G H RAISONI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(An Autonomous Institute affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur)
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Unit-3
Battery Technology: Introduction to Battery, reversible and irreversible batteries. Examples: Lead-
acid battery, Lithium ion battery and fuel cell

Introduction:
Batteries are widely used as sources of direct-current electrical energy in automobiles, boats, aircraft,
ships, portable electric/electronic equipment, and lighting equipment. In some instances, they are used
as the only source of power; while in others, they are used as a secondary or standby power source. A
battery consists of a number of cells assembled in a common container and connected together to
function as a source of electrical power.
Whether a battery may be recharged or not depends on the cells used to make up the battery. A primary
cell cannot be recharged because the internal chemical reaction cannot be restored. A secondary cell,
or storage cell, can be recharged because its chemical reaction is reversible. Dry cells have a moist
electrolyte that cannot be spilled. Sealed rechargeable cells are secondary cells that contain a sealed
electrolyte that cannot be refilled.
Battery is probably the most sensitive element in the Battery Electric Vehicle powertrain system
because of their cost and lifespan. To study its lifespan, accelerated ageing tests are necessary in
order to understand the ageing mechanisms in batteries and the performance evolution whithin this
energy Storage System. Battery performances change due to parasitic reactions even during rest
periods: internal impedance will grow and capacity decay. Capacity losses can be reversible or
irreversible. Reversible capacity loss is known as self-discharge whereas irreversible losses are known
as capacity fade.

What is a Cell ?
Cell is a single electrochemical unit; i.e. one anode, one cathode, and the electrolyte
Battery: A collection of cells in series or parallel.
What is a battery?
A device that converts the chemical energy of its cell components into electrical energy. It contains two
materials that cannot undergo an oxidation-reduction reaction directly, but that can do so if electrons
are allowed to travel from one material to the other through an outside circuit while ions simultaneously
travel within the cell.

Requirements –
All batteries contain:
1. Anode-negative electrode: A material that undergoes oxidation during the cell discharge.
2. Cathode-positive electrode:A material that undergoes reduction during the cell discharge.

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Notes by Dr K Nandekar
 3. Electrolyte-medium for ion transfer: A medium, usually liquid, through which ions move from
one electrode to the other during the cell discharge. An ionic species, the electrolyte salt, is
dissolved in the electrolyte.

Fig-1: Construction of Cell

ELECTRODES: The electrodes are the conductors by which the current leaves or returns to the
electrolyte. In the simple cell, they are carbon and zinc strips that are placed in the electrolyte; while in
the dry cell (fig. 2), they are the carbon rod in the center and zinc container in which the cell is
assembled.
There are a wide range of battery types. These batteries differ from each other in terms of capacity,
environmental friendliness, current densities supported, and cycle life. Careful analysis is needed to
match a battery with a specific end use.
There are several different types of primary cells in use today:
1. Carbon-zinc dry cells
2. Alkaline cells
3. Zinc chloride cells
4. Mercury cells
5. Silver oxide cells.

1. Carbon-Zinc Dry Cell:

This is one of the most popular primary cells (often used for type AAA, AA, C, D).The negative electrode
is made of zinc.The positive electrode is made of carbon.The output voltage of a single cell is about
1.5 V.Performance of the cell is better with intermittent operation.
2. Alkaline Cells:
The alkaline cell is another popular type also used for type AA, C, D, etc. It has the same 1.5V output
as carbon-zinc cells, but they are longer-lasting.It consists of a zinc anode and manganese dioxide
cathode in an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide).It works with high efficiency even with
continuous use, due to low internal resistance.
3. Zinc Chloride Cells:
This cell is also referred to as a “heavy-duty” type battery. It is a modified zinc-carbon cell. It has little
chance of liquid leakage because the cell consumes water along with the chemically active materials.
The cell is usually dry at the end of its useful life.
4. Mercury Cells:
This cell consists of a zinc anode, mercury compound cathode, and potassium or sodium hydroxide
electrolyte.It is becoming obsolete due to the hazards associated with proper disposal of mercury.
5. Silver Oxide Cells:

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Notes by Dr K Nandekar
This cell consists of a zinc anode, silver oxide cathode, and potassium or sodium hydroxide electrolyte.It
is typically available as 1.5V, miniature button form.Applications include hearing aids, cameras, and
watches.
ELECTROLYTE: The Substance in aqueous state or fused state allows an electric current to pass
through it is known as electrolyte.
Ex: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3 etc

Irreversible Battery [Non-rechargeable Battery]:

It is a primary cell or battery in which the chemical action eats away one of the electrodes, usually the
negative electrode. When this happens, the electrode must be replaced or the cell must be discarded.
OR
A Cell or battery which can not be recharge again, once used it is then discarded.
Eg. Dry Cell , Daniel Cell

Reversible Battery or [Rechargeable Battery]:

It is secondary cell or battery in which the electrodes and the electrolyte are altered by the chemical
action that takes place when the cell delivers current. OR
The Cell or battery which can be recharge number of times is known as secondary cell.
Eg. Lead-acid Cell, Ni-Cd Cell.

Irreversible Battery (Primary Battery):

Explain construction and working of Dry cell with diagram

Fig-2 : Dry Cell

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Notes by Dr K Nandekar
Construction:
i) It consists of zinc container (vessel) which acts as an anode.
ii) Cathode is a Graphite rod. It acts as inert electrode. The Graphite rod is surrounded by a paste of
MnO2 (Manganese dioxide) & powdered Carbon (Black) and water placed in muslin cloth.
iii)The cell is filled with a paste of NH4Cl & ZnCl2 prepared in water. The cell is sealed at the top by
wax or resin.
Working
At zinc anode: -
Dissolution of zinc electrode to form zinc ions.
Zn → Zn++ + 2e- (oxidation)

Zn++ combines with ammonia to form its complex.

Zn 2 + + 4 NH3 → (Zn (NH3) 4 ) ++

At the graphite cathode: -

Manganese dioxide (MnO2) reduced in presence of NH4 + (ammonium) ions to form Mn2O3 & liberate
ammonia.
2NH4 + + 2 MnO2 + 2 e- → Mn2O3 + H2O + 2NH3 ↑
Ammonia thus produced is liberated as a gas but it combines with Zn 2 + to form a [Zn (NH3)4 ]2+
ions complex at the zinc anode.
The cell develops a potential 1.5 volts

Reversible Battery(Secondary Battery) :

Lead-Acid battery:
This cell is a widely applied type of secondary cell, used extensively in vehicles and other applications
requiring high values of load current. The positive electrode is made of lead peroxide. The negative
electrode is made of spongy lead metal. The electrolyte is sulfuric acid. The output is about 2.1 volts
per cell. Cells are typically used in series combinations of 3 (6-V battery) or 6 (12-V battery).
Principles of lead-acid battery
Lead-acid batteries use a lead dioxide (PbO2) positive electrode, a lead (Pb) negative electrode, and
dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4) electrolyte (with a specific gravity of about 1.30 and a concentration of
about 38 %). When the battery discharges, the positive and negative electrodes turn into lead sulfate
(PbSO4), and the sulfuric acid turns into water. When the battery is charged, the opposite reaction
occurs

Fig-4: Lead acid Cell

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Notes by Dr K Nandekar
Reaction at the negative electrode (Anode):
When a lead-acid battery is discharged after connecting a load such as a light bulb between its
positive and negative electrodes, the lead (Pb) in the negative electrode releases electrons (e
－) to form lead ions (Pb2+)

At Anode (Oxidation)
Pb → Pb2+＋2e－
The lead ions immediately bond with sulfate ions (SO42―) in the electrolyte to form lead sulfate
(PbSO4) and adhere to the surface of the negative electrode.

Pb2+＋SO42―→ PbSO4
The above activity at the negative electrode is summarized by Equation (1):
Pb ＋ SO42―→ PbSO4＋ 2e－･･･(1)

Reaction at the positive electrode :

At Cathode (Reduction):
Electrons (e－) that have flowed from the negative electrode through the load to the positive
electrode give the positive electrode a negative charge, attracting hydrogen ions (H +) in the
electrolyte. The hydrogen ions strip oxygen ions (O2－) from the lead dioxide (PbO2) in the
positive electrode to form water (H2O). Meanwhile, the lead dioxide from which the oxygen was
stripped remains as lead ions (Pb2+).
PbO2＋4H+＋2e－→ Pb2+＋2H2O
Those lead ions immediately bond with sulfate ions (SO42―) in the electrolyte to become lead
sulfate (PbSO4) and adhere to the surface of the positive electrode.
Pb2+＋SO42―→ PbSO4
The above activity at the positive electrode is summarized by Equation (2):
+ 2―
PbO2＋ 4H ＋ SO4 ＋ 2e－→ PbSO4＋ 2H2O･･･(2)
■Overall reaction:
Equations (1) and (2) can be summarized to express the overall discharge reaction in a lead-
acid battery as shown in Equation (3):
Pb ＋ PbO2＋ 4H+＋ 2SO42―→ 2PbSO4＋ 2H2O･･･(3)

Applications
 These are employed in emergency lightening to provide power for sump pumps.
 Used in electric motors
 Ignition power sources for automobiles
 Submarines
 Nuclear submarines

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Notes by Dr K Nandekar
2] Lithium ion Batteries: Any battery that uses lithium metal as the anode material is a lithium
battery.
 Lithium is one of the most electropositive elements.
 Light weight (0.53 gm/cm3) Environmentally friendly.
 Porous structure that grows on anode with each recharge cycle
 Can result in internal short circuit.
 Lithium metal based rechargeable batteries can develop internal short circuit with repeated
cycling.Lithium ion batteries overcome this issue

What are the parts of a lithium-ion battery?

A battery is made up of several individual cells that are connected to one another. Each cell contains
three main parts: a positive electrode (a cathode), a negative electrode (an anode) and a liquid
electrolyte.

Fig-5: Parts of Lithium-ion Battery

What is the chemistry involved in lithium-ion batteries?

Inside a lithium-ion battery, oxidation-reduction (Redox) reactions take place.
1. Reduction takes place at the cathode. There, cobalt oxide combines with lithium ions to form
lithium-cobalt oxide (LiCoO2). The half-reaction is:
CoO2 + Li+ + e- → LiCoO2
2. Oxidation takes place at the anode. There, the graphite intercalation compound LiC 6 forms
graphite (C6) and lithium ions. The half-reaction is:
LiC6 → C6 + Li+ + e-
Here is the full reaction (left to right = discharging, right to left = charging):
LiC6 + CoO2 ⇄ C6 + LiCoO2

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Notes by Dr K Nandekar
When we charge a lithium-ion battery, the exact opposite process happens. The lithium ions move
back from the cathode to the anode. The electrons move from the anode to the cathode.

Fig-6:Charging of Lithium-ion battery

Advantages:
•The liquid cathode systems provide the highest energy density (Wh/L or Wh/g) of any commercially
available battery systems.
•They can operate over an extremely wide temperature range (-55 C to 200 C).
•These systems have a very low rate of self-discharge (typically <2% per year at room temperature).
Disadvantages:
•Because the electrolyte is so reactive, the passivation layer that forms on the lithium is relatively thick.
As a result, liquid cathode systems are subject to significant voltage delay (i.e., voltage drop when a
load is applied after long storage).
•Because of the very high energy density and high reactivity, liquid cathode batteries must be handled
with care!
•The liquid electrolytes are strong oxidants and highly reactive with water. They are very hazardous!
•However, when the batteries are properly treated after use, the end products are environmentally
friendly (simple inorganic salts, with no heavy metals such as lead or cadmium)
3] Fuel Cells :
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts chemicals (such as hydrogen and oxygen) into
water and produces electricity in the process. As long as the reactants (H and O) are supplied to the
fuel cell, it will continually produce electricity and never go dead, unlike conventional batteries.
Fuel cells are used extensively in the space program as sources of dc power. They are very efficient;
capable of providing hundreds of kilowatts of power.

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Notes by Dr K Nandekar
Principle of Operation:
A fuel cell is an energy conversion device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel directly into
electricity without any intermediate thermal or mechanical processes. Energy is released whenever a
fuel reacts chemically with the oxygen in air. In an internal combustion engine, the reaction occurs
combustively and the energy is released in the form of heat, some of which can be used to do useful
work by pushing a piston. In a fuel cell, the reaction occurs electrochemically and the energy is released
as a combination of low-voltage DC electrical energy and heat. The electrical energy can be used to
do useful work directly while the heat is either wasted or used for other purposes.

Classification of Fuel Cells Based on the type of Electrolyte

1.Alkaline Fuel cell (AFC)

2.Phosphoric Acid Fuel cell (PAFC)
3.Polymer Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)Solid Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC) and Proton
Exchange Membrane Fuel cell (PEMFC)
4. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
5. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

Based on Types of Fuel and oxidant

1.Hydrogen (pure)-Oxygen (pure) fuel cell
2.Hydrogen rich gas-air fuel cell
3.Ammonia –air fuel cell4.Synthesis gas-air fuel cell5.Hydro carbon (gas)-air fuel cell

Construction:
 A fuel cell, consist of the fuel (Hydrogen gas) and the oxidant gases themselves comprise the
anode and cathode respectively.
 The physical structure of a fuel cell is one where the gases are directed through flow channels
to either side of the electrolyte.
 The electrolyte is the distinguishing feature between different types of fuel cells.
 Different electrolytes conduct different specific ions.
 Electrolytes can be liquid or solid; some operate at high temperature, and some at low
temperature.
 Low-temperature fuel cells tend to require a noble metal catalyst, typically platinum, to
encourage the electrode reactions
 High-temperature fuel cells do not require catalyst.

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Notes by Dr K Nandekar
  Most fuel cells suitable for automotive applications use a low temperature solid electrolyte that
conducts hydrogen ions as shown in figure-9.
Cell Reactions:

Fig-7: Fuel Cell

The advantages of using hydrogen fuel cells are listed below:
 Hydrogen is an abundant resource
 Fuel cells do not emit harmful emissions
 Hydrogen gas is non-toxic and does not produce any harmful byproducts
 High efficiency and powerful energy production
 Hydrogen fuel cells are highly fuel efficient
 Hydrogen is a renewable source of energy
The disadvantages of using hydrogen fuel cells
 Expensive to construct and maintain
 Storage of hydrogen gas is difficult
 Compressed hydrogen gas is highly flammable

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Notes by Dr K Nandekar