Assignment No.

01 Fundamentals of Design

1. Define the factor of safety for ductile and brittle material.

For ductile materials, the ultimate stress is usually the yield strength, which is the stress that causes
permanent deformation. For brittle materials, the ultimate stress is usually the ultimate tensile
strength, which is the stress that causes fracture or rupture. Therefore, the factor of safety for
ductile materials is defined by the formula:

Factor of safety = (Allowable stress / Yield strength)

And the factor of safety for brittle materials is defined by the formula:

Factor of safety = (Allowable stress / Ultimate tensile strength)

2. Write the meaning of the following material designations:

(i) 40C8

(ii) SG 700/2

(iii) Fe E200

(iv) X10Cr18Ni9

40C8 is a plain carbon steel that has a carbon content of 0.4% and a manganese content of 0.8%.

SG 700/2 is a spheroidal graphite cast iron that has a minimum tensile strength of 700 MPa and
a minimum elongation of 2%.

Fe E200 is a steel that has a yield strength of 200 N/mm2. Fe E200 has a chemical composition
of 0.15 to 0.25% carbon, 0.60 to 0.90% manganese, and the rest iron.

X20Cr18Ni9 is a high alloy steel that has a carbon content of 0.20%, a chromium content of
18%, and a nickel content of 9%. High alloy steels are steels that have more than 10% of alloying
elements.
3. Explain the maximum principal stress theory and maximum shear stress theory along with
their uses.

The maximum normal stress theory and maximum shear stress theory are two theories used to
predict the failure of materials under stress.

The maximum normal stress theory states that a material will fail when the maximum normal stress
in the material exceeds the tensile or compressive strength of the material. For example, if a steel
beam is subjected to a tensile load, the maximum normal stress will occur at the point where the
beam is most highly stressed. If this stress exceeds the tensile strength of the steel, the beam will
fail.

The maximum shear stress theory states that a material will fail when the maximum shear stress
in the material exceeds the shear strength of the material. For example, if a bolt is subjected to a
shear load, the maximum shear stress will occur at the point where the bolt is most highly stressed.
If this stress exceeds the shear strength of the bolt, the bolt will fail.

Overall, the maximum normal stress theory and maximum shear stress theory are two theories
used to predict the failure of materials under stress. The maximum normal stress theory predicts
failure based on the maximum normal stress in the material, while the maximum shear stress theory
predicts failure based on the maximum shear stress in the material.

4. Describe the general design procedure of the bell crank lever, outlining any four steps.

Step 1: Define Requirements and Conditions

Start by understanding the purpose of the bell crank lever. What is it supposed to do? Is it
transferring motion or changing the direction of force? Define the loads it will experience, such as
the forces and torques involved.

Step 2: Conceptual Design and Geometry

Based on the requirements sketch out various shapes and configurations of the bell crank lever.
Decide on things like the lever's length, width, and angles. Consider factors like mechanical
advantage and efficiency – how well it can transmit the force or motion.

Step 3: Stress Calculation and Material Selection

Calculate the stresses and strains the lever will experience under the anticipated loads. Check
whether the material you initially chose can handle these stresses. If not, you might need to change
the dimensions or opt for a stronger material.

Step 4: Finalization and Production

With the above design, create detailed drawings that include all the necessary dimensions and
specifications. These drawings will guide the manufacturing process. If possible, create a prototype
of the bell crank lever using the chosen material. This will allow you to physically test and verify
the design's performance. If any issues arise during testing, you might need to revise the design
and repeat the steps.

5. Define stress concentration. Explain four methods to reduce it, accompanied by neat
sketches.

Stress concentration refers to the localized increase in stress around certain geometric features or
flaws in a material. These features, like sharp corners, holes, or notches, can cause stress to gather
and become much higher than the average stress in the surrounding area. This heightened stress
concentration can lead to material failure or deformation, especially in situations where the
material is subjected to load or stress.

Fillets and Rounding:

Adding curved transitions, known as fillets or rounds, to sharp corners or edges helps distribute
stress more evenly. This reduces the concentration of stress at those points. For example, in a shaft
with a keyway, adding fillets to the corners of the keyway opening can prevent stress from
concentrating there.

Using Blends:

Similar to fillets, blends involve smoothly transitioning between different sections of a component.
Blending reduces sudden changes in geometry that can cause stress concentrations. For instance,
blending the junction between a shaft and a flange can help prevent stress buildup.

Hole and Groove Design:

Introducing holes or grooves in a controlled manner can redirect stress and prevent it from
accumulating in one spot. For instance, drilling holes at the end of a notched region can distribute
stress away from the notch, reducing the risk of failure.

Material Selection and Surface Finish:

Opting for materials with higher ductility and better fatigue resistance can help minimize stress
concentration effects. Additionally, improving the surface finish of a component can prevent tiny
cracks or defects that might lead to stress concentration.

6. Elaborate on the importance of shape and size in aesthetic design.

Importance of Shape:

Visual Appeal: The shape of an object is often the first thing we notice. A well-designed shape
can instantly captivate and engage the viewer. Interesting, unique, or harmonious shapes can evoke
positive emotions and make an object visually appealing.

Communication: Shapes can convey meaning and messages. For example, a heart shape is
universally associated with love, while an arrow shape might symbolize direction or progress.
Designers can use shapes to communicate concepts and feelings.
Functionality: In industrial design, the shape of an object can directly affect its usability.
Ergonomics – creating shapes that fit comfortably in the hand or are easy to use – is a key
consideration in designing everything from tools to furniture.

Importance of Size:

Proportion and Balance: Size determines the relationships between different elements in a
design. Properly sized elements create a sense of balance and harmony. For instance, in
architecture, the size of windows in relation to walls can affect the building's overall aesthetics.

Space Perception: In interior design and architecture, the size of spaces and how they relate to
each other influence our perception of openness, coziness, and comfort. Strategic use of size can
shape our experience within a space.

Usability: In product design, size affects how practical and user-friendly an object is. If a
smartphone is too large to hold comfortably, it might not be user-friendly despite its other features.

7. Provide the composition of 45Cr20Si2.

C (carbon): 0.40-0.50 % ; Si (silicon): 1.80-2.20% ;Cr (chromium): 18.0-21.0%

45Cr20Si2 is a kind of high chromium steel with high silicon content. It is mainly used for making
heating elements and resistance wires.

8. Define creep.

Creep is a type of deformation that occurs in materials over time when they are subjected to a
constant load or stress. It is a slow and gradual process that can cause permanent damage to the
material.

9. List and explain the factors to be considered while selecting the material for the design of
Machine Elements.

Mechanical Properties:

The mechanical properties of a material, such as strength, toughness, hardness, and elasticity, must
match the requirements of the machine element's function. For example, components subject to
heavy loads would require materials with high strength and toughness.
Corrosion Resistance:

Consider the environment the machine element will operate in. If it will be exposed to moisture,
chemicals, or other corrosive substances, choosing a corrosion-resistant material is essential to
prevent premature degradation.

Temperature Resistance:

The material should be able to withstand the operating temperatures without losing its structural
integrity or properties. High-temperature applications may require materials with good heat
resistance, while low-temperature applications might need materials that remain tough at colder
temperatures.

Wear and Friction:

Depending on the contact and movement between components, the material should have suitable
wear resistance and frictional properties. For parts in sliding contact, selecting materials with low
friction and wear rates is important to reduce energy loss and increase lifespan.

Fatigue Resistance:

Components subjected to repetitive loads can fail due to fatigue. Choosing materials with good
fatigue resistance can extend the component's lifespan under cyclic loading conditions.

Cost and Availability:

Consider the material's cost and availability, as it can impact the overall manufacturing cost and
feasibility of the project. Some specialized materials might be expensive or hard to find.

Machinability and Formability:

The ease with which a material can be machined, formed, or joined influences the manufacturing
process. Materials with good machinability and formability might lead to cost-effective
production.

Weight:

Depending on the application, the weight of the material can be critical. Lighter materials might
be preferred for applications where weight reduction is important.
Electrical and Thermal Conductivity:

Depending on the electrical or thermal properties required for the machine element's function,
materials with specific conductive properties may be needed.

Dimensional Stability:

Some applications demand minimal dimensional changes due to temperature fluctuations or load
variations. Choosing materials with low thermal expansion coefficients is important in such cases.

Aesthetics and Surface Finish:

For consumer-facing products, appearance and surface finish are important. Selecting materials
that can be easily polished, coated, or finished to achieve the desired aesthetics is crucial.

Environmental Impact:

Consider the sustainability and recyclability of the material. Opting for eco-friendly materials can
align with environmental concerns and regulations.

10. Illustrate, with a suitable example, the importance of Aesthetics and Ergonomics in
designing Machine elements.

Aesthetics:

Aesthetics play a significant role in attracting users and creating a positive impression. In the case
of a computer keyboard:

Imagine two keyboards: Keyboard A has a sleek, modern design with backlit keys, a slim profile,
and a visually pleasing layout. Keyboard B is bulky, has mismatched keys, and lacks any attention
to design detail. Even if both keyboards have the same functional capabilities, users are more likely
to be drawn to Keyboard A due to its appealing aesthetics. A well-designed keyboard can enhance
the overall user experience and contribute to a more enjoyable and productive interaction.

Ergonomics:

Ergonomics involves designing products to fit the natural movements and capabilities of the
human body. In the context of a computer keyboard:
Consider Keyboard A and Keyboard B again. Keyboard A is designed with a gentle slope, well-
spaced keys, and a cushioned wrist rest. It takes into account the ergonomics of typing to prevent
strain on the user's wrists and fingers. On the other hand, Keyboard B has a flat layout, cramped
keys, and lacks wrist support. Users using Keyboard A will experience less discomfort and
potential long-term health issues related to repetitive strain injuries (RSIs). Keyboard A's
ergonomics make it easier and more comfortable for users to type for extended periods.

Combined Impact:

When aesthetics and ergonomics are combined effectively, you get a product that not only looks
good but also feels good to use. In our keyboard example, a well-designed keyboard with both
appealing aesthetics and ergonomic features would not only attract users but also provide them
with comfort and usability. This could lead to improved productivity, reduced fatigue, and a more
positive user experience.

11. Define "Machine Design."

Machine design is the process of creating or modifying machines by applying scientific principles,
technical knowledge, and engineering skills. Machine design involves the selection of suitable
materials, shapes, dimensions, and arrangements of various machine elements to meet the
functional, operational, and safety requirements of the intended application.

Machine design also considers the economic, environmental, and aesthetic aspects of the product.
Machine design is an iterative and creative process that requires analysis, synthesis, evaluation,
and optimization of the machine elements and systems.

12. Define the term "Endurance Limit."

Endurance limit is the maximum stress that a material can withstand for an infinite number of
cycles without failure. It is also known as fatigue limit or fatigue strength. Endurance limit depends
on various factors such as material, surface finish, size, shape, loading, temperature, and
environment. Endurance limit is usually lower than the ultimate tensile strength of the material.
Endurance limit is an important factor in designing machine elements that are subjected to cyclic
or fluctuating loads, such as springs, gears, shafts, etc.
13. Provide six examples of ergonomic considerations in the design of a lathe machine.

• The controls on the lathe should be easily accessible and properly positioned, so that the
operator can operate them without excessive reaching, bending, or twisting1.
• The control operation should involve minimum motions, so that the operator can perform
the required actions quickly and accurately1.
• The height of the lathe should be matched with the worker’s height and posture, so that the
operator can work comfortably and avoid neck, back, or shoulder strain12.
• The lathe machine should make less noise during operation, so that the operator can work
in a quiet and pleasant environment and avoid hearing damage or stress12.
• The lathe machine should have adequate lighting and ventilation, so that the operator can
see clearly and breathe easily while working3.
• The lathe machine should have safety features such as guards, shields, emergency stop
buttons, and warning signs, so that the operator can work safely and avoid injuries or
accidents.