. Hence,
it can be separated into magnitude function and phase function. Now, the magnitude and
phase functions will be real functions of ω and they are called frequency response.
The frequency response can be evaluated for open loop system and closed loop
system. The frequency domain transfer function of open loop and closed loop systems
can be obtained from the s-domain transfer function by replacing ‘s’ by jω as shown:
Open loop transfer function: 𝑮(𝒋𝝎) = |𝑮(𝒋𝝎)|∠𝑮(𝒋𝝎)
Loop transfer function: 𝑮(𝒋𝝎)𝑯(𝒋𝝎) = |𝑮(𝒋𝝎)𝑯(𝒋𝝎)|∠𝑮(𝒋𝝎)𝑯(𝒋𝝎)
Closed loop transfer function: 𝑴(𝒋𝝎) = |𝑴(𝒋𝝎)|∠𝑴(𝒋𝝎)
The advantages of frequency response analysis are the following:
1. The absolute and relative stability of the closed loop system can be estimated
from the knowledge of their open loop frequency response.
2. The practical testing of systems can be easily carried with available sinusoidal
signal generators and precise measurement equipments.
3. The transfer function of complicated systems can be determined experimentally
by frequency response tests.
4. The design and parameter adjustment of the open loop transfer function of a
system for specified closed loop performance is carried out more easily in
frequency domain.
5. When the system is designed by the use of frequency response analysis, the
effects of noise disturbance and parameter variations are relatively easy to
visualize and incorporate corrective measures.
6. The frequency response analysis and designs can be extended to certain non-
linear control systems.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

The frequency response of a system is a frequency dependent function which expresses

how a sinusoidal signal of a given frequency on the system input is transferred through
the system. Time-varying signals at least periodical signals – which excite systems, as
the reference (set point) signal or a disturbance in a control system or measurement
signals which are inputs signals to signal filters, can be regarded as consisting of a sum
of frequency components. Each frequency component is a sinusoidal signal having
certain amplitude and a certain frequency. (The Fourier series expansion or the Fourier
transform can be used to express these frequency components quantitatively.) The
frequency response expresses how each of these frequency components is transferred
through the system. Some components may be amplified, others may be attenuated, and
there will be some phase lag through the system. The frequency response is an important
tool for analysis and design of signal filters (as low pass filters and high pass filters), and
for analysis, and to some extent, design, of control systems. Both signal filtering and
control systems applications are described (briefly) later in this chapter. The definition of
the frequency response – which will be given in the next section – applies only to linear
models, but this linear model may very well be the local linear model about some
operating point of a non-linear model. The frequency response can be found
experimentally or from a transfer function model. It can be presented graphically or as a
mathematical function.
FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS
The performance and characteristics of a system in frequency domain are measured
in terms of frequency domain specifications. The requirements of a system to be designed
are usually specified in terms of these specifications.
The frequency domain specifications are,
a) Resonant peak, Mr
b) Resonant frequency, ωr
c) Bandwidth, ωb
d) Cut-off rate
e) Gain margin, Kg
f) Phase margin, γ

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

Resonant peak, Mr
The maximum value of the magnitude of closed loop transfer function is called the
resonant peak, Mr. A large resonant peak corresponds to a large overshoot in transient
response. Consider the closed loop transfer function of second order system,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
= 𝑀(𝑠) = 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
The sinusoidal transfer function M(jω) is obtained by letting s=jω.
𝜔𝑛2
𝑀(𝑗𝜔) =
(𝑗𝜔)2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 (𝑗𝜔) + 𝜔𝑛2
𝜔𝑛2
=
−𝜔 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 (𝑗𝜔) + 𝜔𝑛2
𝜔𝑛2
=
𝜔2 𝜔
𝜔𝑛2 (− 2 + 2𝑗𝜁 + 1)
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
1
=
𝜔 2 𝜔
1 − ( ) + 2𝑗𝜁
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝜔
Let normalized frequency, 𝑢 = ( ),
𝜔𝑛

1
𝑀(𝑗𝜔) =
1 − 𝑢2 + 2𝑗𝜁𝑢
Let, M – Magnitude of closed loop transfer function
α – Phase of closed loop transfer function
1
𝑀 = |𝑀(𝑗𝜔)| = [(1 − 𝑢2 )2 + 4𝜁 2 𝑢2 ]−2
2𝜁𝑢
𝛼 = ∠𝑀(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1
1 − 𝑢2
The resonant peak is the maximum value of M. The condition for maximum value of M
can be obtained by differentiating the equation of M with respect to u and letting
𝜔𝑟
(dM/du=0) when (u=ur) with normalized frequency, 𝑢𝑟 = .
𝜔

On differentiating ‘M’ with respect to ‘u’, we get,

𝑑𝑀 𝑑 1
= [1 − 𝑢2 + 2𝑗𝜁𝑢]−2
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1 −
3
=− [1 − 𝑢 + 2𝑗𝜁𝑢] 2 [2(1 − 𝑢2 )(−2𝑢) + 8𝜁 2 𝑢]
2
2
[−4𝑢(1 − 𝑢2 ) + 8𝜁 2 𝑢]
=− 3
2[(1 − 𝑢2 )2 + 4𝜁 2 𝑢2 ]2
[4𝑢(1 − 𝑢2 ) − 8𝜁 2 𝑢]
=− 3
2[(1 − 𝑢2 )2 + 4𝜁 2 𝑢2 ]2
Replacing u by ur and equating dM/du to zero,
[4𝑢𝑟 (1 − 𝑢𝑟 2 ) − 8𝜁 2 𝑢𝑟 ]
3 =0
2[(1 − 𝑢𝑟 2 )2 + 4𝜁 2 𝑢𝑟 2 ]2
4𝑢𝑟 (1 − 𝑢𝑟 2 ) − 8𝜁 2 𝑢𝑟 = 0
4𝑢𝑟 − 4𝑢𝑟 3 − 8𝜁 2 𝑢𝑟 = 0
4𝑢𝑟 − 4𝑢𝑟 3 = 8𝜁 2 𝑢𝑟
4𝑢𝑟 3 = 4𝑢𝑟 − 8𝜁 2 𝑢𝑟
𝑢𝑟 2 = 1 − 2𝜁 2
𝑢𝑟 = √1 − 2𝜁 2

Therefore, the resonant peak occurs when 𝑢𝑟 = √1 − 2𝜁 2

On substituting for M with M=Mr and u=ur,
1 1
𝑀𝑟 = 1 = 1
[(1 − 𝑢𝑟 2 )2 + 4𝜁 2 𝑢𝑟 2 ]2 [(1 − (1 − 2𝜁 2 ))
2
+ 4𝜁 2 (1 − 2
2𝜁 )]
2

1 1 1 1
= 1 = 1 = 1 =
[4𝜁 4 + 4𝜁 2 − 8𝜁 4 ]2 [4𝜁 2 − 4𝜁 4 ]2 [4𝜁 2 (1 − 𝜁 2 )]2 2𝜁√1 − 𝜁 2
1
𝑀𝑟 =
2𝜁√1 − 𝜁 2
Resonant frequency, ωr
The frequency at which the resonant peak occurs is called resonant frequency, ωr.
This is related to the frequency of oscillation in the step response and thus it is indicative
of the speed of transient response.
Normalized resonant frequency,
𝜔𝑟
𝑢𝑟 = = √1 − 2𝜁 2
𝜔𝑛

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 2𝜁 2
Bandwidth, ωb
The bandwidth is the range of frequencies for which the system normalized gain is
more than -3db. The frequency at which the gain is -3db is called cut-off frequency.
Bandwidth is usually defined for closed loop system and it transmits the signals whose
frequencies are less than the cut-off frequency. The bandwidth is a measure of the ability
of a feedback system to reproduce the input signal, noise rejection characteristics and rise
time. A large bandwidth corresponds to a small rise time or fast response.
Let, normalized bandwidth,
𝜔𝑏
𝑢𝑏 =
𝜔𝑛
When u=ub, the magnitude M, of the closed loop system is 1/√2 or (-3db)
On substituting for M with u=ub and equating it to 1/√2
1 1
𝑀= 1 =
[(1 − 𝑢𝑏 2 )2 + 2 2
4𝜁 𝑢𝑏 ]2 √2

On squaring and cross multiplying, we get,

(1 − 𝑢𝑏 2 )2 + 4𝜁 2 𝑢𝑏 2 = 2
1 + 𝑢𝑏 4 − 2𝑢𝑏 2 + 4𝜁 2 𝑢𝑏 2 = 2
𝑢𝑏 4 − 2𝑢𝑏 2 (1 − 2𝜁 2 ) − 1 = 0
Let 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑏 2 ,
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥(1 − 2𝜁 2 ) − 1 = 0
Hence,
2(1 − 2𝜁 2 ) ± √4(1 − 2𝜁 2 )2 + 4 2(1 − 2𝜁 2 ) ± 2√(1 + 4𝜁 4 − 4𝜁 2 ) + 1
𝑥= =
2 2
Let us take only the positive sign,

𝑥 = 1 − 2𝜁 2 + √(2 + 4𝜁 4 − 4𝜁 2 )
But, 𝑢𝑏 = √𝑥
1
2
𝑢𝑏 = [1 − 2𝜁 2 + √(2 + 4𝜁 4 − 4𝜁 2 )]
𝜔𝑏
Also, 𝑢𝑏 =
𝜔𝑛

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1
2 2
𝜔𝑏 = 𝜔𝑛 [1 − 2𝜁 + √(2 + 4𝜁 4 − 4𝜁 2 )]

Cut-off rate
The slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut-off frequency is called cut-off
rate. The cut-off rate indicates the ability of the system to distinguish the signal from
noise.
Gain margin, Kg
The gain margin, Kg is defined as the value of gain, to be added to system, in order
to bring the system to the verge of instability. The gain margin is given by the reciprocal
of the magnitude of open loop transfer function at phase crossover frequency.
The frequency at which the phase of open loop transfer function is 180o is called
the phase crossover frequency, ωpc.
1
𝐾𝑔 =
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )|
1
𝐾𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑏 = 20 log 𝐾𝑔 = 20 log
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )|
The gain margin in db is given by the negative of the db magnitude of G(jω) at
phase crossover frequency. The gain margin indicates the additional gain that can be
provided to system without affecting the stability of the system.
[Note: The gain margin of second order system is infinite].
Phase margin, γ
The phase margin, γ is defined as the additional phase lag to be added at the gain
crossover frequency in order to bring the system to the verge of instability.
The gain crossover frequency, ωgc is the frequency at which the magnitude of the
open loop transfer function is unity (or it is the frequency at which the db magnitude is
zero).
The phase margin is obtained by adding 180o to the phase angle, 𝜙 of the open
loop transfer function at the gain crossover frequency. The phase margin indicates the
additional phase lag that can be provided to the system without affecting stability.
𝜔𝑛2
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 )

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Put s=jω,
𝜔𝑛2 𝜔𝑛2 1
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = = =
𝑗𝜔(𝑗𝜔 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 ) 𝜔𝑛 (𝑗 𝜔 )𝜔𝑛 (𝑗 𝜔 + 2𝜁) (𝑗 𝜔 )(𝑗 𝜔 + 2𝜁)
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝜔
Let normalized frequency, 𝑢 =
𝜔𝑛

1
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) =
(𝑗𝑢)(𝑗𝑢 + 2𝜁)
Magnitude of G(jω),
1 1
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| = =
(𝑢)√(𝑢2 + 4𝜁 2 ) √(𝑢4 + 4𝑢2 𝜁 2 )
Phase of G(jω),
𝑢
∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = −90𝑜 − tan−1
2𝜁
At the gain crossover frequency ωgc, the magnitude is unity.
Hence, at u=ugc,
1
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑔𝑐 )| = =1
√(𝑢𝑔𝑐 4 + 4𝑢𝑔𝑐 2 𝜁 2 )

(𝑢𝑔𝑐 4 + 4𝑢𝑔𝑐 2 𝜁 2 ) = 1
(𝑢𝑔𝑐 4 + 4𝑢𝑔𝑐 2 𝜁 2 ) − 1 = 0
Let x= ugc2
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝜁 2 − 1 = 0
−4𝜁 2 ± √16𝜁 4 + 4
𝑥= = −2𝜁 2 ± √4𝜁 4 + 1
2
Let us take only the positive sign,
𝑥 = −2𝜁 2 + √4𝜁 4 + 1
Hence,
1
2 2
𝑢𝑔𝑐 = [−2𝜁 + √4𝜁 4 + 1]

Phase margin,
𝛾 = 180𝑜 + 𝜙𝑔𝑐

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝑢𝑔𝑐
𝛾 = 180𝑜 + ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑔𝑐 ) = 180𝑜 + (−90𝑜 − tan−1 )
2𝜁
1
2 2
[−2𝜁 + √4𝜁 4 + 1]
𝛾 = 90𝑜 − tan−1
2𝜁

Figure 3.1.1 Typical magnification curve of a feedback control system

[Source: “Automatic Control Systems” by Benjamin C. Kuo, Page: 463]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

3.2 BODE PLOT

The Bode plot is a frequency response plot of the sinusoidal transfer function of a
system. One is a plot of the magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer function versus log ω. The
other is a plot of the phase angle of a sinusoidal transfer function versus log ω. The main
advantage of bode plot is that multiplication of magnitudes can be converted into
addition. Also, a simple method for sketching an approximate log-magnitude curve is
available. A Bode plot is a (semilog) plot of the transfer function magnitude and phase
angle as a function of frequency.
The gain magnitude is many times expressed in terms of decibels (dB) = 20 log 10A.
Semilog sheet
Two sets of axes: gain on top, phase below (identical)
Logarithmic frequency axes
Gain axis is logarithmic – either explicitly or as units of decibels(dB)
Phase axis is linear with units of degrees

Figure 3.2.1 Magnitude and phase plots of Bode plot

[Source: “Linear Control System Analysis and Design with MATLAB” by John J D’Azzo, Constantine, Stuart, Page: 318]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BASIC FACTORS OF G(jω)

The basic factors that are very frequently occur in a typical transfer function G(jω) are,
1. Constant gain, K
2. Integral and derivative factors (𝑗𝜔)∓1
3. First-order factors (1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑇)∓1

𝜔 𝜔 2 ∓1
4. Quadratic factors (1 + 2𝜁 (𝑗 ) + (𝑗 𝜔 ) )
𝜔𝑛 𝑛

Constant Gain, K
Let G(s)=K,
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 𝐾 = 𝐾∠0𝑜
𝐴 = |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑏 = 20 log 𝐾
𝜙 = ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 0𝑜
The magnitude plot for a constant gain K is a horizontal straight line at the magnitude of
20log K db. The phase plot is a straight line at 0o.

Figure 3.2.2 Bode plot of constant gain, K

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 3.10]

Integral Factor
Let G(s)=K/s,
𝐾 𝐾
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = = ∠ − 90𝑜
𝑗𝜔 𝜔

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝐾
𝐴 = |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑏 = 20 log ( )
𝜔
𝜙 = ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = −90𝑜
The magnitude plot of the integral factor is a straight line with the slope of -20db/dec and
passing through zero db when ω=K. The phase plot is a straight line at -90o.

Figure 3.2.3 Bode plot of integral factor, K/jω

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 3.11]

Derivative factor
Let G(s)=Ks,
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 𝐾𝑗𝜔 = 𝐾𝜔∠90𝑜
𝐴 = |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑏 = 20 log(𝐾𝜔)
𝜙 = ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = +90𝑜
The magnitude plot of the integral factor is a straight line with the slope of 20db/dec and
passing through zero db when ω=K. The phase plot is a straight line at +90o.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 3.2.4 Bode plot of derivative factor, K x jω

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 3.11]

First order factor in denominator

1
Let 𝐺(𝑠) =
1+𝑠𝑇
1 1
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = = ∠ − tan−1 𝜔𝑇
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑇 √1 + 𝜔 𝑇
2 2

1
𝐴 = |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑏 = 20 log ( )
√1 + 𝜔 2 𝑇 2
𝜙 = ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = ∠ − tan−1 𝜔𝑇
The magnitude plot of the first order factor can be approximated by two straight lines,
one is a straight line at zero db for the frequency range, 0<ω<1/T, and the other is a
straight line with slope -20db/dec for the frequency range, 1/T<ω<∞. The corner
frequency is ωc=1/T and the loss in db at the corner frequency is -3db. The phase angle
of the first order factor varies from 0o to -90o as ω is varied from zero to infinity. The
phase plot is a curve passing through -45o at ωc.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 3.2.5 Bode plot of first order factor in denominator, 1/(1+jωT)

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 3.13]

First order factor in numerator

Let 𝐺(𝑠) = 1 + 𝑠𝑇

𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑇 = √1 + 𝜔 2 𝑇 2 ∠ tan−1 𝜔𝑇

𝐴 = |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑏 = 20 log (√1 + 𝜔 2 𝑇 2 )

𝜙 = ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = ∠ tan−1 𝜔𝑇
The magnitude plot of the first order factor can be approximated by two straight lines,
one is a straight line at zero db for the frequency range, 0<ω<1/T, and the other is a
straight line with slope 20db/dec for the frequency range, 1/T<ω<∞. The corner
frequency is ωc=1/T and the loss in db at the corner frequency is +3db. The phase angle
of the first order factor varies from 0o to +90o as ω is varied from zero to infinity. The
phase plot is a curve passing through +45o at ωc.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 3.2.6 Bode plot of first order factor in numerator, (1+jωT)

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 3.14]

Quadratic factor in denominator

Second order closed loop transfer function is given by
𝜔𝑛2 1
𝐺(𝑠) = 2 =
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑠 2 𝑠
(𝜔 ) + 2𝜁 𝜔 + 1
𝑛 𝑛
1 1
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 2 = 2
𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 𝜔 𝑗𝜔
(𝜔 ) + 2𝜁 𝜔 + 1 − ( ) + 2𝜁 +1
𝑛 𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝜔
1 2𝜁
𝜔𝑛
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = ∠ −tan−1 ( )
𝜔2
𝜔 2 𝜔 2 1− 2
√(1 − 2 ) + 4𝜁 2 2 𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

At low frequencies when ω<<ωn, the magnitude is,

𝜔2 2
𝜔4
𝐴 = −20 log √1 − 2 (2 − 4𝜁 ) + 4 ≅ −20 log 1 = 0
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

At high frequencies when ω>>ωn, the magnitude is,

𝜔2 2
𝜔4
𝐴 = −20 log √1 − (2 )
− 4𝜁 + 4
𝜔𝑛 2 𝜔𝑛

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝜔4 𝜔2 𝜔 2
𝐴 ≅ −20 log √ 4 = − 20 log 2 = −20 log ( )
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

𝜔
2𝜁
𝜔𝑛
𝜙 = ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = − tan−1 ( )
𝜔2
1− 2
𝜔𝑛
The magnitude plot of the quadratic factor in the denominator can be approximated by
two straight lines, one is a straight line at zero db for the frequency range, 0<ω< ω n, and
the other is a straight line with slope -40db/dec for the frequency range, ωn<ω<∞. The
frequency at which the two asymptotes meet is called the corner frequency. For the
quadratic factor, the frequency, ωn is the corner frequency, ωc. The phase angle of the
quadratic factor varies from 0o to -180o as ω is varied from zero to infinity. The phase
plot is a curve passing through -90o at ωc. At the corner frequency, phase angle is -90o
and independent of 𝜁, but at all other frequency it depends on 𝜁.

Figure 3.2.7 Bode plot of quadratic factor in denominator

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 3.15]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Quadratic factor in the numerator

𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑠 2 𝑠
𝐺(𝑠) = = ( ) + 2𝜁 +1
𝜔𝑛2 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝑗𝜔 2 𝑗𝜔 𝜔 2 𝑗𝜔
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = ( ) + 2𝜁 + 1 = − ( ) + 2𝜁 +1
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝜔
𝜔2 𝜔 2 2𝜁
𝜔𝑛
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = √(1 − 2 ) + 4𝜁 2 2 ∠ tan−1 ( )
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔2
1− 2
𝜔𝑛
At low frequencies when ω<<ωn, the magnitude is,

𝜔2 2
𝜔4
𝐴 = 20 log √1 − 2 (2 − 4𝜁 ) + 4 ≅ 20 log 1 = 0
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

At high frequencies when ω>>ωn, the magnitude is,

𝜔2 2) +
𝜔4
𝐴 = 20 log √1 − (2 − 4𝜁
𝜔𝑛 2 𝜔𝑛 4

𝜔4 𝜔2 𝜔 2
𝐴 ≅ 20 log √ 4 = 20 log 2 = 20 log ( )
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

𝜔
2𝜁
𝜔𝑛
𝜙 = ∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = tan−1 ( )
𝜔2
1− 2
𝜔𝑛
The magnitude plot of the quadratic factor in the denominator can be approximated by
two straight lines, one is a straight line at zero db for the frequency range, 0<ω< ω n, and
the other is a straight line with slope +40db/dec for the frequency range, ωn<ω<∞. The
frequency at which the two asymptotes meet is called the corner frequency. For the
quadratic factor, the frequency, ωn is the corner frequency, ωc. The phase angle of the
quadratic factor varies from 0o to +180o as ω is varied from zero to infinity. The phase
plot is a curve passing through +90o at ωc. At the corner frequency, phase angle is +90o
and independent of 𝜁, but at all other frequency it depends on 𝜁.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 3.2.8 Bode plot of quadratic factor in numerator

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 3.16]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

PROCEDURE FOR MAGNITUDE PLOT OF BODE PLOT

Step 1: Convert the transfer function into Bode form or time constant form.
Step 2: List the corner frequencies in the increasing order and prepare a table as shown
Corner frequency Slope Change in Slope
Term
rad/sec db/dec db/dec

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

In the above table, enter K or K/(jω)n or K(jω)n as the first term and the other terms in the
increasing order of corner frequencies. Then enter the corner frequency, slope contributed
by each term and change in slope at every corner frequency.
Step 3: Choose an arbitrary frequency ωl which is lesser than the lowest corner frequency.
Calculate the db magnitude of K or K/(jω)n or K(jω)n at ωl and at the lowest corner
frequency.
Step 4: Then calculate the gain (db magnitude) at every corner frequency one by one by
using the formula,
Gain at ωy = change in gain from ωx to ωy + Gain at ωx
Ay = (Slope from ωx to ωy x log(ωy/ ωx) + Gain at ωx
Step 5: Choose an arbitrary frequency ωh which is greater than the highest corner
frequency. Calculate the gain at ωh by using the formula in step 4.
Step 6: In a semilog graph sheet mark the required range of frequency on x-axis (log
scale) and the range of db magnitude on y-axis (ordinary scale) after choosing proper
units.
Step 7: Mark all the points obtained in steps 3, 4, 5 on the graph and join the points by
straight lines. Mark the slope at every part of the graph.
PROCEDURE FOR PHASE PLOT OF BODE PLOT
The phase plot is an exact plot obtained with exact phase angles of G(jω) computed
for various values of ω and is then tabulated. The choice of frequencies are preferably the
frequencies chosen for magnitude plot. Usually the magnitude plot and phase plot are
drawn in a single semilog sheet on a common frequency scale. Take another y-axis in the
graph where the magnitude plot is drawn and, in this y-axis, mark the desired range of
phase angles after choosing proper units. From the tabulated values of ω and phase angles,
mark all the points on the graph. Join the points by a smooth curve.
DETERMINATION OF GAIN MARGIN AND PHASE MARGIN FROM BODE PLOT
The gain margin in db is given by the negative of db magnitude of G(jω) at the
phase crossover frequency, ωpc. The ωpc is the frequency at which phase of G(jω) is 180o.
if the db magnitude of G(jω) at ωpc is negative then gain margin is positive and vice versa.
Let Φgc be the phase angle of G(jω) at gain cross over frequency, ω gc. The ωgc is
the frequency at which the db magnitude of G(jω) is zero. Now the phase margin, γ is

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

given by, γ = 180o+ Φgc. If Φgc is less negative than -180o, then phase margin is positive
and vice versa. The positive and negative gain margins and phase margins are illustrated
in figure 3.2.9.

Figure 3.2.9 Gain margin and Phase margin in Bode plot

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 3.20]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

3.3 POLAR PLOT

The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude
G(jω) versus the phase angle of G(jω) on polar coordinates as ω is varied from zero to
infinity. Thus, the polar plot is the locus of vectors |G(jω)| < as ω is varied from zero to
infinity. The polar plot is also called Nyquist plot. It is a graphical method of determining
stability of feedback control systems by using the polar plot of their open-loop transfer
functions. Polar plot is a plot to be drawn between magnitude and phase. Polar plot is a
plot of magnitude of G(jω) versus the phase of G(jω) in polar co-ordinates. But the
magnitudes are presented with normal values only. The Polar plot is a plot, which can be
drawn between the magnitude and the phase angle of G(jω) H(jω) by differentiating g ω
from zero to ∞. The polar graph sheet is described in below mentioned image. This graph
sheet includes various concentric circles and radial lines. The concentric circles and the
radial lines are considered as the magnitudes and phase angles.
• Angles are highlighted with positive values in anti-clock wise direction.
• Mark angles with negative values in clockwise direction.
The polar plot is usually plotted on a polar graph sheet. The polar graph sheet has
concentric circles and radial lines. The circles represent the magnitude and the radial lines
represent the phase angles. Each point on the polar graph has a magnitude and phase
angle. The magnitude of a point is given by the value of the circle passing through that
point and the phase angle is given by the radial line passing through that point. In polar
graph sheet a positive phase angle is measured in anticlockwise from the reference axis
(0º) and a negative angle is measured clockwise from the reference axis (0º). In order to
plot the polar plot, magnitude and phase of G(jω) are computed for various values of ω
and tabulated. Usually the choice of frequencies are corner frequencies and frequencies
around corner frequencies. Choose proper scale for the magnitude circles. Fix all the
points on polar graph sheet and join the points by smooth curve, write the frequency
corresponding to each point of the plot. Alternatively, if G(jω) can be expressed in
rectangular coordinates as,
G(jω) = GR(jω) + jGi(jω)
where, GR(jω) = Real part of G(jω), Gi(jω) = Imaginary part of G(jω)

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Then the polar plot can be plotted in ordinary graph sheet between G R(jω) and Gi(jω) by
varying ω from 0 to infinity. In order to plot the polar plot on ordinary graph sheet, the
magnitude and phase if G(jω) are computed for various values of ω. Then convert the
polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates using P  R conversion (polar to rectangular
conversion) in the calculator. Sketch the polar plot using rectangular coordinates. For
minimum phase transfer function with only poles, type number of the system determines
the quadrant at which the polar plot starts and the order of the system determines quadrant
at which the polar plot ends. The minimum phase systems are systems with all poles and
zeros on left half of s-plane. The start and end of polar plot of all pole minimum phase
system are shown in figures respectively. Some typical sketches of polar plot are shown
in table. The change in shape of polar plot can be predicted due to addition of a pole or
zero.
1. When a pole is added to s system, the polar plot end point will shift by -90º.
2. When a zero is added to s system, the polar plot end point will shift by +90º.

Figure 3.3.1 Start and end of polar plot of all pole minimum phase system
[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 3.38]

RULES FOR DRAWING POLAR PLOT

 Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.
 Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω) H(jω).
 Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω) H(jω) by substituting
ω=0. So, the polar plot starts with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Find the ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω) H(jω) by substituting
ω=∞. So, the polar plot ends with this magnitude and the phase angle.
 Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the
imaginary term of G(jω) H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

 Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real
term of G(jω) H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
 For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase of G(jω)
H(jω) by considering the other value(s) of ω.
DETERMINATION OF GAIN MARGIN AND PHASE MARGIN FROM POLAR
PLOT
The gain margin is defined as the inverse of the magnitude of G(jω) at phase
crossover frequency. The phase crossover frequency is the frequency at which the phase
of G(jω) is 180º. Let the polar plot cut the 180º axis at point B and the magnitude circle
passing through the point B be GB. Now the gain margin, Kg = 1/ GB. If the point B lies
within unity circle, the gain margin is positive otherwise negative. If the polar plot is
drawn in ordinary graph sheet using rectangular coordinates then the point B is the cutting
point of G(jω) locus with negative real axis and K g = 1/|GB| where GB is the magnitude
corresponding to point B). The phase margin is defined as, phase margin, γ = 180o+ Φgc
is the phase angle of G(jω) at gain crossover frequency. The gain crossover frequency is
the frequency at which the magnitude of G(jω) is unity. Let the polar plot cut the unity
circle at point A as shown in figures. Now the phase margin, γ is given by ∠AOP, i.e.,
∠AOP is below -180º axis then the phase margin is positive and if it is above -180º axis
then the phase margin is negative.

Figure 3.3.2 Polar plot with positive and negative gain and phase margins
[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 3.41]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

GAIN ADJUSTMENT USING POLAR PLOT

To determine K for specified GM
Draw G(jω) locus with K = 1. Let it cut the -180º axis at point B corresponding to gain
of GB. Let the specified gain margin be x db. For this gain margin, the G(jω) locus will
cut -180º at point A whose magnitude is G A.
1
20 log =𝑥
𝐺𝐴
1 𝑥
log =
𝐺𝐴 20
1 𝑥
= 1020
𝐺𝐴
1
𝐺𝐴 = 𝑥
10 20

Now the value of K is given by, K = GA/GB

If, K>1, then the system gain should be increased.
If K<1, then the system gain should be reduced.
To determine K for specified PM
Draw G(jω) locus with K = 1. Let it cut the unity circle at point B. (The gain at point B
is GB and equal to unity). Let the specified phase margin be xº. For a phase margin of xº,
let Φgcx be the phase angle of G(jω) at gain crossover frequency.
𝑥 𝑜 = 180𝑜 + ϕ𝑔𝑐𝑥
ϕ𝑔𝑐𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑜 − 180𝑜
In the polar plot, the radial line corresponding to will cut the locus of G(jω) with K = 1
at point A and the magnitude corresponding to that point be G A.
Now, K = GB/GA = 1/GA (since GB = 1)

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

3.4 DETERMINATION OF CLOSED LOOP RESPONSE FROM OPEN LOOP

RESPONSE
M and N circles
Peak magnitude
𝐶(𝑗𝜔)
𝑀𝑟 = 20 log | | 𝑑𝐵
𝑅(𝑗𝜔)
where, 3 dB is considered good.
M-CIRCLES
𝐺(𝑗𝜔)
𝑀(𝑗𝜔) =
1 + 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑋 + 𝑗𝑌
𝑌
𝑋 + 𝑗𝑌 √𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 ∠ tan−1 (𝑋)
𝑀(𝑗𝜔) = =
1 + 𝑋 + 𝑗𝑌 √(1 + 𝑋)2 + 𝑌 2 ∠ tan−1 ( 𝑌 )
1+𝑋
√𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 𝑌 𝑌
= ∠ tan−1 ( ) − tan−1 ( )
√(1 + 𝑋)2 + 𝑌 2 𝑋 1+𝑋

Let, M = Magnitude of M(jω)

√𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2
|𝑀(𝑗𝜔)| =
√(1 + 𝑋)2 + 𝑌 2
𝑀2 (1 + 𝑋)2 + 𝑀2 𝑌 2 = 𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2
𝑋 2 (1 − 𝑀2 ) + (1 − 𝑀2 )𝑌 2 − 2𝑀2 𝑋 = 𝑀2

2 2
𝑀2 𝑀2
𝑋 +𝑌 −2 𝑋=
(1 − 𝑀2 ) (1 − 𝑀 2 )
2
𝑀2
Adding ( ) on both sides, we get,
(1−𝑀2 )
2 2
𝑀2 2
𝑀
(𝑋 − ) +𝑌 =( )
(1 − 𝑀2 ) (1 − 𝑀 2 )
The above equation represents a family of circles with its
𝑀2 𝑀
centre at ( , 0) and radius
(1−𝑀2 ) (1−𝑀2 )

Family of M-circles corresponding to the closed loop magnitudes, M of a unit feedback

system is given by the figure 3.4.1.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 3.4.1 Constant M-circles in the polar co-ordinates

[Source: “Automatic Control Systems” by Benjamin C. Kuo, Page: 487]

N-CIRCLES
∠𝐺(𝑗𝜔)
∠𝑀(𝑗𝜔) = 𝛼 =
∠(1 + 𝐺(𝑗𝜔))
𝑌 𝑌
𝛼 = tan−1− tan−1
𝑋 1+𝑋
𝑌 𝑌
tan 𝛼 = 𝑁 = tan (tan−1 − tan−1 )
𝑋 1+𝑋
We know,
tan 𝐴 − tan 𝐵
tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 + tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵
𝑌
N =( 2 )
𝑋 + 𝑋 + 𝑌2
1 2 1 2 1 1 2
(𝑋 + ) + (𝑌 − ) = +( )
2 2𝑁 4 2𝑁
The above equation represents the family of circles with its

1 1 1 1 2
Centre at (− ,
2 2𝑁
) and radius √4 + (2𝑁)

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 3.4.2 Constant N-circles in the polar co-ordinates

[Source: “Automatic Control Systems” by Benjamin C. Kuo, Page: 490]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

3.5 CORRELATION BETWEEN FREQUENCY DOMAIN AND TIME DOMAIN

SPECIFICATIONS
For a second order system,
𝐶 (𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
Put s=jω
𝐶 (𝑗𝜔) 𝜔𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑗𝜔) −𝜔 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑗𝜔 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝐶 (𝑗𝜔) 1
=
𝑅(𝑗𝜔) 𝜔2 𝜔
− 2 + 2𝜁𝑗 +1
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝜔
Let 𝑢 = , then
𝜔𝑛

𝐶 (𝑗𝜔) 1
=
𝑅(𝑗𝜔) (1 − 𝑢2 ) + 2𝜁𝑗𝑢
We know,
𝑀(𝑗𝜔) = |𝑀(𝑗𝜔)|∠𝑀(𝑗𝜔)
1
|𝑀(𝑗𝜔)| =
√(1 − 𝑢2 )2 + (2𝜁𝑢)2
2𝜁𝑢
𝜃 = − tan−1 ( )
1 − 𝑢2
Now,
1
𝑀𝑟 =
2
2𝜁 √ 1 − 𝜁

2
𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 2𝜁

2 4 2
𝜔𝑏 = 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 2𝜁 + √4𝜁 − 4𝜁 + 2

𝑃𝑀 = −180𝑜 + 𝜙
where,

2𝜁
𝜙 = tan−1
√√4𝜁2 + 1 − 2𝜁2
( )

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

3.6 NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION

Nyquist criterion is a graphical method of determining stability of feedback control
systems by using the Nyquist plot of their open-loop transfer functions.
Feedback transfer function
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
Poles and zeros of the open loop transfer function
𝐾(𝑠 − 𝑧1 )(𝑠 − 𝑧2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑚 )
𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
(𝑠 − 𝑝1 )(𝑠 − 𝑝2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 )
(𝑠 − 𝑝1 )(𝑠 − 𝑝2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 ) + 𝐾(𝑠 − 𝑧1 )(𝑠 − 𝑧2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑚 )
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
(𝑠 − 𝑝1 )(𝑠 − 𝑝2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 )
Number of closed loop poles – Number of zeros of 1+GH = Number of open loop poles
(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐1 )(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐𝑚 )
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
(𝑠 − 𝑝1 )(𝑠 − 𝑝2 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 )
where, zc1, zc2, ….., zcm = zeros of 1+G(s)H(s)
These are also poles of the closed loop transfer function
|(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐1 )||(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐2 )| … |(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐𝑚 )|
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒, |1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)| =
|(𝑠 − 𝑝1 )||(𝑠 − 𝑝2 )| … |(𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 )|
∠(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐1 )∠(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐2 ) … ∠(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐𝑚 )
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, ∠1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
∠(𝑠 − 𝑝1 )∠(𝑠 − 𝑝2 ) … ∠(𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 )
The s-plane to 1+GH plane mapping phase angle of the 1+G(s)H(s) vector,
corresponding to a point on the s-plane is the difference between the sum of the phase
of all vectors drawn from zeros of 1+GH (closed loop poles) and open loops on the s
plane. If this point s is moved along a closed contour enclosing any or all of the above
zeros and poles, only the phase of the vector of each of the enclosed zeros or open-loop
poles will change by 3600. The direction will be in the same sense of the contour
enclosing zeros and in the opposite sense for the contour enclosing open-loop poles. A
stability test for time invariant linear systems can also be derived in the frequency
domain. It is known as Nyquist stability criterion. It is based on the complex analysis
result known as Cauchy’s principle of argument. Note that the system transfer function
is a complex function. By applying Cauchy’s principle of argument to the open-loop
system transfer function, we will get information about stability of the closed-loop

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

system transfer function and arrive at the Nyquist stability criterion (Nyquist, 1932).
The importance of Nyquist stability lies in the fact that it can also be used to determine
the relative degree of system stability by producing the so-called phase and gain stability
margins. These stability margins are needed for frequency domain controller design
techniques. Only the essence of the Nyquist stability criterion is presented and the phase
and gain stability margins are defined. The Nyquist method is used for studying the
stability of linear systems with pure time delay.
For a SISO feedback system the closed-loop transfer function is given by,
𝐺(𝑠)
𝑀(𝑠) =
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
where, G(s) represents the system and H(s) is the feedback element. Since the system
poles are determined as those values at which its transfer function becomes infinity, it
follows that the closed-loop system poles are obtained by solving the following
equation.
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = 0 = ∆(𝑠)
which, in fact, represents the system characteristic equation.
Principles of Argument
When a closed contour in the s-plane encloses a certain number of poles and zeros of
1+G(s)H(s) in the clockwise direction, the number of encirclements of the origin by the
corresponding contour in the G(s)H(s) plane will encircle the point (-1,0) a number of
times given by the difference between the number of its zeros and poles of 1+G(s)H(s) it
enclosed on the s-plane. Let F(s) be an analytic function in a closed region of the complex
plane given in figure 3.6.1 except at a finite number of points (namely, the poles of
F(s)). It is also assumed that F(s) is analytic at everypoint on the contour. Then, as
s travels around the contour in the s - plane in the clockwise direction, the function
encircles the origin in the (Re{F(s)}, Im{F(s)}) - plane in the same direction times
(see figure 4.3.1), with given by,
N=Z–P
where Z and P stand for the number of zeros and poles (including their multiplicities) of
the function F(s) inside the contour.
𝑎𝑟𝑔{𝐹(𝑠)} = (𝑍 − 𝑃)2𝜋 = 2𝜋𝑁

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 3.6.1 s-plane and F(s) plane contours

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 4.27]

Contour in the s-plane

The Nyquist plot is a polar plot of the function D(s) = 1+G(s)H(s) when ‘s’ travels around
the contour given in figure 3.6.2.

Figure 3.6.2 Nyquist contour when the poles are on imaginary axis and at origin
[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 4.33]

Phase and Gain Stability Margins

Two important notions can be derived from the Nyquist diagram: phase and gain stability
margins. The phase and gain stability margins are presented in figure 3.6.3.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 3.6.3 Gain and Phase margin

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 4.33]

They give the degree of relative stability; in other words, they tell how far the given
system is from the instability region. Their formal definitions are given by
𝑃𝑀 = 180𝑜 + 𝑎𝑟𝑔{𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑔𝑐 )𝐻(𝑗𝜔𝑔𝑐 )}
1
𝐺𝑀(𝑑𝐵) = 20 log , (𝑑𝐵)
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )𝐻(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )|
where, ωgc and ωpc stand for gain and phase crossover frequency respectively.
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑔𝑐 )𝐻(𝑗𝜔𝑔𝑐 )| = 1 ⇒ 𝜔𝑔𝑐
𝑎𝑟𝑔{𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )𝐻(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )} = 180𝑜 ⇒ 𝜔𝑝𝑐
PROCEDURE FOR INVESTIGATING STABILITY USING NYQUIST CRITERION
The following procedure can be followed to investigate the stability of closed loop system
from the knowledge of open loop system, using Nyquist stability criterion.
1. Choose a Nyquist contour as shown in figure, which encloses the entire right half s-
plane except the singular points. The Nyquist contour encloses all the right half s-
plane poles and zeros of G(s)H(s). [The poles on imaginary axis are singular points
and so they are avoided by taking a detour around it as shown in figures.
2. The Nyquist contour should be mapped in the G(s)H(s)-plane using the function
G(s)H(s) to determine the encirclement -1 + j0 point in the G(s)H(s)-plane. The

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Nyquist contour of the figure can be divided into four sections C 1.C2.C3 and C4. The
mapping of the four sections in the G(s)H(s)-plane can be carried sectionwise and then
combined together to get entire G(s)H(s)-contour.
3. In section C1, the value of ω varies from 0 to + infinite. The mapping of section C 1 is
obtained by letting s = jω in G(s)H(s) and varying ω from 0 to + infinite.
The locus of G(jω)H(jω) as ω is varied from 0 to + infinite will be the G(s)H(s)-
contour in G(s)H(s)-plane corresponding to section C1 in s-plane. This locus is the
plot of G(jω)H(jω). There are three ways of mapping this section of G(s)H(s)-contour,
they are,
(i) Calculate the values of G(jω)H(jω) for various values of ω and sketch the actual
locus of G(jω)H(jω).
(or)
(ii) Separate the real part and imaginary part of G(jω)H(jω). Equate the imaginary
part to zero, to find the frequency at which the G(jω)H(jω) locus crosses real axis
( to find phase crossover frequency). Substitute this frequency on real part and
find the crossing point of the locus on real axis. Sketch the approximate locus of
G(jω)H(jω) from the knowledge of type number and order of the system (or from
the value of G(jω)H(jω) at ω = 0 and ω = infinite).
(or)
(iii) Separate the magnitude and phase of G(jω)H(jω). Equate the phase of
G(jω)H(jω) to -180º and solve for ω. This value of ω is the phase crossover
frequency and the magnitude at this frequency is the crossing point on real axis.
Sketch the approximate root locus as mentioned in method (ii).
4. The section C2 of Nyquist contour has a semicircle of infinite radius. Therefore, every
point on section C2 has infinite magnitude but the argument varies from +π/2 to - π/2.
Consider the loop transfer function in time constant form and with y number of poles
at origin, as shown below. Let G(s)H(s) has m zeros & n poles including poles at
origin. For practical systems, n>m. From the above two equations we can conclude
that the section C2 of Nyquist contour in s-plane is mapped as circles/circular are
around origin with radius tending to zero in the G(s)H(s)-plane.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5. In section C3, the value of ω varies from -∞ to 0. The mapping of section C3 is

obtained by letting s=jω in G(s)H(s) and varying ω from -∞ to 0. The locus of
G(jω)H(jω) as ω is varied from -∞ to 0 will be the G(s)H(s)-contour in G(s)H(s)-plane
corresponding to section C3 in s-plane. This locus is the inverse polar plot of
G(jω)H(jω). The inverse polar plot is given by the mirror image of polar plot with
respect to real axis.
6. The section C4 of Nyquist contour has a semicircle of zero radius. Therefore, every
point on semicircle has zero magnitude but the argument varies from -π/2 to π/2.
Hence the mapping of section C4 from s-plane to G(s)H(s)-plane can be obtained by
letting in G(s)H(s) and varying θ from -π/2 to π/2.
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
For ordinary random inputs (i.e. inputs such that the error E is a stationary random
function of time t), it is usual to adopt the mean -square- error as the performance
criterion. This is the analogue of integral- square-error for simple transient inputs.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

4.1 CONCEPT OF STATE VARIABLES

State space analysis is an excellent method for the design and analysis of control
systems. The conventional and old method for the design and analysis of control systems
is the transfer function method. The transfer function method for design and analysis had
many drawbacks.
Drawbacks of transfer function model analysis:
a. Transfer function is defined under zero initial conditions
b. Transfer function is applicable to linear time invariant systems
c. Transfer function analysis is restricted to single input and single output systems
d. Does not provide information regarding the internal state of the system
Advantages of state variable analysis:
o It can be applied to linear system
o It can be applied to non-linear system
o It can be applied to time varying system
o It can be applied to time invariant system
o It can be applied to multiple input multiple output system
o Its gives idea about the internal state of the system
A state variable is one of the set of variables that are used to describe the mathematical
"state" of a dynamical system. Intuitively, the state of a system describes enough about
the system to determine its future behaviour in the absence of any external forces
affecting the system. The state variable analysis can be applied for any type of systems.
In this method of analysis, it is not necessary that the state variables represent physical
quantities of the system, but variables that do not represent physical quantities and those
that are neither measurable nor observable may be chosen as state variables.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

STATE SPACE FORMULATION

State:
The state of a dynamic system is the minimal set of variables called state variables such
that the knowledge of these variables at time t = t 0 (initial condition), together with the
knowledge of input for t ≥ 𝑡0, completely determines the behaviour of the system for any
time 𝑡 > 𝑡0. (or) A set of variables which describes the system at any time instant are
called state variables. In the state variable formulation of a system, in general, a system
consists of m-inputs, p-outputs and n-state variables. The state space representation of
the system may be visualized as shown in figure 4.1.1.

Figure 4.1.1 State space representation of a system

[Source: “Control Systems” by A. Nagoor Kani, Page: 5.2]

Let us consider a multi input & multi output (MIMO) system is having
m inputs: u1(t), u2(t), ……., um(t)
p number of outputs: y1(t), y2(t), ……., yp(t)
n number of state variables: x1(t), x2(t), ……., xn(t)
The different variables may be represented by the vectors (column matrix) as shown
below:
Input vector
𝑢1 (𝑡)
𝑢 (𝑡)
𝑈 (𝑡 ) = [ 2 ]
⋮
𝑢𝑚 (𝑡)

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Output vector
𝑦1 (𝑡)
𝑦 (𝑡)
𝑌 (𝑡 ) = [ 2 ]
⋮
𝑦𝑝 (𝑡)
State variable vector
𝑥1 (𝑡)
𝑥 (𝑡)
𝑋 (𝑡 ) = [ 2 ]
⋮
𝑥𝑛 (𝑡)
State vector:
If n state variables are needed to completely describe the behaviour of a given system,
then these n state variables can be considered the n components of a vector X. Such a
vector is called a state vector.
State space:
The n-dimensional space whose co-ordinate axes consists of the x1 axis, x2 axis………..
xn axis, where x1, x2, ....., xn are state variables is called a state space.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

4.2 STATE MODELS FOR LINEAR AND TIME INVARIANT SYSTEMS

State model is given by state and output equation
State equation:
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
Output equation:
𝑌(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑡)
where,
A is state matrix of size (n x n)
B is the input matrix of size (n x m)
C is the output matrix of size (p x n)
D is the direct transmission matrix of size (p x m)
X(t) is the state vector of size (n x 1)
Y(t) is the output vector of size (p x 1)
U(t) is the input vector of size (m x 1)

Figure 4.2.1 State space model diagram

[Source: “Modern Control Engineering” by Katsuhiko Ogata, Page: 828]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION USING PHYSICAL VARIABLES

In state-space modelling of systems, the choice of state variables is arbitrary. One
of the possible choices of state variables. The physical variables of electrical systems are
current or voltage in the R, L and C elements. The physical variables of mechanical
systems are displacement, velocity and acceleration. The advantages of choosing the
physical variables (or quantities) of the system as state variables are the following,
1. The state variables can be utilized for the purpose of feedback
2. The implementation of design with state variable feedback becomes straight
forward
3. The solution of state equation gives time variation of variables which have direct
relevance to the physical system.
The drawback in choosing the physical quantities as state variables is that the solution of
state equation may be a difficult task. In state space modelling using physical variables,
the state equations are obtained from a basic model of the system which is developed
using the fundamental elements of the system.
Electrical System
The basic model of an electrical system can be obtained by using the fundamental
elements Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor. Using these elements, the electrical network
or equivalent circuit of the system is drawn. Then the differential equations governing
the electrical systems can be formed by writing Kirchhoff’s Current Law equations by
choosing various nodes in the network or Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law by choosing various
closed path in the network. A minimal number of state variables are chosen for obtaining
the state model of the system. The best choice of state variables in electrical system are
currents and voltages in energy storage elements. The energy storage elements are
inductance and capacitance. The physical variables in the differential equations are
replaced by state variables and the equations are rearranged as first order differential
equations. These set of first order equations constitutes the state equation of the system.
The inputs to the system are voltage sources or current sources. The outputs in electrical
system are usually voltages or currents in energy dissipating elements. The resistance is
energy dissipating element in electrical network. In general, the output variables can be
any voltage or current in the network.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Mechanical Translational System

The basic model of mechanical translational system can be obtained by using three
basic elements; mass, spring and dash-pot. When a force is applied to a mechanical
translational system, it is opposed by opposing forces due to mass, friction and elasticity
of the system. The forces acting on a body are governed by Newton’s second law of
motion. The differential equations governing the system are obtaining by writing force
balance equations at various nodes in the system. A node is a meeting points of elements.
Guidelines to form the state model of mechanical translational systems
1. For each node in the system one differential equation can be framed by equating the
sum of applied forces to the sum of opposing forces. Generally, the nodes are mass
elements of the system, but in some cases the nodes may be without mass element.
2. Assign a displacement to each node and draw a free body diagram for each node. The
free body diagram is obtained by drawing each mass of node separately and them
marking all the forces acting on it.
3. In the free body diagram, the opposing forces due to mass, spring and dash –pot are
always act in a direction opposite to applied force. The displacement, velocity and
acceleration will be in the direction of applied force or in the direction opposite to that
of opposing force.
4. For each free body diagram write one differential equation by equating the sum of
applied forces to the sum of opposing forces.
5. Choose a minimum number of state variables. The choice of state variables are
displacement, velocity or acceleration.
6. The physical variables in differential equations are replaced by state variables and the
equations are rearranged as first order differential equations. These set of first order
equations constitute the state equation of the system.
7. The inputs are the applied forces and the outputs are the displacement, velocity or
acceleration of the desired nodes.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Mechanical Rotational System

The basic model of mechanical rotational system can be obtained by using three
basic elements moment of inertia of mass, rotational dash-pot and rotational spring. When
a torque is applied to a mechanical rotational system, it is opposed by opposing torques
due to moment of inertia, friction and elasticity of the system. The torque acting on a
body are governed by Newton’s second law of motion. The differential equations
governing the system are obtained by writing torque balance equations at various nodes
in the system. A node is a meeting point of elements.
Guidelines to form the state model of mechanical rotational systems
1. For each node in the system one differential equation can be framed by equating the
sum of applied torques to the sum of opposing torques. Generally, the nodes are mass
elements of the system, but in some cases the nodes may be without mass element.
2. Assign an angular displacement to each node and draw a free body diagram for each
node. The free body diagram is obtained by drawing each mass of node separately and
them marking all the torques acting on it.
3. In the free body diagram, the opposing torques due to mass of inertia, spring and
dashpot are always act in a direction opposite to applied force. The angular
displacement, velocity and acceleration will be in the direction of applied torque or in
the direction opposite to that of opposing torque.
4. For each free body diagram write one differential equation by equating the sum of
applied torques to the sum of opposing torques.
5. Choose a minimum number of state variables. The choice of state variables are angular
displacement, velocity or acceleration.
6. The physical variables in differential equations are replaced by state variables and the
equations are rearranged as first order differential equations. These set of first order
equations constitute the state equation of the system.
7. The inputs are the applied torques and the outputs are the angular displacement,
velocity or acceleration of the desired nodes.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION USING PHASE VARIABLES

The phase variables are defined as those particular state variables which are obtained
from one of the system variables and its derivatives. There are three methods of modelling
a system using phase variables. They are,
METHOD 1
Consider the following nth order linear differential equation relating the output y(t) to the
input u(t) of a system,
𝑦̇ 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑦̇ 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑦̇ 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑦̈ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦̇ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑢
By choosing the output, y and their derivatives as state variables, we get,
𝑥1 = 𝑦
𝑥2 = 𝑦̇
𝑥3 = 𝑦̈
⋮
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑦̇ 𝑛−1
𝑥𝑛̇ = 𝑦̇ 𝑛
𝑥𝑛̇ + 𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑎2 𝑥𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥3 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 = 𝑏𝑢
𝑥𝑛̇ = −𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑎2 𝑥𝑛−1 − ⋯ − 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥3 − 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑢
The state equations of the system are
𝑥1̇ = 𝑥2
𝑥2̇ = 𝑥3
𝑥3̇ = 𝑥4
⋮
𝑥̇ 𝑛−1 = 𝑥𝑛
𝑥𝑛̇ = −𝑎1 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑎2 𝑥𝑛−1 − ⋯ − 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥3 − 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑢
On arranging the above equations in the matrix form, we get,
𝑥1̇ 0 1 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥2̇ 0 0 1 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥 2 0
𝑥3̇ 0 0 0 1 ⋮ 0 𝑥3 0
= ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ + 𝑢
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇ 𝑛−1 0 0 0 0 ⋮ 1 𝑥𝑛−1 0
[ 𝑥 ̇ ] [−𝑎𝑛 −𝑎𝑛−1 −𝑎𝑛−2 −𝑎𝑛−3 ⋮ −𝑎1 ] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [𝑏]
𝑛

𝑋̇ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

This form of matrix A is known as Bush form (or) Companion form.

𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑥3
𝑦 = [1 0 0 ⋯ 0 0 ]
⋮
𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋
METHOD 2
Consider the following nth order linear differential equation relating the output y(t) to the
input u(t) of a system,
𝑦̇ 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑦̇ 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑦̇ 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑦̈ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦̇ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑢
Let n = m = 3
𝑦⃛ + 𝑎1 𝑦̈ + 𝑎2 𝑦̇ + 𝑎3 𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑢
⃛ + 𝑏1 𝑢̈ + 𝑏2 𝑢̇ + 𝑏3 𝑢
On taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions, we get,
𝑠 3 𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎3 𝑌(𝑠)
= 𝑏0 𝑠 3 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏1 𝑠 2 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏2 𝑠𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏3 𝑈(𝑠)
[𝑠 3 + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 + 𝑎3 ]𝑌(𝑠) = [𝑏0 𝑠 3 + 𝑏1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏2 𝑠 + 𝑏3 ]𝑈(𝑠)
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
3
𝑌(𝑠) [𝑏0 𝑠 3 + 𝑏1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏2 𝑠 + 𝑏3 ] 𝑠 [𝑏0 + 𝑠 + 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 3 ] [𝑏0 + 1 + 22 + 33 ]
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
= 3 2
= 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑈(𝑠) [𝑠 + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎2 𝑠 + 𝑎3 ] 𝑠 3 [1 + 1 + 22 + 33 ] 1 − [− 1 − 22 − 33 ]
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
From Mason’s gain formula, the transfer function of the system is given by,
1
𝑇(𝑠) = ∑ 𝑃𝐾 ∆𝐾
∆
𝐾

where, PK – path gain of Kth forward path

Δ = 1 – (sum of loop gain of all individual loops) + (sum of gain products of all
possible combinations of two non-touching loops) – ……..
ΔK = Δ for that part of the graph which is not touching Kth forward path
The transfer function of the system with four forward paths and three feedback loops
(touching each other) is given by,
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + 𝑃4
𝑇(𝑠) =
1 − (𝑃11 + 𝑃12 + 𝑃13 )

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

By comparing the above equations,

𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝑃1 = 𝑏0 ; 𝑃2 = ; 𝑃3 = 2 ; 𝑃4 = 3 ; 𝑃11 = − ; 𝑃12 = − 2 ; 𝑃13 = − 3
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
On arranging the above equations in the matrix form, we get,
𝑥1̇ −𝑎1 1 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥1 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏0
𝑥2̇ −𝑎2 0 1 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥2 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏0
𝑥3̇ −𝑎3 0 0 1 ⋮ 0 𝑥3 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏0
= ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ + 𝑢
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇ 𝑛−1 −𝑎𝑛−1 0 0 0 ⋮ 1 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑏𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏0
[ 𝑥̇ ] [ −𝑎 𝑛 0 0 0 ⋮ 0 ] [ 𝑥 𝑛 ] [ 𝑏𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏0 ]
𝑛

𝑋̇ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈
𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑥3
𝑦 = [1 0 0 ⋯ 0 0] + 𝑏0 𝑢
⋮
𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈
METHOD 3
Consider the following nth order linear differential equation relating the output y(t) to the
input u(t) of a system,
𝑦̇ 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑦̇ 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑦̇ 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑦̈ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦̇ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑢
Let n = m = 3
𝑦⃛ + 𝑎1 𝑦̈ + 𝑎2 𝑦̇ + 𝑎3 𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑢
⃛ + 𝑏1 𝑢̈ + 𝑏2 𝑢̇ + 𝑏3 𝑢
On taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions, we get,
𝑠 3 𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑎3 𝑌(𝑠)
= 𝑏0 𝑠 3 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏1 𝑠 2 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏2 𝑠𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑏3 𝑈(𝑠)
[𝑠 3 + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 + 𝑎3 ]𝑌(𝑠) = [𝑏0 𝑠 3 + 𝑏1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏2 𝑠 + 𝑏3 ]𝑈(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠) [𝑏0 𝑠 3 + 𝑏1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏2 𝑠 + 𝑏3 ]
=
𝑈(𝑠) [𝑠 3 + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 + 𝑎3 ]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Let,
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑌(𝑠) 𝑋1 (𝑠)
= .
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑋1 (𝑠) 1
= 3
𝑈(𝑠) [𝑠 + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 + 𝑎3 ]
𝑌(𝑠)
= [𝑏0 𝑠 3 + 𝑏1 𝑠 2 + 𝑏2 𝑠 + 𝑏3 ]
𝑋1 (𝑠)
State Equation
On cross multiplying the equation, we get,
𝑋1 (𝑠)[𝑠 3 + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠 + 𝑎3 ] = 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑠 3 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑎1 𝑠 2 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑎3 𝑋1 (𝑠) = 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑥⃛1 + 𝑎1 𝑥1̈ + 𝑎2 𝑥1̇ + 𝑎3 𝑥1 = 𝑢
Let the state variable be x1, x2, x3.
𝑥2 = 𝑥̇ 1
𝑥3 = 𝑥1̈ = 𝑥̇ 2
𝑥̇ 3 = 𝑥⃛1
On substituting the state variables, we get,
𝑥̇ 3 + 𝑎1 𝑥3 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + 𝑎3 𝑥1 = 𝑢
The state equations are
𝑥̇ 1 = 𝑥2 ; 𝑥̇ 2 = 𝑥3
𝑥̇ 3 = −𝑎1 𝑥3 − 𝑎2 𝑥2 − 𝑎3 𝑥1 + 𝑢
Output Equation
On cross multiplying the equation, we get,
𝑌(𝑠) = [𝑏0 𝑠 3 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑏1 𝑠 2 𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑏2 𝑠𝑋1 (𝑠) + 𝑏3 𝑋1 (𝑠)]
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get,
𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑥⃛1 + 𝑏1 𝑥1̈ + 𝑏2 𝑥1̇ + 𝑏3 𝑥1
On substituting the state variables, we get,
𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑥̇ 3 + 𝑏1 𝑥3 + 𝑏2 𝑥2 + 𝑏3 𝑥1
Substituting 𝑥̇ 3 = −𝑎1 𝑥3 − 𝑎2 𝑥2 − 𝑎3 𝑥1 + 𝑢, we get,
𝑦 = 𝑏0 (−𝑎1 𝑥3 − 𝑎2 𝑥2 − 𝑎3 𝑥1 + 𝑢) + 𝑏1 𝑥3 + 𝑏2 𝑥2 + 𝑏3 𝑥1
𝑦 = (𝑏3 −𝑎3 𝑏0 )𝑥1 + (𝑏2 −𝑎2 𝑏0 )𝑥2 + (𝑏1 −𝑎1 𝑏0 )𝑥3 + 𝑏0 𝑢

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Framing the state and output equation in matrix form, we get,

𝑥1̇ 0 1 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥2̇ 0 0 1 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥2 0
𝑥3̇ 0 0 0 1 ⋮ 0 𝑥3 0
= ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ + 𝑢
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇ 𝑛−1 0 0 0 0 ⋮ 1 𝑥𝑛−1 0
[ 𝑥 ̇ ] [−𝑎𝑛 −𝑎𝑛−1 −𝑎𝑛−2 −𝑎𝑛−3 ⋮ −𝑎1 ] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [1]
𝑛

𝑋̇ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈
This form of matrix A is known as Bush form (or) Companion form.
𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑦 = [𝑏𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏0 𝑏𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏0 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏0 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏0 ] ⋮ + 𝑏0 𝑢
⋮
𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION USING CANONICAL VARIABLES

In canonical form (or normal form) of state model, the system matrix A will be a
diagonal matrix. The elements on the diagonal are the poles of the transfer function of
the system. By partial fraction expansion, the transfer function Y(s)/U(s) of the nth order
system can be expressed as,
𝑌(𝑠) 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛
= 𝑏0 + + + ⋯+
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝜆1 𝑠 + 𝜆2 𝑠 + 𝜆𝑛
where, C1, C2, C3, ….., Cn are residues and λ1, λ2, λ3, ….., λn are roots of denominator
polynomial (or poles of the system).
𝑌(𝑠) 𝐶1 /𝑠 𝐶2 /𝑠 𝐶𝑛 /𝑠
= 𝑏0 + + + ⋯+
𝑈(𝑠) 1 + 𝜆1 /𝑠 1 + 𝜆2 /𝑠 1 + 𝜆𝑛 /𝑠
𝐶1 /𝑠 𝐶2 /𝑠 𝐶𝑛 /𝑠
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑏0 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑈(𝑠) + ⋯ + 𝑈(𝑠)
1 + 𝜆1 /𝑠 1 + 𝜆2 /𝑠 1 + 𝜆𝑛 /𝑠
The state equation can be framed as,
𝑥̇ 1 = −𝜆1 𝑥1 + 𝑢
𝑥̇ 2 = −𝜆2 𝑥2 + 𝑢
⋮
𝑥̇ 𝑛 = −𝜆𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑢
The output equation can be framed as,
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑥1 + 𝐶2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑏0 𝑢
The canonical form of state model in the matrix form is given by,
𝑥1̇ −𝜆1 0 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥1 1
𝑥2̇ 0 −𝜆2 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥2 1
𝑥3̇ −𝜆3 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥3 1
= 0 0
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ + 𝑢
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇ 𝑛−1 0 0 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥𝑛−1 1
[ 𝑥𝑛̇ ] [ 0 0 0 0 ⋮ −𝜆𝑛 ] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [1]
𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑥3
𝑦 = [𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 ⋯ 𝐶𝑛−1 𝐶𝑛 ] + 𝑏0 𝑢
⋮
𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

JORDAN CANONICAL FORM

−𝜆1 0 0 0 ⋮ 0
0 −𝜆1 0 0 ⋮ 0
−𝜆1 0 ⋮ 0
𝐴=𝐽= 0 0
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 0 0 0 ⋮ 0
[ 0 0 0 0 ⋮ −𝜆𝑛 ]
0
0
1
𝐵=
⋮
1
[1 ]
𝑍̇ = 𝐽𝑍 + 𝐵̃𝑈
𝑌 = 𝐶̃ 𝑍 + 𝐷𝑈
where,
𝐽 = 𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀; 𝐵̃ = 𝑀−1 𝐵; 𝐶̃ = 𝐶𝑀

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

4.3 SOLUTION OF STATE AND OUTPUT EQUATION IN CONTROLLABLE

CANONICAL FORM
Consider the state equation of a linear time invariant system as,
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
The matrices A and B are constant matrices. This state equation can be of two types,
1. Homogeneous
2. Non-homogeneous
HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION
If A is a constant matrix and input control forces are zero then the equation takes the form
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡)
Such an equation is called homogeneous equation. The obvious equation is considered if
input is zero. In such systems, the driving force is provided by the initial conditions of
the system to produce the output. For example, consider a series RC circuit in which a
capacitor is initially charged to V volts. The current is the output. Now there is no input
control force, i.e., external voltage applied to the system. But the initial voltage on the
capacitor drives the current through the system and capacitor starts discharging through
the resistance, R. such a system works on the initial conditions without any input applied
to it is called homogeneous system.
NON-HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION
If A is a constant matrix and matrix U(t) is non-zero vector i.e. the input control forces
are applied to the system then the equation takes normal form as,
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
Such an equation is called non-homogeneous equation. Most of the practical systems
require inputs to dive them. Such systems arc nonhomogeneous linear systems. The
solution of the state equation is obtained by considering basic method of finding the
solution of homogeneous equation.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

STATE TRANSITION MATRIX

Properties of State Transition Matrix
1. 𝜙(0) = 𝑒 𝐴×0 = 𝐼(𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥)
2. 𝜙(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = (𝑒 −𝐴𝑡 )−1 = [𝜙 (−𝑡)]−1
or 𝜙 −1(𝑡) = 𝜙(−𝑡)
3. 𝜙(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 ) = 𝑒 𝐴(𝑡1 +𝑡2) = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡1 𝑒 𝐴𝑡2 = 𝜙(𝑡1 )𝜙(𝑡2 )
Computation of State transition matrix
The state transition matrix, e At can be computed by any one of the following two methods:
Method 1: Computation of eAt using matrix exponential
If the system matrix ‘A’ is an (n×n) square matrix, then each of these exponentials is an
(n×n) square matrix of time functions, and one of the consequences of a theorem
developed in linear algebra, known as the Cayley-Hamilton theorem, shows that such a
matrix may be expressed as an (n−1)st degree polynomial in the matrix A.
That is,
1 2 2 1 3 3 1
𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐼 + 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐴 𝑡 + 𝐴 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑖 𝑡 𝑖
2! 3! 𝑖!
where, eAt – State transition matrix of order n x n
A – System matrix of order n x n
I – Unit matrix of order n x n
Method 2: Computation of eAt using Laplace transform
The theorem also states that the equation remains an equality if I is replaced by unity and
A is replaced by any one of the scalar roots sI of the nth-degree scalar equation,
det(sI-A) = 0. The expression det(sI-A) indicates the determinant of the matrix (sI-A).
This determinant is an nth-degree polynomial ins. Let us assume that then roots are all
different. This equation is called the characteristic equation of the matrix a, and the values
of s which are the roots of the equation are known as the eigen values of A.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Consider the state equation without input vector,

𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡)
On taking Laplace transform, we get,
𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑋(0) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑠)
𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑋(0)
𝑠𝐼𝑋(𝑠) − 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑋(0)
(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑋(0)
Pre-multiplying both sides by (sI-A)-1,
𝑋(𝑠) = (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1𝑋(0)
On taking inverse Laplace transform,
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐿−1[(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1]𝑥 (0)
On comparing with solution of state equation,
𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐿−1[(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1]
Also,
𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = 𝜙(𝑡)
where,
𝜙(𝑠) = (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1
which is the resolvent matrix.
Consider the state equation with input vector,
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
On taking Laplace transform, we get,
𝑠𝑋(𝑠) − 𝑋(0) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
𝑠𝐼𝑋 (𝑠) − 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑋(0) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑋(0) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
Pre-multiplying both sides by (sI-A)-1,
𝑋(𝑠) = (𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1𝑋(0)+(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
𝑋(𝑠) = 𝜙(𝑠)𝑋(0) + 𝜙(𝑠)𝐵𝑈(𝑠)
On taking inverse Laplace transform,
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝜙(𝑡)𝑥 (0) + 𝐿−1 [𝜙(𝑠)𝐵𝑈(𝑠)]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Solution of output equation by Laplace Transform

𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐶𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐷𝑈(𝑠)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1[𝐶𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐷𝑈 (𝑠)]
CONTROLLABLE CANONICAL FORM (CCF)
Probably the most straightforward method for converting from the transfer function of a
system to a state space model is to generate a model in "controllable canonical form."
Consider a system defined by,
𝑦 (𝑛) + 𝑎1 𝑦 (𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑦̇ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑢(𝑛) + 𝑏1 𝑢(𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1𝑢̇ + 𝑏𝑛 𝑢
where u is the control input and y is the output. It can be written as,
𝑌(𝑠) [𝑏0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1𝑠 + 𝑏𝑛 ]
=
𝑈(𝑠) [𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1𝑠 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 ]
Controllable canonical form of this system is given by,
𝑥1̇ 0 1 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥2̇ 0 0 1 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥2 0
𝑥3̇ 0 0 0 1 ⋮ 0 𝑥 3 0
= ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ + 𝑢
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇ 𝑛−1 0 0 0 0 ⋮ 1 𝑥𝑛−1 0
[ 𝑥 ̇ ] [−𝑎𝑛 −𝑎𝑛−1 −𝑎𝑛−2 −𝑎𝑛−3 ⋮ −𝑎1 ] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [1]
𝑛
𝑥1
𝑥2
⋮
𝑦 = [𝑏𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏0 𝑏𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1𝑏0 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏0 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏0 ] + 𝑏0 𝑢
⋮
𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

OBSERVABLE CANONICAL FORM

The observable canonical form of the state-space representation of this system is given
by
𝑥1̇ 0 0 0 0 −𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏0
⋮
𝑥2̇ 1 0 0 ⋮ 0 −𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥2 𝑏𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1𝑏0
𝑥3̇ 0 1 0 ⋮ 0 −𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥3 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑛−2𝑏0
= ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ + 𝑛−2 𝑢
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇ 𝑛−1 0 0 0 ⋮ 0 −𝑎2 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏0
[ 𝑥𝑛̇ ] [ 0 0 0 ⋮ 1 −𝑎1 ] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [ 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑏 ]
1 1 0
𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑥3
𝑦 = [0 0 0 ⋯ 0 1] ⋮ + 𝑏0 𝑢
𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]
DIAGONAL CANONICAL FORM
There are cases where the dominator polynomial involves only distinct roots. For the
distinct root case, we can write the equation in the form of
𝑌(𝑠) [𝑏0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑛 ] 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐𝑛
= = 𝑏0 + + +⋯+
𝑈(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝑝1 )(𝑠 + 𝑝2 ). . . (𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛 ) 𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑠 + 𝑝2 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛
The diagonal canonical form of the state-space representation of this system is given by
𝑥1̇ −𝑝1 0 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥1 1
𝑥2̇ 0 −𝑝2 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥2 1
𝑥3̇ 0 0 −𝑝3 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥3 1
= ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ + 𝑢
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑥̇ 𝑛−1 0 0 0 0 ⋮ 0 𝑥𝑛−1 1
[ 𝑥𝑛̇ ] [ 0 0 0 0 ⋮ −𝑝𝑛 ] [ 𝑥𝑛 ] [1]
𝑥1
𝑥2
𝑦 = [𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 ⋯ 𝑐𝑛−1 𝑐𝑛 ] 𝑥3 + 𝑏0 𝑢
⋮
𝑥𝑛−1
[ 𝑥𝑛 ]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

4.4 CONCEPTS OF CONTROLLABILITY AND OBSERVABILITY

CONCEPT OF CONTROLLABILITY
A system is said to be completely controllable, if it is possible to transfer the system
state from any initial state x(t0) to any desired state x(t) in specified finite time by a
control vector u(t).
If any of the state variable is independent of the control u(t), there would be no
way of driving this particular state variable to desired state in finite time by means of
control effort. Therefore, this particular state is said to be uncontrollable. As long as there
is at least one uncontrollable state, the system is said to be not completely controllable or
'uncontrollable'.
Consider a single input, linear time invariant system:
𝑋̇(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑋(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡)
Let the initial system state be x(0) and the final state be x(t f). The system is controllable
if it is possible to construct a control signal, which in finite time interval 0 < t <= t f, will
transfer the system state from x(0) to x(tf ). The above equation is completely controllable
if and only if the rank of the composite matrix is n.
𝑄𝐶 = [𝐵 ⋮ 𝐴𝐵 ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ 𝐴𝑛−1𝐵 ]
Since only matrices A and B are involved, we may say that the pair (A;B) is controllable
if rank of QC is n.
CONCEPT OF OBSERVABILITY
A system is said to be completely observable, if every state x(t0) can be completely
identified by measurement of outputs y(t) over a finite time interval. Given a LTI system
that is described by the dynamic equations, the state x(t0) is said to be observable if given
any input u(t), there exists a finite time tf >= t0 such that knowledge of u(t) for
t0 <= t < tf, matrices A,B,C, & D and the output y(t); for t0 <= t < tf are sufficient to
determine x(t0). The necessary and sufficient condition for the system to be completely
observable it is necessary and sufficient that the following n x np observability matrix has
rank of n.
𝑄𝑂 = [𝐶 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 (𝐴2)𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 ⋯ (𝐴𝑛−1)𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 ]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5.1 CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION

The characteristic equation is nothing more than setting the denominator of the
closed-loop transfer function to zero. In control theory, there are two main methods of
analyzing feedback systems: the transfer function (or frequency domain) method and the
state space method. The characteristic equation is the equation which is solved to find a
matrix's eigenvalues, also called the characteristic polynomial. Characteristic equation is
used to solve linear differential equations. Characteristic equations of auxiliary
differential equations are used to solve a partial differential equation.
The properties of transfer function are given below:
 The ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input assuming
all initial conditions to be zero.
 The transfer function of a system does not depend on the inputs to the system.
 The system poles and zeros can be determined from its transfer function.
Closed loop transfer function:
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 ± 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
Characteristic Equation:
1 ± 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻 (𝑠) = 0

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5.2 EFFECT OF LAG, LEAD AND LAG-LEAD COMPENSATION ON

FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Every control system which has been designed for a specific application should
meet certain performance specification. There are always some constraints which are
imposed on the control system design in addition to the performance specification. The
choice of a plant is not only dependent on the performance specification but also on the
size, weight & cost. Although the designer of the control system is free to choose a new
plant, it is generally not advised due to the cost & other constraints. Under this
circumstance, it is possible to introduce some kind of corrective sub-systems in order to
force the chosen plant to meet the given specification. We refer to these sub-systems as
compensator whose job is to compensate for the deficiency in the performance of the
plant.
Necessary of Compensation
1. In order to obtain the desired performance of the system, we use compensating
networks. Compensating networks are applied to the system in the form of feed
forward path gain adjustment.
2. Compensate a unstable system to make it stable.
3. A compensating network is used to minimize overshoot.
4. These compensating networks increase the steady state accuracy of the system. An
important point to be noted here is that the increase in the steady state accuracy
brings instability to the system.
5. Compensating networks also introduces poles and zeros in the system thereby
causes changes in the transfer function of the system. Due to this, performance
specifications of the system change.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

EFFECT OF LAG COMPENSATION ON FREQUENCY RESPONSE

The Lag Compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having
the phase lag when a sinusoidal input is applied. The lag compensator circuit in the ‘s’
domain is shown in the following figure.

Figure 5.2.1 Electrical lag compensator

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 4.65]

Here, the capacitor is in series with the resistor R2 and the output is measured across this
combination. The transfer function of this lag compensator is
1
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 1 𝑠 + 𝜏
= ( )
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝛽 𝑠 + 1
𝛽𝜏
𝜏 = 𝑅2 𝐶
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝛽=
𝑅2
𝛽>1
1
Pole, 𝑠 = −
𝛽𝜏
1
Zero, 𝑠 = −
𝜏

Let s = jω,
1
𝑉𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) 1 𝑗𝜔 + 𝜏
= ( )
𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 𝛽 𝑗𝜔 + 1
𝛽𝜏
Phase angle,
𝜙 = tan−1 𝜔𝜏 − tan−1 𝛽𝜔𝜏

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 5.2.2 Pole-zero plot of lag compensator

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 4.65]

Figure 5.2.3 Bode plot of lag compensator

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 4.67]

The phase of the output sinusoidal signal is equal to the sum of the phase angles of input
sinusoidal signal and the transfer function. So, in order to produce the phase lag at the
output of this compensator, the phase angle of the transfer function should be negative.
This will happen when β > 1.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Effect of Phase Lag Compensation

1. Gain crossover frequency increases.
2. Bandwidth decreases.
3. Phase margin will be increase.
4. Response will be slower before due to decreasing bandwidth, the rise time and the
settling time become larger.
Advantages of Phase Lag Compensation
1. Phase lag network allows low frequencies and high frequencies are attenuated.
2. Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the steady state accuracy increases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lag Compensation
1. Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the speed of the system decreases.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

EFFECT OF LEAD COMPENSATION ON FREQUENCY RESPONSE

The lead compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having
phase lead when a sinusoidal input is applied. The lead compensator circuit in the ‘s’
domain is shown in the following figure. Lead compensator are used to improve the
transient response of a system.

Figure 5.2.4 Electrical lead compensator

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 4.70]

Taking i2=0 and applying Laplace Transform, we get,

𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑅2 (𝑅1 𝐶𝑠 + 1)
=
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝐶𝑠
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1
= 𝛼( )
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝛼𝜏𝑠 + 1
𝜏 = 𝑅1 𝐶
𝑅2
𝛼=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝛼<1
1
Pole, 𝑠 = −
𝛼𝜏
1
Zero, 𝑠 = −
𝜏

Let s = jω,
𝑉𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) 𝜏𝑗𝜔 + 1
= 𝛼( )
𝑉𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 𝛼𝜏𝑗𝜔 + 1
Phase angle,
𝜙 = tan−1 𝜔𝜏 − tan−1 𝛼𝜔𝜏

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 5.2.5 Pole-zero plot of lead compensator

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 4.69]

Figure 5.2.6 Bode plot of lead compensator

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 4.71]

The phase of the output sinusoidal signal is equal to the sum of the phase angles of input
sinusoidal signal and the transfer function. So, in order to produce the phase lead at the
output of this compensator, the phase angle of the transfer function should be positive.
This will happen when 0<α<1. Therefore, zero will be nearer to origin in pole-zero
configuration of the lead compensator.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Bode plot of lead compensator

Maximum phase lead occurs at
1
𝜔𝑚 =
𝜏 √𝛼
Let Φm = maximum phase lead
1−𝛼
sin 𝜙𝑚 =
1+𝛼
1 − sin 𝜙𝑚
𝛼=
1 + sin 𝜙𝑚
Magnitude at maximum phase lead
1
|𝐺𝑐 (𝑗𝜔)| =
√𝛼
Effect of Phase Lead Compensation
1. The velocity constant Kv increases.
2. The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover frequency so that
relative stability improves and error decrease due to error is directly proportional to
the slope.
3. Phase margin increases.
4. Response becomes faster.
Advantages of Phase Lead Compensation
1. Due to the presence of phase lead network the speed of the system increases because
it shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
2. Due to the presence of phase lead compensation maximum overshoot of the system
decreases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lead Compensation
1. Steady state error is not improved.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

EFFECT OF LAG-LEAD COMPENSATION ON FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Lag-Lead compensator is an electrical network which produces phase lag at one
frequency region and phase lead at other frequency region. It is a combination of both the
lag and the lead compensators. The lag-lead compensator circuit in the ‘s’ domain is
shown in the following figure.

Figure 5.2.7 Electrical lag-lead compensator

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 4.73]

This circuit looks like both the compensators are cascaded. So, the transfer function of
this circuit will be the product of transfer functions of the lead and the lag compensators.
1
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝜏1 𝑠 + 1 1 𝑠+
𝜏2
= 𝛽( ) ( )
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝛽𝜏1 𝑠 + 1 𝛼 𝑠 + 1
𝛼𝜏2
We know, αβ=1
1 1
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑠+ 𝑠+
𝜏1 𝜏2
=( )( )
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 1 1
𝑠+ 𝑠+
𝛽𝜏1 𝛼𝜏2
where,
𝜏1 = 𝑅1 𝐶1
𝜏2 = 𝑅2 𝐶2
Advantages of Phase Lag Lead Compensation
1. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network the speed of the system increases
because it shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
2. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network accuracy is improved.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 5.2.8 Pole-zero plot of lag-lead compensator

[Source: “Control Systems” by A Nagoor Kani, Page: 4.73]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5.3 DESIGN OF LAG, LEAD AND LAG LEAD COMPENSATOR USING

BODE PLOTS
DESIGN PROCEDURE OF LAG COMPENSATOR USING BODE PLOTS
1. Determine the compensator gain K to meet the steady state error requirement.
2. Draw the Bode plots of KG(s).
3. From the Bode plots, find the frequency ωg at which the phase of KG(s) is
∠𝐾𝐺(𝜔𝑔 ) = 𝑃𝑀 − 180𝑜 + 5𝑜 ~10𝑜
4. Calculate β to make ω g the gain crossover frequency,
20 log 𝛽 = 20 log 𝐾 + 20 log|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑔 )|
5. Choose T to be much greater than 1/ ωg, for example, T=10/ ωg.
6. Verify the results using MATLAB.
DESIGN PROCEDURE OF LEAD COMPENSATOR USING BODE PLOTS
1. Draw the Bode plot for the uncompensated system and obtain the current phase
margin available.
2. Calculate the phase margin required to meet the damping coefficient or percent
overshoot requirement. Don’t forget to add some extra phase margin to compensate
for imperfections in the controller design (approximately 10 degrees of phase is
good).

2𝜁
𝑃𝑀 = tan−1
√ 2 4
( −2𝜁 + √1 + 4𝜁 )
𝑃𝑀
𝜁≅
100
3. Calculate the value of alpha from the following equation. Use the phase margin
obtained in Step (4) as the maximum phase value:
1 − sin 𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛼=
1 + sin 𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥
4. Calculate the gain corresponding to the maximum phase frequency using the equation
below. We are going to look for the new phase margin frequency that we want to
design for by looking for places where this gain is present on the Bode plot.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 )| =
√𝛽
5. Find the new maximum phase margin frequency by looking for the point where the
uncompensated system’s magnitude curve is the negative value of the gain calculated
in Step (4).
6. Select the break frequencies, T and beta*T using the maximum frequency equation
given below:
1
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑇√𝛽
7. Reset the system gain to adjust for the compensator’s gain.
8. Check that the bandwidth still meets design requirements. Simulate the system and
repeat the design as necessary.
DESIGN PROCEDURE OF LAG-LEAD COMPENSATOR USING BODE PLOTS
The lag-lead compensator is the analog to the PID controller. The lag-lead compensator
can meet multiple design requirements: the lag component reduces high frequency gain,
stabilizes the system and meets steady state requirements, while the lead component is
used to meet transient response design requirements.
The general equation for this kind of compensator is given below:
1 1
𝑠+ 𝑠+
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝐺𝑙𝑎𝑔−𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝑠) = 𝐺𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝑠)𝐺𝑙𝑎𝑔 (𝑠) = ( 𝛾 )( ),𝛾 > 1
𝑠+ 1
𝑇1 𝑠+
𝛾𝑇2
(1) Calculate the required bandwidth to meet the transient performance requirement
(usually expressed in terms of the settling time, rise time or peak time). Use the
equation provided above.
(2) Set the DC gain of the uncompensated system to meet the steady state requirements
(this requires use of the Final Value Theorem).
(3) Draw the Bode plot for the uncompensated system and obtain the current phase
margin available.
(4) Calculate the phase margin required to meet the damping coefficient or percent
overshoot requirement. Don’t forget to add some extra phase margin to compensate

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

for imperfections in the controller design (approximately 10 degrees of phase is

good).
(5) Select a new phase margin frequency that is slightly less than the bandwidth.
(6) At this new phase margin frequency, calculate the phase lead required to obtained
the phase margin from Step (4). Add some additional phase to adjust for the lag
compensator’s effects, if you have not already done so in Step (4).
(7) Design the lag compensator. Choose the higher breakpoint frequency as the phase
margin frequency divided by 10. A plot of the interaction between beta and the phase
margin is used to select beta, but for our purposes, I think that spacing the pole and
zero of the lag compensator apart by a factor of 10 is sufficient for our design
purposes.
(8) We can calculate gamma as the inverse of beta, so now we are ready to design the
lead compensator. Use the equation given below to find T.
(9) Check that the bandwidth still meets design requirements. Simulate the system and
repeat the design as necessary.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5.4 EFFECTS OF P, PI, PID MODES OF FEEDBACK CONTROL

PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER (P-Controller)
The proportional controller is a device that produces a control signal, u(t) proportional to
the input error signal, e(t)
𝑢(𝑡) ∝ 𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡)
where, Kp = Proportional gain or constant
On taking Laplace transform of equation, we get,
𝑈 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑝 𝐸(𝑠)
Transfer function,
𝑈(𝑠)
= 𝐾𝑝
𝐸(𝑠)
The equation gives the output of the P-controller for the input E(s) and it is the transfer
function of P-controller. The block diagram of the P-controller is shown in the figure
5.4.1.

Figure 5.4.1 Block diagram of proportional controller

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.79]

From the equation, we can conclude that the proportional controller amplifies the error
signal by an amount Kp. Also the introduction of the controller on the system increases
the loop gain by an amount Kp. The increase in loop gain improves the steady state
tracking accuracy, disturbance signal rejection and the relative stability and also makes
the system less sensitive to parameter variations. But increasing the gain to very large
values mau lead to instability of the system. The drawback in P-controller is that it leads
to a constant steady state error.
Example of Electronic P-controller
The proportional controller can be realized by an amplifier with adjustable gain.
Either the non- inverting operational amplifier or the inverting operational amplifier

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

followed by sign changer will work as a proportional controller. The op-amp proportional
controller is shown in the figures 5.4.2.

Figure 5.4
5.4.2 P-controller using non-inverting and inverting amplifier
[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.80]

By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown in figures and comparing
with the transfer function of P-controller defined by equation, it can be shown that they
work as P-controllers.
Analysis of P-controller
In figure 2.8.2, the input e(t) is applied to positive input. By symmetry of op-amp the
voltage of negative input is also e(t). Also, we assume an ideal op-amp so that input
current is zero. Based on the above assumptions the equivalent circuit of the controller is
shown in figure 5.4.3.

Figure 5.4.3 Equivalent circuit of P-controller

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.80]

By voltage division rule,

𝑅1
𝑒 (𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

On taking Laplace transform of equation we get,

𝑈(𝑠) 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
=
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅1
The equation is the transfer function of op-amp P-controller. On comparing, we get,
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝐾𝑝 =
𝑅1
Therefore, by adjusting the values of R1 and R2 the value of gain, Kp can be varied.
Analysis of P-controller
The assumption made in op-amp circuit analysis are,
1. The voltages at both inputs are equal
2. The input current is zero
Based on the above assumptions, the equivalent circuit of op-amp amplifier and sign
changer are shown in figure 5.4.4.

Fig 5.4.4 Equivalent circuit of amplifier and sign changer

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.81]

From the circuit,

𝑒 (𝑡) = 𝑖1𝑅1
𝑢1 (𝑡) = −𝑖1 𝑅2
Substitute for i1,
𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢1 (𝑡) = − 𝑅
𝑅1 2
Also, from the circuit,
𝑢 (𝑡) = −𝑖2 𝑅
𝑢1(𝑡) = 𝑖2 𝑅
Substitute for i2,

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝑢1 (𝑡) = −𝑢(𝑡)
On equating the equations we get,
𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢 (𝑡 ) = 𝑅
𝑅1 2
On taking Laplace transform of equation we get,
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑅2
=
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅1
The equation is the transfer function of op-amp P-controller. On the comparing equations,
Proportional gain,
𝑅2
𝐾𝑝 =
𝑅1
Therefore, by adjusting the values of R1 and R2 the value of gain Kp can be varied.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (I-Controller)

The integral controller is a device that produces a control signal u(t) which is proportional
to integral of the input error signal, e(t).
In I-controller

𝑢(𝑡) ∝ ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑖 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

where Ki = integral gain or constant

On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions we get,
𝑈 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑖
=
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑠
The equation gives the output of the I-controller for the input E(s) and equation is the
transfer function of the I-controller, the block diagram of I-controller is shown in the
figure 5.4.5.

Figure 5.4.5 Block diagram of integral controller

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.82]

The integral controller removes or reduces the steady error without the need for manual
reset. Hence the I-controller is sometimes called automatic reset. The drawback in
integral controller is that it may lead to oscillatory response of increasing or decreasing
amplitude which is undesirable and the system may become unstable.
Example of electronic I-controller
The integral controller can be realized by an integrator using op-amp followed by
a sign changer as shown in figure 2.8.6.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 5.4.6 I-controller using inverting amplifier

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.82]

By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown in figure and comparing
with the transfer function of I-controller defined by equation.
Analysis of I-controller
The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are,
1. The voltages of both inputs are equal
2. The input current is zero.
Based on the above assumptions, the equivalent circuit of op-amp amplifier and sign
changer are shown in figure 5.4.7.

Figure 5.4.7 Equivalent circuit of amplifier and sign changer

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.83]

From the circuit,

𝑒 (𝑡) = 𝑖1𝑅1
1
𝑢1(𝑡) = − ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶1 1

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Substitute for i1,

1
𝑢1 (𝑡) = − ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑅1𝐶1
Also, from the circuit,
𝑢 (𝑡) = −𝑖2 𝑅
𝑢1(𝑡) = 𝑖2 𝑅
Substitute for i2,
𝑢1 (𝑡) = −𝑢(𝑡)
On equating equations we get
1
𝑢(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑅1𝐶1
On taking Laplace transform of equation we get,
𝑈(𝑠) 1
=
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑠𝑅1𝐶1
The equation is the transfer function of op-amp P-controller. On the comparing equations,
Integral gain,
1
𝐾𝑖 =
𝑅1𝐶1
Therefore, by adjusting the values of R1 and C1 the value of gain Ki can be varied.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (PI-CONTROLLER)

The proportional plus integral controller (PI controller) produces and output signal
consisting of two terms: one proportional to error signal and the other proportional to
the integral of error signal.
In PI controller,

𝑢(𝑡) ∝ [𝑒(𝑡) + ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡]

𝐾𝑝
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑖
On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions, we get,
𝑈(𝑠) 1
= 𝐾𝑝 (1 + )
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑇𝑖 𝑠
The equation gives the output of the PI-controller for the input E(s) and it is the transfer
function of PI-controller. The block diagram of PI-controller is shown in figure 5.4.8.

Figure 5.4.8 Block diagram of PI controller

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.84]

The advantages of both P-controller and I –controller is combined in PI-controller. The

proportional action increases the loop gain and makes the system less sensitive to
variations of system parameters. The integral action eliminates or reduces the steady state
error. The integral control action is adjusted by varying the integral time. The change in
value of Kp affects both the proportional and integral parts of control action. The inverse
of the integral time Ti is called the reset rate.
Example of Electronic PI-controller
The PI controller can be realized by an op-amp differentiator with gain followed
by a sign changer as shown in figure 5.4.9.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 5.4.9 PI-controller using inverting amplifier

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.84]

By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown in figure and comparing with
the transfer function of PI-controller defined by equation, it can be proved that the circuit
shown in figure will work as PI-controller.
Analysis of PI-controller
The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are,
1. The voltages of both inputs are equal
2. The input current is zero.
Based on the above assumptions, the equivalent circuit of op-amp amplifier and sign
changer are shown in figure 5.4.10.

Figure 5.4.10 Equivalent circuit of amplifier and sign changer

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.85]

From the circuit,

𝑒 (𝑡) = 𝑖1𝑅1
1
𝑢1 (𝑡) = −𝑖1 𝑅2 − ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶2 1

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Substitute for i1,

𝑒(𝑡) 1
𝑢1 (𝑡) = − 𝑅2 − ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝐶2
Also, from the circuit,
𝑢 (𝑡) = −𝑖2 𝑅
𝑢1(𝑡) = 𝑖2 𝑅
Substitute for i2,
𝑢1 (𝑡) = −𝑢(𝑡)
On equating equations we get
𝑒 (𝑡) 1
𝑢 (𝑡) = 𝑅2 + ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝐶2
On taking Laplace transform of equation we get,
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑅2 1
= (1 + )
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑠𝑅2𝐶2
The equation is the transfer function of op-amp P-controller. On the comparing equations,
Proportional gain,
𝑅2
𝐾𝑝 =
𝑅1
Integral time,
𝑇𝑖 = 𝑅2𝐶2
By varying the values of R1 and R2, the value of gain Kp and Ti can be adjusted.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER (PD-CONTROLLER)

The PD controller produces and output signal consisting of two terms: one proportional
to error signal, the other one proportional to derivatives of error signal.
In PD controller,
𝑑
𝑢(𝑡) ∝ [𝑒 (𝑡) + 𝑒(𝑡)]
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒 (𝑡) + 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 𝑒(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions, we get,
𝑈 (𝑠)
= 𝐾𝑝 (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠)
The equation gives the output of the PD-controller for the input E(s) and it is the transfer
function of PD-controller. The block diagram of PD-controller is shown in figure 5.4.11.

Figure 5.4.11 Block diagram of PD controller

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.86]

The derivative control acts on a rate of change of error and not on the actual error signal.
The derivative control action is effective only during transient periods and so it does not
produce corrective measures for any constant error. Hence the derivative controller is
never used alone, but it is employed in association with proportional and integral
controllers. The derivative controller does not affect the steady-state error directly but
anticipates the error, initiates an early corrective action and tends to increase the stability
of the system. While derivative control action has an advantage of being anticipatory it
has the disadvantage that it amplifies noise signals and may cause a saturation effect in
the actuator. The derivative control action is adjusting by varying the derivative time. The
change in the value of Kp affects both the proportional and derivative parts of control
action. The derivative control is also called rate control.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Example of Electronic PD-controller

The PD controller can be realized by an op-amp amplifier with integral and
derivative action followed by a sign changer as shown in figure 5.4.12.

Figure 5.4.12 PD-controller using inverting amplifier

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.86]

By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown in figure and comparing with
the transfer function of PD-controller defined by equation, it can be proved that the circuit
shown in figure will work as PD-controller.
Analysis of PD-controller
The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are,
1. The voltages of both inputs are equal
2. The input current is zero.
Based on the above assumptions, the equivalent circuit of op-amp amplifier and sign
changer are shown in figure 5.4.13.

Figure 5.4.13 Equivalent circuit of amplifier and sign changer

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.87]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

From the circuit,

𝑒 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑖1 = + 𝐶1
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
𝑢1 (𝑡) = −𝑖1 𝑅2
Substitute for i1,
𝑒(𝑡) 𝑑
𝑢1(𝑡) = − 𝑅2 − 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑒 (𝑡)
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
Also, from the circuit,
𝑢 (𝑡) = −𝑖2 𝑅
𝑢1(𝑡) = 𝑖2 𝑅
Substitute for i2,
𝑢1 (𝑡) = −𝑢(𝑡)
On equating the equations, we get,
𝑒 (𝑡 ) 𝑑
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑒(𝑡)
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
On taking Laplace transform of equation we get,
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑅2
= (1 + 𝑠𝑅1𝐶1)
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅1
The equation is the transfer function of op-amp P-controller. On the comparing equations,
Proportional gain,
𝑅2
𝐾𝑝 =
𝑅1
Derivative time,
𝑇𝑑 = 𝑅1𝐶1
By varying the values of R1 and R2, the value of Kp and Td are adjusted.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL PLUS DERIVATIVE (PID) CONTROLLER

The PID controller produces and output signal consisting of two terms: one proportional
to error signal, another one proportional to the integral of error signal and the third one
proportional to derivatives of error signal.
𝑑
𝑢(𝑡) ∝ [𝑒 (𝑡) + ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒(𝑡)]
𝑑𝑡
𝐾𝑝 𝑑
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 𝑒(𝑡)
𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑡
On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions, we get,
𝑈(𝑠) 1
= 𝐾𝑝 (1 + + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑇𝑖 𝑠
The equation gives the output of the PID-controller for the input E(s) and it is the transfer
function of PID-controller. The block diagram of PID-controller is shown in figure
5.4.14.

Figure 5.4.14 Block diagram of PID controller

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.88]

The combination of proportional control action, integral control action and derivative
control action is called PID-control action. This combined action has the advantages of
the each of the three individual control actions. The proportional controller stabilizes the
gain but produces a steady state error. The integral controller reduces or eliminates the
steady state error. The derivative controller reduces the rate of change of error.
Example of Electronic PID-controller
The PID controller can be realized by an op-amp amplifier with integral and
derivative action followed by a sign changer as shown in figure 5.4.15.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 5.4.15 PID-controller using inverting amplifier

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.88]

By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown in figure and comparing with
the transfer function of PID-controller defined by equation, it can be proved that the
circuit shown in figure will work as PID-controller.
Analysis of PID-controller
The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are,
1. The voltages of both inputs are equal
2. The input current is zero.
Based on the above assumptions, the equivalent circuit of op-amp amplifier and sign
changer are shown in figure 5.4.16.

Figure 5.4.16 Equivalent circuit of amplifier and sign changer

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.89]

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

From the circuit,

𝑒 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑖1 = + 𝐶1
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions, we get,
1
𝐼1(𝑠) = ( + 𝐶1𝑠) 𝐸(𝑠)
𝑅1
Also, from the circuit,
1
𝑢1 (𝑡) = −𝑖1 𝑅2 − ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶2 1
On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions, we get,
1
𝑈1 (𝑠) = −𝐼1(𝑠)𝑅2 − 𝐼 (𝑠)
𝑠𝐶2 1
Substitute for i1, from equations
𝑅2 𝐶1 1
𝑈1 (𝑠) = − ( + + + 𝑅2 𝐶1𝑠) 𝐸(𝑠)
𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠
Also, from the circuit,
𝑢 (𝑡) = −𝑖2 𝑅
𝑢1(𝑡) = 𝑖2 𝑅
Substitute for i2,
𝑢1 (𝑡) = −𝑢(𝑡)
On equating the equations, we get,
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 1
= (1 + + + 𝑅1 𝐶1𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅2 𝐶2𝑠

The equation is the transfer function of op-amp PID-controller. On the comparing, we

get,
𝑅2
Proportional gain, 𝐾𝑝 =
𝑅1

Derivative time, 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑅1 𝐶1
Integral time, 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑅2𝐶2
𝑅1 𝐶1 +𝑅2 𝐶2
Also, =1
𝑅2 𝐶2

By varying the values of R1 and R2, the value of Kp , Td and Ti are adjusted.

EE3503 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com