CIVIL ENGINEERING

Surveying made easy

 Introduction

This booklet will tell you about the basic principles of surveying. The most important
instruments for surveying are levels and total stations; they are intended for routine survey
tasks. Anyone wishing to know how and where they are used will find the answers here.

▪ What are the main features of these instruments?

▪ What needs to be taken into account when measuring with a level or with a total station?
▪ What are the effects of instrument errors?
▪ How can such errors be recognized, determined, and eliminated?
▪ How can simple surveying jobs be performed?
This booklet does not describe the range of
The use of levels and total stations is illustrated instruments available today from Leica Geosystems;
by a series of practical examples. In addition, neither does it touch on their individual performance
application programs are described; these are features. These aspects are covered by the
incorporated into the modern total stations comprehensive brochures, by the technical
manufactured by Leica Geosystems and they solve consultants in the Leica Geosystems agencies, and by
survey tasks even more easily and elegantly. the home pages on the Internet.
Equipped with the knowledge in this booklet, and
with the help of the appropriate user manual,
anyone can carry out simple survey tasks
confidently and efficiently.

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The level

A level essentially comprises a telescope rotatable about

a vertical axis; it is used to create a horizontal line of
sight so that height differences can be determined and
stakeouts can be performed.

The Leica Geosystems levels are also

equipped with a horizontal circle that is
very useful for setting out right angles,
e.g. during the recording of transverse
profiles. In addition, these levels can be
used to determine distances optically with
an accuracy of 0.1 – 0.3 meters.

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The total station

A total station consists of a theodolite with a built-in distance meter

(distance), so it can measure angles and distances at the same time. Today’s
electronic total stations all have an optoelectronic distance meter (EDM)
and electronic angle scanning. The coded scales of the horizontal and
vertical circles are scanned electronically, and then the angles and
distances are displayed digitally. The horizontal distance, the height
difference, and the coordinates are calculated automatically and all
measurements and additional information can be recorded.

Leica total stations are supplied with a software package that

enables most survey tasks to be carried out easily, quickly, and
elegantly. The most important of these programs are presented
in the section "Applications programs".

Total stations are used wherever the positions and

heights of points, or merely their positions, need to
be determined.

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Coordinates
Direction of reference Abscissa (x)
In order to describe the position of a point,
two coordinates are required. Polar
coordinates need a line and an angle.
Cartesian coordinates need two lines within
an orthogonal system. The total station
measures polar coordinates; these are
recalculated as Cartesian coordinates within
the given orthogonal system, either within
the instrument itself or subsequently in the
office.
Polar coordinates Ordinate (y)
Cartesian coordinates
Given: x , y
Recalculation
Required : D, 𝛼
Given: D, 𝛼
Required : x , y 𝐷 =÷ 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2

𝑦
𝑦 = 𝐷 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛼 = 𝑜𝑟
𝐷
𝑥 = 𝐷 cos 𝛼 𝑥
cos 𝛼 =
𝐷

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 Measuring angles
An angle represents the difference between two directions.
The horizontal angle α between the two directions leading to the points P1 and P2 is independent of
the height difference between those points, provided that the telescope always moves in a strictly
vertical plane when tilted, whatever its horizontal orientation. This stipulation is met only under
ideal conditions.
The vertical angle (also termed the zenith angle) is the difference between a prescribed direction (namely
the direction of the zenith) and the direction to the point under consideration.

The vertical angle is therefore correct only if the

zero reading of the vertical circle lies exactly in the Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
zenith direction, and also this stipulation is met only
under ideal conditions.

Deviations from the ideal case are caused by axial

errors in the instrument and by inadequate levelling-
up (refer to section: "Instrument errors").

α = Horizontal angle between the two

directions leading to the points
P1 and P2, i.e. the angle between
two vertical planes formed by
dropping perpendiculars from P1
Z1 = zenith angle to P1
and P2 respectively
Z2 = zenith angle to P2
Setting up the instrument anywhere
1. Extend the legs of the tripod as far as required and tighten the screws firmly.
2. Set up the tripod so that the tripod plate is as horizontal as possible and the
legs of the tripod are firm in the ground.
3. Now, and only now, place the instrument on the tripod and secure it with the central fixing screw.

Levelling-up the instrument Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari

After setting up the instrument, level it up approximately with the bull’s-eye
bubble.
Turn two of the foot crews together in opposite directions. The index
finger of your right hand indicates the direction in which the bubble
should move (illustration, top right). Now use the third foot crew to
center the bubble (illustration, bottom right).

To check, rotate the instrument 180°. Afterward, the bubble should

remain within the setting circle. If it does not, then readjustment is
required (refer to the user manual).

For a level, the compensator automatically takes care of the final leveling.
The compensator consists basically of a thread-suspended mirror that
directs the horizontal light beam to the center of the crosshair even if
there is a residual tilt in the telescope (illustration, bottom).
If now you lightly tap a leg of the tripod, then (provided the bull’s-eye
bubble is centered) you will see how the line of sight swings about the
staff reading and always steadies at the same point. This is the way to
test whether or not the compensator can swing freely.
 Setting up the total station over a ground point
1. Place the tripod approximately over the ground point.
2. Inspect the tripod from various sides and correct its position so that the tripod plate is
roughly horizontal and above the ground point (illustration, top left).
3. Push the tripod legs firmly into the ground and use the central fixing screw to secure the
instrument on the tripod.
4. Switch on the laser plummet (or, for older instruments, look through the optical plummet) and
turn the foot screws so that the laser dot or the optical plummet is centered on the ground
point (illustration, top right).
5. Centre the bull’s-eye bubble by adjusting the lengths of the tripod legs (illustration below).
6. After accurately leveling up the instrument, release the central fixing screw so that you can
displace it on the tripod plate until the laser dot is centered precisely over the ground point,
7. Tighten the central fixing screw again.
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 Height difference between two points

The basic principle of leveling involves determining the height difference between two
points.
To eliminate systematic errors related to atmospheric conditions or
to residual line-of-sight error, the instrument should be about equidistant from the two
points.
The height difference is calculated from the difference between the two staff readings
for points A and B respectively.

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Measuring distances optically with the level
The reticle carries two stadia lines arranged symmetrically to the
crosshair. Their spacing is such that the distance can be derived by multiplying
the corresponding staff section by 100. (This diagram is a schematic
representation).

Accuracy of the distance measurement:

10 – 30 cm

Example:
Reading on upper stadia line B = 1.829 Reading on
lower stadia line A = 1.603 Staff section I = B-A
= 0.226 Distance = 100 I = 22.6 m

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Line levelling Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
If the points A and B are widely separated, the height difference between them is
determined by line levelling with target distances generally between 30 and 50 meters.
Pace out the distances between the instrument and the two staffs; they need to be about
the same.
1. Set up the instrument at S1.
2. Set up the staff precisely vertically at point B; read off and
record the height (back sight R).
3. Set up the staff at the turning point 1 (ground plate or prominent
ground point); read off and record the height (foresight V).
4. Set up the instrument at S2 (the staff remains at the turning
point 1).
5. Carefully rotate the staff at the turning point 1 so that it faces
the instrument.
6. Read off the back sight and continue.

The height difference between A and B is equal

to the sum of the back sight and the foresight.
Staking out point heights Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
In an excavation, a point B is to be set out at a height ∆H = 1.00 meter below
street level (Point A).
1. Set up the level so that the sighting distances to A and B are about the same.
2. Set up the staff at A and read off the back sight R = 1.305.
3. Set up the staff at B and read off the foresight V = 2.520. The difference h
from the required height at B is calculated as : h = V – R - ∆H = 2.520 –1.305 –
1.00 = +0.215m
4. Drive in a post at B and mark the required height (0.215m above ground level).
In another frequently-used method, the required staff reading
is calculated in advance:
V= R - ∆H = 1.305 - (-1.000) = 2.305
The levelling staff is then moved upwards or downwards until
the required value can be read off with the level.
Longitudinal and transverse profiles Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
Longitudinal and transverse profiles form the basis for the detailed planning and stakeout of
communications routes (e.g. roads) and also for the calculation of fill and for the best possible
accommodation of the routes to the topography. First of all the longitudinal axis (road line) is
staked out and stationed; this means that points are established and marked at regular
intervals. A longitudinal profile is then created along the road line, the heights of the station
points
being determined by line leveling.
At the station points and at prominent topographic
features, transverse profiles (at right angles to the
road line) are then recorded. The ground heights for
the points in the transverse profile are determined with
the aid of the known instrument height. First, position
the staff at a known station point; the instrument
height comprises the sum of the staff reading and the
station point height.
Now subtract the staff readings (at the points on
the transverse profile) from the instrument height;
this gives the heights of the points involved. The
distances from the station point to the various
points in the transverse profiles are determined
either with the surveyor’s tape or optically using the
level. When representing a longitudinal profile
graphically, the heights of the station points are
expressed at a much bigger scale (e.g. 10x greater)
than that of the stationing of the longitudinal direction,

which is related to a round reference height (illustration above).

The digital level Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari

The digital levels from Leica Geosystems are the first ones in the world to be equipped with
digital electronic image processing for the determination of heights and distances; the bar code
on staff is read by electronic means, completely automatically (see illustration).The staff
reading and the distance are displayed digitally and can be recorded; the heights of the staff
stations are calculated continuously so there can be no errors related to reading, recording, and
calculating. Leica Geosystems can offer software packages for post-processing the recorded
data. A digital level is recommended for use where a lot of leveling needs to be carried out;
under these circumstances, the saving in time can amount to 50%.

The rotation laser

If, on a large construction site for example, a large number of points at
different heights need to be staked out or monitored, it often makes sense to
use a rotation laser. In this type of instrument, a rotating laser beam sweeps
out a horizontal plane, which serves as the reference plane for staking out or
monitoring heights such as
four-foot marks. A detector is slid down a leveling staff until it encounters
the laser beam; the height can then be read directly from the staff. There is
no need for an observer at the instrument station.
Extrapolating a straight line Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
1. Position the instrument at point B.
2. Target point A, transit the telescope (i.e. reverse it), and mark point C1.
3. Turn the instrument 200 gon (180°) and target point A again.
4. Transit the telescope again and mark the point C2. Point C, the mid-point between C1
and C2, corresponds exactly to the extrapolation of the line AB.
A line-of-sight error is responsible for the
discrepancy between C1 and C2.
Where the line of sight is in order, the influence of
the errors is a combination of target error, tilting-
Polar setting out of a point axis error, and vertical-axis error.

The setting-out elements (angle and distance) here relate to a known point A and to a known starting
direction from A to B.
1. Set up the instrument at point A and target the point B.
2. Set the horizontal circle to zero (refer to the user manual).
3. Rotate the instrument until a appears in the display.
4. Guide the reflector carrier (person) into and along the line of sight of the telescope, continually
measuring the horizontal distance until point P is reached.

α
D
 Plumbing down from a height point
Plumbing down from a height point, plumbing up from a ground point, and inspecting
a vertical line on a structure, can be carried out exactly in just one telescope face,
but only if the telescope describes a precisely-vertical plane when it is tilted. To ascertain that this is
so, proceed as follows:
1. Target a high point A, then tilt the telescope downwards and mark the ground point B.
2. Transit the telescope, and repeat the procedure in the second face. Mark the point C.
The mid-point between points B and C is the exact plumbing point. The reason why these two points do not
coincide can be a tilting-axis error and/or an inclined vertical axis. For work of this type, make sure that
the total station has been levelled up precisely so that the influence of vertical-axis tilt on steep sights
are minimized.

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Surveys (polar method) Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari

To create e.g. a location plan, the position and height of a point on the object
are determined by measuring angles and distances. To do this, the instrument is
set up on any prominent point in a local coordinate system. A second prominent point is selected for
the purposes of orientation; after this has been targeted the horizontal circle is set to zero (refer
to the user manual). If a coordinate system already exists, set up the instrument on a known point
within it and line up the horizontal circle with a second known point (refer to the user manual).
Measuring distances without a reflector Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
Each of the TCR total stations from Leica Geosystems includes not
only a conventional infrared distancer that measures prisms but also an integrated laser
distancer that requires no reflector. You can switch between these two distances. This
arrangement brings many advantages where points are accessible only with difficulty or not at
all, for example during the recording of frontages, in positioning pipes, and for measurements
across gorges or fences. The visible red laser dot is also suitable for marking targets in
connection with the recording of tunnel profiles or with indoor work. The "DISTO" hand-held
laser meter from Leica Geosystems is another a simple instrument that uses a visible laser beam
and needs no reflector; it is particularly suitable for indoor measurements to ascertain spacings,
areas, and volumes.
Automatic target recognition
The TCA total stations from Leica Geosystems are equipped with an
automatic target-recognition system ("ATR"). This makes targeting faster
and easier. It is enough to point the telescope approximately at the
reflector; a touch of a button then automatically triggers the fine pointing
and the angle- and distance measurements, and records all of the values.
This technology also makes it possible to carry out fully automatic
measurements with the help of a computer. After establishing the initial
contact with the target the instrument locks on to it and tracks it. The
practical applications of this option include the precise guidance of
construction machinery.

Advantages of ATR: High speed of measurement, combined with a constant

measuring accuracy that is independent of the observer.
The ATR can also be switched to a mode in which moving targets can
be followed and measured.
Setting out profile boards Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari

During building alignment, it is useful to extrapolate the sides of the building to beyond the
limits of the excavation and there to erect profile boards on which the extensions are marked
exactly by hammering in nails. These can be connected to strings or wires at any time during the
construction sequence, indicating the required positions of the walls. In the following example, profile
boards are to be erected parallel to the proposed walls of a large building and at distances of a and b
respectively from the boundaries (illustration, left).
1. Establish a baseline AB parallel to the left-hand boundary and at a freely selectable distance c.
2. Mark the point A at the defined distance d from the upper boundary; it will be the first location
for the total station.
3. Using a boning rod, mark the point B at the end of the baseline.
4. Set up the total station on point A, target point B, and set out the points A1, A2 and A3 in this
alignment in accordance with the planned length of the side of the building.
5. With point B sighted, set the horizontal circle to zero, turn the total station by 100 gon (90°) and
set out the second line AC with the points A4, A5 and A6.
6. The points on the profile boards are then set out in a similar manner, starting from the points A1
to A6 respectively.

If the foundations have not yet been excavated, you can set out the sides H1H2 and H1H3 of
the building directly and use them as the starting line for marking the points on the profile
boards. For smaller buildings, it is easier to set out the profile boards using an optical square
(right-angle prism) and a measuring tape. A building-alignment software program incorporated
into many Leica total stations enables profile boards to be set out directly, starting with any
instrument station.
Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
Inspecting the line of sight (two-peg test)
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In new levels, the compensator has been adjusted at room temperature, so that the line
of sight is horizontal even if the instrument is tilted slightly. This situation changes if the
temperature fluctuates by more than ten or fifteen degrees, after a long journey, or if the
instrument is subjected to strong vibration. It is then advisable to inspect the line of sight, particularly
if more than one target distance is being used.
1. In flat terrain, set up two staffs not more
than 30 meters apart.
2. Set up the instrument so that it is
equidistant from the two staff (it is
enough to pace out the distance).
3. Read off from both staffs and calculate
the height difference (illustration above).
Staff reading A = 1.549 Staff reading B =
1.404 ∆H = A – B = 0.145.
4. Set up the instrument about one meter in
front of staff A and take the staff
reading (illustration below). Staff reading
A = 1.496
5. Calculate the required reading B: Staff
reading A = 1.496 - ∆H = 0.145 Required
reading B = 1.351
6. Take the staff reading B. If it differs
from the required reading by more than
3mm, adjust the line of sight (refer to the
instruction manual).
 Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
Inspecting the EDM of the total station
Permanently mark four runs within the range typical for the user (e.g.
between 20 m and 200 m).
Using a new distancer, or one that has been calibrated on a standard
baseline, measure these distances three times.
The mean values, corrected for atmospheric influences (refer to the user manual) can be
regarded as being the required values.
Using these four runs, measure each distance at least four times per year.
Provided that there are no systematic errors in excess of the expected measuring uncertainty,
the distance is in order.
Instrument errors in the total station

Ideally, the total station should meet the following requirements:

a. Line of sight ZZ perpendicular to tilting axis KK
b. Tilting axis KK perpendicular to vertical axis VV
c. Vertical axis VV strictly vertical
d. Vertical-circle reading precisely zero at the zenith Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
If these conditions are not met, the following terms are used to describe the particular errors:
a. Line-of-sight error, or collimation error c (deviation from the right angle between the line of
sight and the tilting axis)
b. Tilting-axis error a (deviation from the right angle between the tilting axis and the vertical
axis)
c. Vertical-axis tilt (angle between plumb line and vertical axis).

The effects of these three errors on the measurement of horizontal angles increase with the height
difference between the target points.

Taking measurements in both telescope faces eliminates line-of-sight errors and tilting-axis errors.
The line-of-sight error (and, for highly precise total stations, also the tilting-axis error, which is
generally very small) can also, be determined and stored. These errors are then taken into
consideration automatically whenever an angle is measured, and then it is possible to take
measurements practically free of error even using just one telescope face.
The determination of these errors, and their storage, is described in detail in the
appropriate user manual. Vertical-axis tilt does not rate as being an instrument error;
it arises because the instrument has not been adequately levelled up, and measuring in
both telescope faces cannot eliminate it. Its influence on the measurement of the
horizontal and vertical angles is automatically corrected by means of a two-axis compensator.
d) Height-index error i (the angle between the zenith direction and the zero reading of the vertical
circle, i.e. the vertical circle reading when using a horizontal line of sight), is not 100 gon (90°), but 100
gon + i. By measuring in both faces and then averaging, the index error is eliminated; it can also be
determined and stored.
Note: Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
The instrument errors change with temperature, as a result of vibration, and after long periods of
transport. If you want to measure in just one face, then immediately before the measurements you
must determine the instrument errors and store them.
 Aligning from the mid-point Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari

If intermediate points are to be aligned within a line of measurement and each of the two
endpoints cannot be seen from the other, proceed as follows:
1. Select two points 1 and 2 (both approximately in the alignment) from which both end points A and E
are visible. Use sight poles to mark the points.
2. From point 1, align point 2 in the straight line 1 – A
3. From point 2, align point 3 in the straight line 2 – E
4. From point 3, align point 4 in the straight line 3 – A and continue in the same manner until no
further lateral deviations are visible at the two intermediate points.
Measuring slopes Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
If slopes are to be determined in % or to be staked out, e.g. for gutters, pipelines, or
foundations, two different methods are available.
1. With a level Measure the height difference and the distance (either optically with the
stadia hairs or with the tape). The slope is calculated as follows: 100 ∆H / D = slope in %
2. With a theodolite or total station Place the instrument on a point along the straight line
the slope of which is to be determined, and position a staff at a second point along that
line.
Using the telescope, determine the instrument height i at the staff. The vertical-circle reading giving
the zenith angle in gon or degrees can be reset to % (refer to user manual) so that the slope can be
read off directly in %. The distance is irrelevant.
A reflector pole fitted with a prism can be used instead of the staff. Extend the reflector pole to the
instrument height i and use the telescope to target the center of the prism.
Measuring right-angles
Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
The most accurate way to set out a right angle is to use a theodolite or a total station.
Position the instrument on the point along the survey line from which the right angle is to be
set out, target the endpoint of the survey line, set the horizontal circle to zero (see user
manual), and turn the total station until the horizontal circle reading is 100 gon (90°).
For setting out a right angle where the accuracy requirements are less demanding, e.g. for small
buildings or when determining longitudinal and transverse profiles, the horizontal circle of a level can
be used. Set up the level over the appropriate point of the survey line with the help of a plumb bob
suspended from the central fixing screw of the tripod. Then turn the horizontal circle by hand to
zero in the direction of the survey line or of the longitudinal profile. Finally,
turn the level until the index of the circle is set to 100 gon (90°).
An optical square is the best solution for the orthogonal surveying of
a point on a survey line or vice versa and for the setting out at right
angles of a point in the near distance. The beam of light from the
object point is turned through 90° by a pentagonal prism so that it
reaches the observer. The optical square consists of two
superimposed pentagonal prisms with their fields of view facing right
and left respectively. Between the two prisms is an unrestricted view
of the object point. You as the observer can position yourself in the
survey line (defined by two vertically positioned alignment rods) in
that you move perpendicularly to the line until you see the images of
the two rods exactly superimposed. Then you move yourself along the
survey line until the object point and the two images of the alignment
rods all coincide.
Calculating areas Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari

1. Set up the total station in the terrain so that it is within view of the entire area to be
surveyed. It is not necessary to position the horizontal circle.
2. Determine the boundary points of the area sequentially in the clockwise direction. You must
always measure a distance.
3. Afterwards, the area is calculated automatically at the touch of a button and is displayed.
Staking out Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari

1. Set up the instrument at a known point and position the horizontal circle (refer to the
section "Setting the station” in the user manual).
2. Enter manually the coordinates of the point to be staked out. The program automatically
calculates direction and distance (the two parameters needed for staking out).
3. Turn the total station until the horizontal circle reads zero.
4. Position the reflector at this point (point P’).
5. Measure the distance; the difference in the distance ∆D to the point P will be displayed
automatically Alternatively, the coordinates of the points to be staked out can be
transferred beforehand, back in the office, from the computer to the total station. Under
these circumstances, in order to stake out, only the point number needs to be entered.
 Remote heights Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari
1. Set up a reflector vertically beneath that point the height of which is to be determined.
The total station itself can be situated anywhere.
2. Measure the distance to the reflector.
3. Target the high point.
4. The height difference H between the ground point and the high point is now calculated at
the touch of a button and is displayed.
Tie distances
Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari

The program determines the distance and height difference between two points.
1. Set up the total station at any location.
2. Measure the distance to each of the two points A and B.
3. The distance D and the height difference H are displayed at the touch of a button.
Free-station surveys Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari

This program calculates the position and height of the instrument station, along with the
orientation of the horizontal circle, from measurements to at least two points, the coordinates
of which are known.
The coordinates of the tie points can be entered manually or they can be stored in the
instrument beforehand. Free stationing has the great advantage that, for large projects
involving surveying or staking out, you can choose the most favorable station for the
instrument. You are no longer forced to use a known point that is in an unsatisfactory location.
The options for measuring, and the measuring procedure, are described in detail in the user
manuals.
Note:
When performing survey tasks that involve determining heights or staking them out, always remember
to take the height of the instrument and that of the reflector into account.
 The applications programs available
Telegram : @civilengineerhaidari

Recording points Orientation and height transfer Resection Tie distance Staking out Remote
heights Free-station surveys Reference line Hidden points Area computation Sets of angles
Traversing Local resection COGO (computations) Automatic storage Scanning surfaces
Digital terrain models Offset.

Surveying with GPS

GPS surveys use the signals transmitted by satellites having
trajectories such that any point on the Earth’s surface can be
determined around the clock and independently of weather conditions.
The positioning accuracy depends on the type of GPS receiver and on
the observation and postprocessing techniques used. Compared with
the use of a total station, GPS surveying offers the advantage that
the points to be measured do not have to be mutually visible. Today,
provided that the sky is relatively unobstructed (by trees, buildings,
etc.) and therefore that adequate satellite signals can be received,
GPS equipment can be applied to many surveys tasks that until
recently were carried out using electronic total stations.
The new GPS System 500 from Leica Geosystems enables the most
diverse range of survey tasks to be carried out with centimeter
accuracy – on the tripod; on the plumbing pole; on ships, vehicles, and
construction plants; and using both static and kinematic applications