SCIENCE IN INDUSTRY

Matter
-is anything that has mass and occupies space ie has volume.
States of matter
-Matter exists in in 3 physical states namely, solids liquids and gases.
Kinetic theory of matter
-it states that matter is made up of particles that are always moving. The particles are
atoms, molecules or ions.
Solid
-In solids particles are closely packed and are strongly held to each other by strong forces
called inter-molecular or inter- ionic forces. A solid has a definite because its particles are
closely packed and are held in fixed positions.
-A solid cannot be compressed. Particles in a solid have little kinetic energy. They only
vibrate and rotate within their fixed positions and are not free to move away from each
other. This means the amount of kinetic energy is weaker than the inter-molecular forces
holding the particles together.
Diagam
Liquid
-Liquid particles are also closely packed but they are free to move from one place to another
within the liquid. They possess more kinetic energy than those in in a solid. The inter-
molecular forces are weaker than those in solids. Liquids have no definite shape but take
the shape of the container into which they are placed. Liquids cannot be compressed
because their particles are also closely packed but not as those in solids.
Diagam
Gas particles are further apart. The particles possess the greatest amount of kinetic energy.
The inter-molecular forces are very weak and they cannot hold the particles together. Gases
can be compressed. It does not a definite volume. A gas fills the whole container in which it
is placed. Gas particles move very fast in all directions. The large spaces between gas
particles makes a gas compressible.
Diagam
Change of state
-Matter can change its state to another state. It can change its state when it gains or loses
heat energy. Heat increases the amount of kinetic energy possessed by the particles.
Change of state due to heat gain
a) Melting- change of state from solid to liquid eg ice changing to liquid water.
-If a solid is heated the heat energy makes the particles vibrate more vigorously until the
inter-molecular forces can no longer hold the particles close together and they move away
from each other. The particles however cannot leave the liquid.
b) Evaporation- a change of state from liquid to gas. If more heat is applied to the liquid, the
forces holding the liquid particles become weak and the particles move away from each
other.
c) Sublimation – a change of state from solid to gas without going through the liquid state.
Iodine and naphthalene are examples of substances that sublime. A substance sublimes
because the forces holding the solid particles are weak and cannot be sustained in the liquid
state.
Experiment to show sublimation
Method
1. Place a crystal of iodine in an evaporating dish.
2. Put a filter funnel upside down over the crystal.
4. Warm the crystal gently until the filter funnel fills with iodine vapour.
5. Remove the burner and allow the iodine vapour to cool.
Precaution
-The experiment must be done in a fume cupboard or near an open window. This is because
iodine vapour is poisonous if inhaled. A fume cupboard takes the fumes outside and an
open window allows the fumes to be blown by wind.
Diagam
Results
-When grey iodine crystals are heated they do not melt but turn into a vapour. Purple fumes
are seen.
Change of state due to heat loss
a) condensation – is a change of state from gas to liquideg steam can change to liquid water.
The particles lose kinetic energy and come closer. Eventually strong forces form between
the particles and the gas becomes a liquid.
b) Freezing- is a change of state from liquid to solideg when water changes to ice. The
particles lose kinetic energy and forces between them are strengthened and the liquid
becomes a solid.
Summary of change of states
diagam
Experiment to make a heating curve of water
Method
1. Put ice blocks in a test tube and record their temperature using a thermometer.
2. Heat the ice blocks as shown in the diagram and record the temperature after every 30
seconds.
3. Heat the ice blocks until they melt and finally boil.
Diagam
Precaution: The test tube should not be heated directly with the burner flame because it will
expand rapidly causing the test tube to crack.
-If heating is to continue until all the liquid water evaporates and the steam is heated again,
a curve like this one is produced.
Digam
AB- Temperature remains at 00 C for some time.A mixture of ice and water is seen during
this time. There is no temperature increase because the heat absorbed is used to overcome
the intermolecular forces holding the particles together. This heat bsorbed to change a solid
to a liquid is called latent heat of fusion
BC – Liquid water is now increasing in temperature. The heat energy absorbed is now being
used to increase the temperature of water.
CD- Temperature of water remains at 1000 C (boiling point) until all the water has changed
to steam. Heat absorbed at this stage is used to give liquid particles enough kinetic energy
to overcome the intermolecular forces holding the liquid particles. This heat absorbed to
change a liquid to a gas is called latent heat of vapourisation.
DE – Temperature of steam is now increasing. Heat absorbed is now being used to increase
temperature of steam. Steam is water in gaseous form
Cooling curve of steam
-It is the reverse of the heating curve.
Diagam
ED- Steam is losing heat and its temperature is dropping.
DC- Steam is changing to liquid water (condensation). Particles are coming close together.
CB- Temperature of liquid water is dropping.
BA- Liquid water is changing to ice (freezing)
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
-An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
Allatoms of the same element have the same properties. Different atoms combine in small
whole numbers to form compounds. During chemical reactions in which new compounds
are formed, atoms are re-arranged.
Stucture of an atom
-An atom is made up the following:
i) nucleus
ii) shells
iii) sub atomic particles

Nucleus
-The nucleus of an atom contains positively charged particles called protons and neutral
particles called neutrons. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons because they are found
in the nucleus.
Shells
-Contain negatively charged particles called electrons
Carbon atom
A carbon atom has 6 protons and 6 neutrons and 6 electrons.
Nucleon number / atomic mass
-The nucleon number / atomic mass of an atom is the total number of protons and
neutrons.
Nucleon number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Proton number
-is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom eg the proton number/atomic
number of a carbon atom is 6
In an atom, number of protons is always equal to number of electrons. This is why an atom
is electrically neutral.
Nucleon number – proton number = number of neutrons.
Chemical significance of electrons
-The movement of electrons from one atom to another gives rise to the chemical properties
of an element.
-Electrons do not escape from their orbit very easily. They will only do so if energy is
supplied. If very little energy is needed for electrons to escape, then the element is a
reactive one.
ELEMENTS, MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS
Definition of terms
a) Element- Is a substance made up of atoms of one kind only. For example in the element
copper, only copper atoms are found. Examples of elements include: iron, oxygen, nitrogen,
magnesium, carbon, lead, gold, silver, sulphur, sodium etc.
b) Compound – is a substance made up of two or more elements joined together chemically.
Examples of compounds

Compound Elements that make up the compound

Carbon Carbon and oxygen (CO20
Water Hydrogen and oxygen (H2O)
Iron sulphide Iron and Sulphur (FeS)
Magnesium oxide Magnesium and oxygen (MgO)
Glucose Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen (C6H12O6)
Sulphuric acid Hydrogen, Sulphur and Oxygen (H2SO4)

c) Molecule- is the smallest particle of a compound formed when atoms of elements

combine.
-However, some elements are made up of moleculeseg Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen(O2),
Hydrogen(H2).
d) Mixture- is a substance made up of two or more substances that are not chemically
joined together. The substances can be elements or compounds.
Examples of mixtures are:
i) Solutions eg salt solution, sugar solution
ii) Iron and sulphur
iii) Salt and Sand
iv) bean seeds and maize seeds
Differences between mixtures and compounds

Mixture Compound
1. No new substance is formed A new substance is formed
2. The parts of a mixture can be separated The parts of a compound cannot be
easily by physical means eg by using a separated by physical means.
magnet, evaporation, sieving, filtration etc
3. Substances in a mixture keep their The properties of a compound are different
 properties eg colour, taste, density etc. from properties of substances that make up
4. Heat energy is usually not taken in or that compound
given out when mixtures are formed. Heat is usually taken in or given out during
5. Formation of a mixture is a physical the formation of a compound.
change The formation of a compound is a chemical
change.

To make a mixture of iron and Sulphur and it to a compound

Method
1. Mix about equal amounts of iron fillings and powdered sulphur in a boiling tube.
2. Bring a magnet near the mixture.
3. Clamp the boiling tube to a stand.
4. Heat the mixture.
5. Stop heating as soon as the mixture starts to glow. Watch what happens to the mixture.
6. When the boiling tube has cooled down hold a magnet near the solid residue.
Diagam
Observations
-When iron fillings and Sulphur are mixed, the yellow Sulphur can be seen and the grey iron
fillings can be seen.
If a magnet is brought to the mixture, iron fillings are attracted.
After the mixture has been heated, grey iron fillings cannot be seen and yellow sulphur can
also not be seen.
-When a magnet is brought to the residue, there is no attraction.
The solid residue formed by heating iron and sulphur is very different from the original
mixture.
-When iron and sulphur are heated together, a chemical reaction occurs and a new
substance is formed. This substance is a compound of iron and sulphur and is called iron
sulphide.
-Word equations are used to show what would have happened during chemical reactions.
Iron + Sulphur = Iron sulphide
-Chemical reactions always occur when two substances are mixed but on supplying heat
energy a chemical change can take place.
Making an oxide compound
-Oxygen is an element present in the atmosphere. When elements burn in air they combine
with oxygen to form new compounds called oxides.
Making Magnesium oxide
Method
1. Clean a piece of magnesium ribbon with a sand paper. It will appear shiny.
2. Hold the magnesium ribbon with tongs and heat it in the burner flame until it ignites
Diagam
Precaution
Do not look into the flame. The ribbon burns with a dazzling white flame which can blind the
eyes
while.
4. When the magnesium has finished burning examine the new compound.
Observations
i) The magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling white flame
ii) A white ash is left behind. This is magnesium oxide.
-The chemical reaction between magnesium and oxygen can be summarised by this word
equation
Magnesium + oxygen= magnesium oxide.
Physical and Chemical changes
-Physical changes are mainly changes in physical properties like size, shape, density or
change in state of matter without an accompanying change in composition.
-The changing of water to ice or change of water into steam are physical changes. No new
substances are formed. The chemical composition of water is the same eg ice is H 2O(s), steam
is H2O(g) and liquid water is H2O(l).
In a chemical change substances are formed that have completely different properties and
-

composition from the original substances.

Examples of physical and chemical processes

Physical processes Chemical processes

Evaporation Burning
Filtration Photosynthesis
Distillation Respiration
Dissolving Rusting
Sieving Electrolysis
Winnowing
METALS AND NON METALS
-Elements can be divided into metals and non-metals
Properties of metals and non-metals

Metals Non-metals
1. –are good electrical conductorsie they -are poor electrical conductors
allow electricity to flow through them.
2. –are good thermal conductors ie they -are poor thermal conductors
quickly transmit heat.
3-are lustrous-they shiny when polished -are not lustrous
4. –are malleable- they can be beaten into -are not malleable
shape.
5. –are ductile- they can be drawn into wires -arenot ductile
6. –have high melting points
7.- have high tensile strength -have low melting points
8. –are sonorous ie they produce a sound
when hit -are not sonorous

REACTIVITY OF METALS
-Metals do not react in the same way. Some react very fast with oxygen, water, steam and
dilute acids. Some metals react very slowly with these substances and yet some do not react
at all.
Reaction of metals with air
-Some metals react with oxygen in the air at ordinary temperature. Others react with
oxygen when they are heated and others hardly react at all even at higher temperature. If a
metal reacts with oxygen it forms an oxide.
Heating metals in air
Method
1. Hold a metal with tongs and heat in a burner flame.
2. Observe how the metal reacts during heating.
3. Cool the meatal and note the appearance of the product.
-Metals that react vigorously in air produce bright flames eg when magnesium ribbon burns
in air it produces a dazzling white flame. A smaller flame or a glow shows decreased
reactivity.
Reaction of metals with water
Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
Diagam
2. For each of the metals magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead and copper observe how it
reacts with cold water.
3. Test the gas collected in the test tube if any with a lighted splint.
The gas produced when some of these metals react with cold water is hydrogen.
Test for hydrogen
-Introduce a lighted splint at the mouth of the test tube. The gas explodes and produces a
pop sound.

Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water to form magnesium oxide and hydrogen.
-Water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. When metals react with water, they remove
the oxygen from the water. A metal oxide is formed leaving hydrogen
Word equation
Metal + water = metal oxide + hydrogen
Eg
Magnesium + water = magnesium oxide + hydrogen.
-Magnesium oxide is a white solid.
Reaction of metals with steam
Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
Diagam

2. Heat the damp sand and the coil of metal.

3. Continue heating until the reaction is complete.
4. Repeat the experiment with other metals
-Aluminium, zinc, iron and lead react slowly with steam to form metal oxides and hydrogen.
Copper does not react with steam. Magnesium reacts fairly fast with steam.
Reaction of metals with dilute acids
-Metals that react with cold water react more vigorously with acids. Metals that react with
acids dissolve and disappear to form a salt and hydrogen.
Metal + acid =salt + hydrogen
-If hydrochloric acid is used, the salts will be chlorides. If sulphuric acid is used, the salts will
be sulphates.
-Magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron react with dilute acids to form salts and hydrogen.
-Lead and copper do not react with dilute acids.
Word equations
a) Zinc + hydrochloric acid = zinc chloride + hydrogen
b) Zinc + sulphuric acid = zinc sulphate + hydrogen
c) Magnesium + sulphuric acid = magnesium sulphate + hydrogen
d) Magnesium + hydrochloric acid = magnesium chloride + hydrogen
e) Iron + hydrochloric acid = iron chloride + hydrogen
f) Copper + sulphuric acid = No reaction
g) Lead + hydrochloric acid = No reaction
Reactivity series
-This is the arrangement of metals according to their speed of reaction with substances like
water, steam, air and dilute acids. The reactivity series is as follows:
Magnesium most reactive
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Copper Least reactive
Summary of reactions of metals
Metal Reaction with oxygen Reaction with water or Reaction with dilute
steam acids
Magnesium, Burn to form metal React with steam to form React to form salts and
aluminium, oxides oxides and hydrogen hydrogen
zinc
Iron Reacts slowly to form Slow reaction with steam Reacts to form salts
iron oxide (rust) and hydrogen
Lead Slow reaction at the Slow reaction with steam at No reaction
surface the surface
 Copper Slow reaction at the No reaction No reaction
surface

Displacement reactions
-This is a reaction in which a more reactive metal replaces a less reactive one during a
chemical reaction
Displacement of copper by iron
Method
1. Place a clean iron nail in copper sulphate solution
2. Leave the set up for some time
3. Observe any changes
Diagam

Observations
1. -Brown copper metal is formed around the iron nail. This is because iron has displaced
copper from the copper sulphate solution because iron is more reactive than copper.
2. –The blue copper sulphate solution turns from blue to green.
Word equation
Copper (II) sulphate + iron = iron sulphate
Some other examples of displacement reactions
a) Zinc + copper (II) sulphate = Zinc sulphate + copper
b) Lead + copper (II) sulphate = lead sulphate + copper
c) Magnesium + copper (II) oxide = magnesium oxide + copper
d) Aluminium + iron (III) oxide + iron
-Reaction (d) is called a thermic reaction. It produces a lot of heat and is used to weld
together lengths of railway lines on site.
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
Oxidation- is the addition of oxygen to a substance or the removal of hydrogen from a
substance.
Examples of oxidation reactions
Burning elements in air will result in the formation of oxides eg.
a) Sulphur + oxygen = sulphur dioxide
b) Carbon + oxygen = carbon dioxide
c) Magnesium + oxygen = magnesium oxide
- In all the 3 examples oxygen is coming from the air. Sometimes the oxygen is supplied by
another compound. The substance that supplies the oxygen is called an oxidising agent. Eg
d) Magnesium + water = magnesium oxide + hydrogen
-The oxygen that has oxidised the element magnesium to magnesium oxide has been
provided by water. Water is therefore the oxidising agent.
e) Hydrogen sulphide + chlorine = sulphur + hydrogen chloride
-Hydrogen has been removed from hydrogen sulphide by chlorine. This is an example of an
oxidation reaction in which hydrogen is removed. Chlorine is the oxidising agent because it
has removed hydrogen from hydrogen sulphide.
-An oxidising agent is a substance that adds oxygen to another substance or a substance
that removes hydrogen from another substance.
Reduction – is the removal of oxygen from a substance or the addition of hydrogen to a
substance.
Reduction of metal oxides
-The metal oxide must be heated with something that will remove the oxygen (reduce the
metal oxide). This could be:
i) carbon
ii) hydrogen
iii) a metal higher in the reactivity series
Reducing copper oxide with carbon
Method
1. Mix powdered carbon and copper oxide together in a tin lid
2. Using tongs, hold the lid over the hottest part of the flame or put the crucible on a stand
and heat using a burner until you see a change.
Diagam
Observation
-Brown copper is seen. The black copper oxide changes to a brown substance.
Word equation
Copper oxide + carbon = copper + carbon dioxide
Reduction of copper oxide with hydrogen
Method
1. Place a spatula load of black copper oxide in a test tube.
22. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
Diagam
3. Allow a very slow stream of gas to flow through the apparatus and burn it at the small
hole.
4. Adjust the gas, so that the flame is nomore than 2 cm high.
5. Heat the copper oxide with a burner until there is a change in colour and remove the heat
and turn off the gas.
Precaution: Pure hydrogen must not be used because it is too dangerous. Bunsen gas is used
instead. The gas is a hydrocarbon ie it is a compound of hydrogen and carbon.
Observation
-The black copper oxide will turn to a brown colour. A brown residue is left and this is
copper element
Word equation
Copper oxide + hydrogen = copper + water
-Hydrogen can remove oxygen from the compound copper oxide. Hydrogen is therefore a
reducing agent.
Reduction by more reactive metals
-More reactive metals can reduce oxides of less reactive metals
Examples
i) Aluminium + iron (III) oxide = iron + aluminium oxide
ii) Copper oxide + magnesium = magnesium oxide + copper
iii) Zinc oxide + magnesium = magnesium oxide + zinc
Oxidation of iron
-The oxidation of iron is called rusting. Rusting causes iron objects to look bad and
eventually disintegrate.
To investigate the rusting of iron
Method
1. Clean some iron nails with sand paper.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagrams
Diagam
3. Leave the set up for 2 or 3 days
Observations
-Iron nail in test tube A rusted because all conditions for rusting are present ie water and
oxygen. A is the control experiment.
In B iron nail will not rust because there is no water or moisture. Calcium chloride absorbs
any moisture in the test tube.
-Iron nail in C will not rust because there is no oxygen. When water is boiled all oxygen is
expelled. The film of oil prevents oxygen from dissolving in the water when it cools.
Word equation
Iron + oxygen+ water = iron (III) oxide
Methods of preventing rusting of iron or steel
1. Painting- This ensures that the iron or steel is not in contact with both air water and
therefore no rusting will take place.
2. Galvanising- This means coating the iron with zinc
3. Electroplating- coating a metallic object with another metal that is attractive and that
resists corrosion.
Redox reaction
-These are reactions in reduction and oxidation take place in the same reaction. One
substance is reduced and the other is oxidised.
Examples of redox reactions
a) Magnesium + water = magnesium oxide + hydrogen
-Magnesium is oxidised by water and becomes magnesium oxide. Magnesium has removed
oxygen from water, so magnesium has been reduced.
b) Copper oxide + carbon = copper + carbon dioxide
-Copper oxide is reduced to copper and carbon is oxidised to carbon dioxide by copper
oxide.
c) Copper oxide + hydrogen = copper + water
-Copper oxide- reduced and hydrogen oxidised
d) Aluminium + iron (III) oxide = aluminium oxide + iron
-Iron (III) oxide reduced and aluminium is oxidised
e) Hydrogen sulphide + chlorine = hydrogen chloride + sulphur
-Chlorine has oxidised hydrogen sulphide by removing hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide has
reduced chlorine by adding hydrogen to it.
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
-All substances are divided into acids, bases or neutrals (salts)
Properties of acids and bases

Acids Bases
1. –have sour taste -Taste bitter and have slippery feel
2. – Turn blue litmus paper to red -Turn red litmus paper to blue
3. – Acids are corrosive (capable of eroding - Some bases such as potassium hydroxide
material) are caustic
4. –Have pH values that are less than 7 -Have pH values that are more than 7
5. –React with bases to form salts -React with acids to form salts and water
and water -Change universal indicator paper or
6. – Change universal indicator paper or solution to a series of colour changes.
solution to a series of colours

Examples of acids
-There are strong and weak acids. Strong acids include:
i) Sulphuric acid
ii) hydrochloric acid
iii) nitric acid
-Weak acids are:
i) carbonic acid
ii) acetic acid – found in vinegar
iii) citric acid – found in citrus fruits like lemons and oranges.
The pH scale
-This scale ranges from 0-14. It shows how acidic or alkaline a substance is.
-Acids have pH values that are less than 7 while bases or alkalis have pH values that are
more than 7. If a substance has a pH of 7, it is neutral.
Universal indicator
-Is a mixture of indicators and is used to show the acidity/ alkalinity of a substance by its
colour.
Diagam of pH scale
Reaction of Acids with metals
-Acids react with some of the metals to produce salts and water. The acid corrodes the
metal.
Making acids
-A cidsare made from dissolving oxides of non- metal elements in water eg
i) Carbon dioxide + water = carbonic acid
ii) Sulphur dioxide + water = sulphurous acid
iii) Sulphur trioxide + water = sulphuric acid
Making an acidic solution
Method
1. Put some sulphur in a deflagrating spoon.
2. Light the sulphur and place it inside a gas jar with distilled water as shown in the diagram.
Diagam
3. Shake the gas jar well after the sulphur has completely burnt. Dip a blue litmus paper to
find the nature of the solution or dip a universal indicator paper to find the pH of the
solution.
4. Repeat the activity using powdered carbon.
Observation
-When a blue litmus is dipped into the solution it turns red. This shows that an acidic
solution is formed when an oxide of a non- metal dissolves in water.
Bases
Examples of bases
-Oxides of metals are bases. Some bases dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions. If a
base dissolves in water, it makes an alkaline solution. Not all bases are soluble in water. A
base that dissolves in water is called an alkali.
-Strong bases include sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.
Making an alkaline solution
Method
1. Burn magnesium ribbon in air
2. Put the ash in a test tube with water
3. Shake the mixture well
4. Dip a red litmus paper
Observation
-The red litmus paper turns blue. This shows that the solution is alkaline.
Word equation
Magnesium oxide + water = magnesium hydroxide
(alkaline solution)

Neutralisation
-is a reaction between a base and an acid to give a salt and water. The products produced by
a neutralisation reaction are neutral ie they have a pH of 7.
ACID + BASE = SALT + WATER
Examples of neutralisation reactions
1. Zinc oxide + sulphuric acid = zinc sulphate
2. Magnesium oxide + hydrochloric acid = magnesium chloride
3. Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid = sodium chloride + water
4. Potassium hydroxide + sulphuric acid = potassium sulphate + water
5. Copper oxide + sulphuric acid = copper sulphate + water
Making copper sulphate salt
Method
1. Pour some dilute sulphuric acid into a beaker.
2. Add a spatula load of copper oxide and stir until it has all dissolved.
3. Continue adding copper oxide until no more will dissolve.
4. Filter the solution to remove the undissolved copper oxide
5. Collect the filtrate in an evaporating dish and heat it over a burner to remove most of the
water. A saturated solution will be formed.
6. Place the evaporating dish on a window sill and leave it for a few days.
Diagam
Observations
-After a few days blue copper sulphate crystals are seen.
SPEED OF REACTION
-Chemical reactions happen at different speeds. This depends on the conditions prevailing.
The rate of a chemical reaction can be changed by changing the factors that affect the
chemical reactions.
The collision theory
-it states that for a chemical reaction to occur, particles of reacting substances (reactants)
must collide ie bump into each other. The more frequent the collisions, the faster the rate of
the chemical reaction.
Factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction
a) Temperature – an increase in temperature increases the rate of a reaction. This is
because the particles gain more kinetic energy and increases the chances of collisions
between reacting particles. A decrease in temperature slows the rate at which reacting
particles move and this decreases the chances of collision, thus decreasing the rate of a
chemical reaction.
b) Surface area- it affects the reaction between a solid and a liquid reactant. It refers to the
size of particles of a solid reactant.
-The smaller or finer the particles of the solid reactant, the larger the surface area. Asolid in
powder form has a large larger surface area than a lump or granules. A large surface area
increases the chances of collision between reacting particles and this increases the rate of a
chemical reaction. If surface are is small (when particles are large) the rate of reaction will
be slower.
c) Catalyst – is a substance which changes the speed of a chemical reaction, usually by by
increasing it. A catalyst does not participate in the chemical reaction.
d) Concentration of reactants – if concentration of one or more of the reactants is high,
chemical reaction proceeds faster because the chances of collision between reacting
particles will be higher. When concentration is low, chances of collision are lower and the
rate of the chemical reaction will be slower. Concentration affects a reaction in which one or
more of the reactants is in a liquid. A more dilute acid reacts slower than a more
concentrated acid.
EXPT. 1. Investigating the effect of surface area on the rate of a chemical reaction
Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
Diagam
2. Read and record the volume of gas collected at a given time interval eg 30 seconds
3. Repeat the experiment with zinc lump and powder.
NB All factors like volume, mass of zinc and concentration of acid must remain unchanged.
- The only factor that has to be varied is surface area of zinc.
-If the results of the 3 experiments are plotted on a graph, a graph of the following shape is
produced.
Diagam
-All the 3 graphs level off at the same volume. This means there is no more hydrogen gas
being produced ie the reactions would have come to completion. When all the reactions
come to completion, the same volume of hydrogen gas would have been collected because
the quantities of reactants used and the concentration of the acid are the same. The fastest
reaction is seen by a gradient of the graph that is steep. The slowest reaction is seen by the
least sloping graph.
The speed at which a chemical reaction takes place can also be measured by considering the
rate at which reactants are being used up.
Method 2
1.Put 40cm3 of sulphuric acid in a conical flask.
2. Add 20g of zinc lump.
3. Plug the opening of the flask with cotton wool to prevent acid spray escaping.
4. Place the whole apparatus on the balance and find its mass.
5. Note the mass every half minute for 10 minutes.
6. Tabulate the results.
Diagam
7. Repeat the experiment with 20g powdered zinc and 20g zinc granules.
-The graphs obtained will have the following shapes.
Diagam
-When the reactions stop, the graphs level off. They never reach 0 because the conical flask
and the sulphuric acid remaining have their own mass.
EXPT. 2. To investigate the effect of copper catalyst on the reaction between zinc and dilute
sulphuric acid.
Method
1. Add a few pieces of granulated zinc in a test tube.
2. Add dilute sulphuric acid to cover the zinc.
3. Note the rate at which gas bubbles are formed on the zinc
4. Add a few pieces of copper so that they are in contact with the zinc.
5. Note the rate at which gas bubbles are produced.
Observations
-The number of gas bubbles produced before adding copper are fewer. When copper is
added, the number of gas bubbles produced increases. This shows that copper catalyses the
reaction between zinc and sulphuric acid.
EXPT. 3. Investigating the effect of concentration on the rate of a chemical reaction.
Method
1. Make different concentrations of sulphuric acid by diluting the acid as shown below.

Vol. of sulphuric acid Amount of water

(cm3) added (cm3)
A 45 5
B 30 20
C 10 40

2. React each sample of the dilute sulphuric acid with metal using the same volume of acid,
same mass of metal, same surface area of metal and same temperature of acid. The only
factor that has to be varied is concentration.
The apparatus used in ept. 1. (both method 1 & 2) can also be used to investigate the effect
of concentration on the rate of a chemical reaction. The results obtained are similar to those
obtained in expt. 1.
Method 2
1. Make different concentrations of sodium thiosulphate solution by diluting sodium
thiosulphate with water as shown in the table.

Vol. of Vol. of water added

Sodiumthiosulphate (cm3) (Cm3)
A 50 0
B 40 10
C30 20
D20 30
E10 40

2. Draw an X on a white sheet of paper.

3. Place the conical flask over the X on the paper.
4. Add 5cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid to the solution in the jar, and noting the time at the
same time.
5. Look down vertically through the solution at the X and note the time when the X
disappears.
6. Rinse the conical flask and repeat using sodium thiosulphate of different concentration.
7. Tabulate the results and use them to plot a graph of vol. of sodium thiosulphate (vertical
axis) against the time taken for the X to disappear.
Diagam
Observations
Solution A takes the shortest time for the X to disappear while solution E takes the longest
time.
Conclusion
Concentration increases the rate at which a chemical reaction takes place.
4. EXPT. To investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of a chemical reaction
-The effect of temperature on the rate of a chemical reaction can be investigated using the
reaction between sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid. Sodium thiosulphate of eg
30oc,40oc, 50oc and 60oc can be used