Operational Amplifiers

BITS Pilani
Note to students

These slides should only be considered as supporting material. To have a

thorough understanding of the course, these must be accompanied by
textbook, reference materials and lecture notes.

Please note that these slides DO NOT include the material which was
handwritten in the lecture.

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Topics to be discussed

• Operational amplifiers
• Ideal op-amp
• Simplified practical model
• Circuits/applications

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Operational Amplifiers
(Op-amps)
• High gain directly coupled multi-stage differential
amplifiers
• High gain – typically in the range of 105 for 741 op-
amp
• Directly coupled – No coupling capacitor present
• Multi stage – has different stages
• Differential amplifier – has differential input terminals
v1
Differential High gain Buffer and
Driver
amplifier amplifier level shifter v0
v2
Block diagram of op-amp

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 Op-amp circuit symbol

Inverting terminal

Non-Inverting
terminal

(a) Circuit Symbol (b) Simplified practical model of op-amp

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Ideal op-amp

• Differential Gain (A) = INFINITE (∞)

• Input resistance (Rin) = INFINITE (∞ )
• Output resistance (Ro) = ZERO (0 )

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Can op-amp produce infinite
voltage??
+15 V

- 15 V

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Circuit Analysis

Important Tips: (for IDEAL op-amp in negative feedback)

• Input current to op-amp is zero.
• Voltage at inverting terminal is equal to voltage at non-
inverting terminal.

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Applications:
Inverting Amplifier

There is a negative
feedback through R2.

Voltage gain,
𝑣𝑜 𝑅2
=−
𝑣𝑆 𝑅1

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Inverting amplifier

𝑣𝑆 − 𝑣1 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑣1
+ =0 Also, 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = −𝐴𝑣1
𝑅1 𝑅2
−𝑣𝑜
⟹ 𝑅2 𝑣𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑣1 − 𝑅1 𝑣0 So, 𝑅2 𝑣𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 𝑣0
𝐴

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Inverting amplifier
−𝑣𝑜
So, 𝑅2 𝑣𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 𝑣0
𝐴

1
𝑅2 𝑣𝑆 = −[ 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 ]𝑣0
𝐴

𝑣𝑜 −𝑅2
=
𝑣𝑠 [ 𝑅 + 𝑅 1 + 𝑅 ]
1 2 𝐴 1

If, A ⟶ ∞, then, 𝑣𝑜 −𝑅2

=
𝑣𝑠 𝑅1

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Non-inverting amplifier

Voltage gain,

𝑣𝑜 𝑅2
=1+
𝑣2 𝑅1

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Voltage buffer or Voltage
follower

𝑣𝑜 𝑅2 0
=1+ =1+ =1
𝑣2 𝑅1 ∞

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Adder

𝑅2
𝑣𝑜 = − (𝑣𝑎 + 𝑣𝑏 )
𝑅1

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Difference amplifier

𝑅2
𝑣𝑜 = (𝑣𝑏 − 𝑣𝑎 )
𝑅1

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Differentiator

𝑑
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = −𝑅𝐶 𝑣1 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

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Integrator

1
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = − න 𝑣1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶

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Example 1

Find vo and io.

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741 op-amp

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 BITS Pilani

Thank You
 Temperature measurement

BITS Pilani
Note to students

These slides should only be considered as supporting material. To have a

thorough understanding of the course, these must be accompanied by
textbook, reference materials and lecture notes.

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Temperature measurement

• Thermal expansion methods

• Thermoelectric sensors
• Electrical - resistance sensors
• Junction semiconductor sensors
• Radiation based methods

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Thermal expansion methods

• Bimetallic thermometers
• Liquid in glass thermometers
• Pressure thermometers

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Bimetallic thermometers

• The physical phenomenon employed in

a bimetallic temperature sensor is the
differential thermal expansion of two
metals.
• Two strips of metals A and B, are firmly
bonded together. If temperature
changes from T1 then the it will deflect
into a uniform circular arc.
• Typically used for low cost temperature
indicators, and control applications, e.g.
thermostats, temperature operated
circuit breaker…

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Bimetallic thermometers: Thermostat

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Bimetallic thermometer: Temperature
measurement

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Bimetallic thermometers…

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 Bimetallic thermometers…
Radius of curvature:
𝑡 3 1 + 𝑚 2 + (1 + 𝑚𝑛) 𝑚2 + 1/(𝑚𝑛)
𝑅=
6 𝛼2 − 𝛼1 𝑇 − 𝑇0 1 + 𝑚 2

Where,
𝑅 = radius of curvature, m = thickness ratio, t1 / t2
t = total strip thickness, T – T0 = temperature rise
n = Elastic modulus ratio (E1/E2),
1
In practical cases, tB / tA≈ 1 and 𝑛 + ≈ 2, giving
𝛼1 𝑛

2𝑡
𝑅=
3 𝛼2 − 𝛼1 𝑇 − 𝑇0
𝛼2

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Liquid in glass thermometers

• Mercury is the most common liquid used in intermediate and high temperatures
• Its freezing point of -39 oC limits its lower range.
• Using an inert gas in the capillary tube above mercury can increase its range up
to 540 oC.
• Alcohol, pentane, and a mixture of propane and propylene is also used for lower
range of abound -62 oC, -200 oC, and -218 oC, respectively.

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Liquid in glass thermometers: Immersion
type

• Partial immersion type thermometers are

less accurate than total immersion type
thermometers.

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Pressure thermometers

• Consists of a sensitive bulb, an

interconnecting capillary tube,
and a pressure measuring device
such as a bourdon tube, bellows,
or diaphragm.
• In contrast to liquid in a capillary
tube (where volume change at
constant pressure, used to
indicate the temperature
change), the gas or vapor filled in
a tube, has the basic effect of
pressure change at constant
volume.

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Thermocouple: Special material,
Configurations, and Techniques
• Thermocouple are also widely used for measurement of high temperatures in
various applications, such as, jet and rocket engines, nuclear reactors etc.
• Materials such as,
• Rhodium-iridium/Rhodium (upto 2200 oC; Sensitivity ≈ 6𝜇𝑉/℃)
• Tungsten/Rhenium (upto 2760 oC, Sensitivity ≈ 6𝜇𝑉/℃)
• Boron/Graphite (upto 2500 oC, Sensitivity ≈ 40𝜇𝑉/℃) for short times
are being used for measurement of high temperatures.

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Thermocouple: Special material,
Configurations, and Techniques…
• An alternative solution for high temperatures can be found using various
cooling techniques.

• If heat transfer coefficient, water flow rate,

temperature rise are known, then, the
temperature of hot gas can be estimated with
this arrangement.
Cooled thermocouple for high temperature measurement

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Thermocouple: Special material,
Configurations, and Techniques…
Cooled thermocouple for high temperature measurement

• This technique uses a heat exchanger.

• Hot gas is aspirated through the heat exchanger,
cooling it to about 540 oC.
• Knowledge of heat transfer coefficients, flow
rate can again give an estimate of temperature of
hot gas.
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 Pulsed thermocouple technique
• Chromel - alumel thermocouple Cool air supply
(melting point 1400 oC) can be used
to measure up to 4000 oC.
• Usually employed in gas turbines.

𝑑𝑇𝑡𝑐
𝜏 + 𝑇𝑡𝑐 = 𝑇𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑑𝑡

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 Pulsed thermocouple technique…
𝒆𝟏 = 𝑲𝑻𝒕𝒄 𝑑𝑇𝑡𝑐
From thermocouple 𝜏 + 𝑇𝑡𝑐 = 𝑇𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝒅𝑻𝒕𝒄 𝑑𝑡
𝒆𝟐 = 𝑲𝑹𝑪
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝑻𝒕𝒄
𝒆𝒐 = 𝒆𝟏 + 𝒆𝟐 = 𝑲𝑻𝒕𝒄 + 𝑲𝝉
𝒅𝒕
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Use of multiple thermocouples

Thermopile
Flow couple
• Increased sensitivity
• Output voltage will be summation of all
thermocouples’ output voltage
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Junction Semiconductor sensors

• Various semiconductor based temperature sensors are available,

• LM35
• AD590 etc.

LM35

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Junction Semiconductor sensors:
Basic Principle
A constant forward current supplied through an ideal silicon pn
junction produces a forward voltage drop, VF

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Contd…

Unfortunately IS also varies with temperature

so a differential arrangement is used.

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AD590

• Uses the principle of VBE dependence with temperature,

• Difference in voltages (VBE of transistor) =
𝑘𝑇
ln 𝑟 ,
𝑞
Where, r is the ratio between collector current densities
• Transistors Q8 and Q11 produces differential VBE voltages
• Resistors R5 and R6 coverts them to current.

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AD590…

Temperature trim circuit

V-I characteristics of AD590

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AD590 application for thermocouple
reference junction compensation

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LM 35 (Texas Instruments)

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Radiation based methods: Introduction

• Optical pyrometers make use of the fact that all

objects at temperatures above 0 K radiate heat
in the form of broadband, electromagnetic
energy.
• The range of the electromagnetic spectrum,
generally considered to be thermal radiation,
lies in the range 0.01–100 mm wavelength.
• For a hot object which is not an ideal radiator,
the radiated heat output is given by,
𝑊 = 𝜖𝑊𝑏𝑏
where W is the total radiant emittance (in MKS
units, W/m2) from the hot surface, 𝜖 is the
emissivity and Wbb is the radiant emittance from
an ideal blackbody.
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Contd…

• Also, the radiation emitted by an object is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature.
In the ideal case, this may be expressed as,
𝑊𝑏𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇 4
where, Wbb is the radiant emittance of the blackbody in W/m2.
• Max Planck (1858–1947) proposed the following equation in 1900, relating the wavelength
distribution of radiation,

Where,

h – Planck's constant (6.6256 × 10−34 J − s)

k – Boltzman’s constant (1.3805 × 10−23 J/K)

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Contd…

There are two important observations to make about

this figure:
• As the temperature of the blackbody increases,
the peak of maximum spectral emittance shifts
systematically to shorter wavelengths.
• As the temperature increases, the area under the
spectral emittance curves increases.

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Radiation methods: Total radiation
pyrometers

An industrial infrared (IR)

thermopile sensor

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Contd…

Details of a thermopile sensor

A cut-away view of radiometer instrument

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Selective radiation pyrometer

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Other applications (thermal imaging)

Thermal image of a three phase motor starter Thermal image of a three phase circuit breaker

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Distance considerations

What will happen if we move away from the source of radiation?

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 Pressure measurement

BITS Pilani
Note to students

These slides should only be considered as supporting material. To have a

thorough understanding of the topic, these must be accompanied by
textbook, reference materials and lecture notes.

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Pressure measurement: Basic
terminology
• Pressure means force per unit area, exerted by a fluid on the surface of a container.
• Absolute pressure means the fluid pressure above the reference value of a perfect vacuum or
the absolute zero pressure.
• Gauge pressure represents the value of pressure above the reference value of atmospheric
pressure.
• The atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi or 1.013 × 105 𝑁/𝑚2 (Pa) or 760 mm of Hg.
• The techniques for pressure measurement depends upon condition whether the pressure is
very high (of the order of greater than 1000 atm), moderate or low (of the order of lesser than
1 mm of Hg). Also, the techniques can be dependent upon whether the pressure is static or
dynamic.

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Contd…

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Pressure measurement: Moderate
pressure measurement
• Manometers
• Elastic elements such as,
• Diaphragm
• Bellows
• Bourdon tube
• Capsule
• Helical tube etc.

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Manometer

• Simplest device for measurement

of moderate pressures.
• A simple U-tube manometer uses
water, mercury, or any other
suitable fluid.
• The difference in levels h
between the two limbs is an
indication of the pressure
difference (p1 – p2) between the
two limbs.
(𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟐 )
𝒉=
𝝆𝒈
U-tube manometer

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Cistern or well type manometer…

• The well area is large compared to that of the tube.

• Thus, only a single leg reading may be noted and
the change in level in the well may be neglected.

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Inclined tube manometer
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔
Also,
𝐴1 𝑙
ℎ= + 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝐴2
𝒍 If, 𝐴1 ≪ 𝐴2

𝜽
then,
(𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟐 )
𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) =
𝝆𝒈

The inclined tube manometer will provide greater sensitivity. Since

the value of l will be higher than h. Say, 𝜃 = 30°, then,
𝑙 = 2ℎ = 2(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )/𝜌𝑔.

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Example

A mercury manometer of the type shown in given

Fig. is to have a float in the left hand chamber. An
electromechanical transducer is used to measure the
motion of the fluid. The float motion is 5 mm for a
gauge pressure of 50 kN/m2. If the diameter of the
float chamber is 40 mm, then find the required
diameter for the right-hand chamber. For, mercury,
density, 𝜌 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 . Assume that the other
end of the manometer is open to the atmosphere.

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Elastic sensing elements

• The basic principle behind elastic sensing elements for the measurement of pressure
is their deformation when subjected to pressure.
• This deformation, when measured, gives an indication of the pressure applied.
• These elements may be in the form of
• Belllows
• Bourdon tube
• Diaphragm
• Capsules etc.
• The deformation can be directly indicated with mechanical arrangement or can also
be converted into electrical signals by suitably placing secondary sensing elements.

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Elastic sensing elements…

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Elastic sensing elements…

Bellows Pressure gauge using a diaphragm

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Elastic sensing elements: Bourdon tube

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Elastic sensing element: Differential
pressure measurement

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Elastic sensing elements with secondary
electrical sensing elements
Motion
Pressure (x)
input Elastic sensing Electromechanical
element transducers
Electrical
output

Bellows with LVDT

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Piezoresistive sensors

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Capacitive differential pressure sensor

• Silicon oil acting as a

dielectric has a higher
permittivity than air and
hence higher capacitance.

• The values of capacitances

C1 and C2 will change
when differential pressure
p1 – p2 changes.

• This capacitance change

can be further converted in
voltage change using a
bridge circuitry.

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Contd…

Rosemount Differential Pressure Transmitter (DPT)

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Contd…

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Coplanar Differential capacitive pressure
sensor

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Contd…

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High pressure measurement: Bridgeman
gauge

Bridgeman gauge

• In some materials, such as, manganin (alloy of Cu, Ni, and Mn) and Gold-chrome, the electrical
resistance changes with the application of pressure due to bulk compression effect.
• This property can be used in measurement of high pressure measurement since, the value of
sensitivity coefficient is very less, i.e. 2.5 × 10−11 ΩΤΩ − 𝑃𝑎 , while for gold chrome, it is only
9.85 × 10−12 ΩΤΩ − 𝑃𝑎.
• Gold chrome is preferred over manganin, because of its lesser temperature coefficient of
resistance.
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Low pressure measurement

• Units for vacuum measurement are Torr and micron.

• 1 Torr = 1 mm of Hg and; 1 micron = 10-3 torr.
• Pressure below 10 Torr should be measured with specialized methods.
• Some of the gauges/instruments for low pressure measurements are
• McLeod vacuum pressure gauge
• Thermocouple vacuum gauge
• Ionization gauge
• Knudsen gauge
• Pirani Gauge etc.

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McLeod vacuum gauge
• The McLeod gauge is considered to be a vacuum
standard.
• The principle of the McLeod gauge is the
compression of a sample of the low pressure gas
to a pressure sufficiently high to read with a
simple manometer.

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McLeod vacuum gauge…

• The liquid in reservoir is adjusted until the mercury

column drops below the opening, O.
• The bulb B and the capillary C are then at the same
pressure as the vacuum source p.
• The liquid in reservoir is again adjusted until the
mercury fills the bulb and rises in the capillary to a
point where the level in the reference capillary is
located at the zero point.
Say, the volume of gas in the capillary is,
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑎𝑦,
where, a – volume of capillary per unit length, and
y – length of the capillary occupied by the gas
Also, let the volume of the capillary, bulb and the tube
down to the opening be VB.

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McLeod vacuum gauge…

• Volume of gas in the capillary is, 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑎𝑦, And,

volume of the capillary, bulb and the tube down
to the opening be VB.
• If we assume isothermal compression of gas, then,
𝑉𝐵
𝑝𝑐 = 𝑝
𝑉𝐶
Also, pressure indicated by the capillary is,
𝑝𝑐 − 𝑝 = 𝑦
where, pressure is in terms of height of mercury column.
Using above equations, we have,
𝑉𝐵 𝑎𝑦 2 𝒂𝒚𝟐
𝑝 −𝑝 =𝑦 ⇒𝑝 = ⇒𝒑≈
𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐶 𝑽𝑩

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Thermal conductivity gauge: Pirani
Gauge
• Principle: At low pressure, the effective
thermal conductivity of the gases decreases
with pressure. This is due to the fact that there
will be lesser number of molecules in gases at
low pressure for heat transfer, and hence lower
thermal conductance.
• A Pirani gauge is a device that measures the
pressure through the change in thermal
conductance of the gas.
• To apply this concept for measurement of low
pressures, an electrically heated filament is
placed inside a vacuum space.
• The heat loss from the filament is dependent
on the thermal conductivity of the gas and the Pirani gauge
filament temperature.
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 Pirani gauge…
• Lower the pressure, lower will be the thermal
conductivity and, consequently, higher the filament
temperature for a given electric-energy input.
• In Pirani gage the temperature measurement is made by
observing the variation in resistance of the filament
material (tungsten, platinum, etc.) and the resistance
measurement may be performed with an appropriate
bridge circuit.
• The heat loss from the filament is also a function of the
ambient temperature, and, in practice, two gages are
connected in series, as shown in Fig., to compensate for
possible variations in the ambient conditions.
• The measurement gage is evacuated, and both, this and
the sealed gage, are exposed to the same environment
conditions.

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Thermocouple gauge

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Ionization gauge

• This is used for measurement of very low pressures

(below 1 micron).
• The heated cathode emits electrons, which are
accelerated by the positively charged grid. As the
electrons move toward the grid, they produce
ionization of the gas molecules through collisions.
• The electron collector (plate) is maintained at a
positive potential so that the electrons are collected
there, producing the electron current ie.
• The positive ions are collected by the ion collector
(grid), producing the ion current ii (Sometimes also
called as grid current).

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Ionization gauge

1 𝑖𝑖
𝑝=
𝑆 𝑖𝑒

S – Sensitivity
ie – electron current (plate current)
ii – ion current (grid current)

• Hot cathode ionization gauge can have a range from 10-10

to 1 torr.

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Alphatron gauge

• The Alphatron is a radioactive ionization gage, shown schematically in Fig. given below.
• A small radium source serves as an alpha-particle emitter. These particles ionize the gas
inside the gage enclosure, and the degree of ionization is determined by measuring the output
voltage Eo.
• The degree of ionization is a direct linear function of pressure for a rather wide range of
pressures, from 10−3 to 103 torr (0.1 to 105 Pa). The output characteristics, however, are
different for each type of gas used.
• The Alphatron has the advantage, that it may be
used at atmospheric pressure as well as high
vacuum and that there is no heated filament to
contend with as in the conventional ionization
gage.

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Problem 1

A McLeod gage has VB =100 cm3 and a capillary diameter of 1 mm. Calculate the pressure
indicated by a reading of 3 cm.
Solution:
𝜋
𝑉𝐶 = 1 2 × 30 = 23.6 𝑚𝑚3
4
𝑉𝐵 = 105 𝑚𝑚3
𝑎𝑦 2
Since, 𝑝 = ,
𝑉𝐵 −𝑉𝐶

𝜋
1 2 × 30 2
23.6 × 30
𝑝=4 5 = 5 = 0.0071 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 7.1 𝜇𝑚
10 − 23.6 10 − 23.6

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Problem 2

A pressure gauge is to use a diaphragm and an electromechanical transducer. The

electromechanical transducer has a resolution of 2.5 𝜇𝑚. The diaphragm is to be constructed of
steel (𝜌 = 7.9 × 10−6 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑚3 ,𝐸 = 2.07 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 , 𝜈 = 0.3), with a diameter of 15 cm.
Calculate the diaphragm thickness so that the maximum deflection does not exceed one-third of
its thickness. The maximum pressure to be measured using this gauge will not go beyond
atmospheric pressure. Also find the lowest pressure which can be measured with the help of this
gauge.
HINT:
3 𝑝 4 2 ; 𝑅 − radius of diaphragm
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅 1 − 𝜈
16 𝐸𝑡 3

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Problem 3

A U-tube manometer employs a special oil having a specific gravity of 0.82 as the manometer
liquid. One limb of the manometer is exposed to atmosphere at a pressure of 740 mm Hg. The
difference in column heights are measured as 20cm ±1mm. Calculate the air pressure and
uncertainty. Given, air density as, 𝜌𝑎 = 𝜌𝑓 = 1.15 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , density of water = 996 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 .
HINT:
𝑝 − 𝑝𝑎 = 𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌𝑓 𝑔ℎ
Where, 𝜌𝑚 = density of manometer fluid
𝜌𝑎 = density of air (fluid whose pressure is to be measured)

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 Flow measurement

BITS Pilani
Note to students

These slides should only be considered as supporting material. To have a

thorough understanding of the course, these must be accompanied by
textbook, reference materials and lecture notes.

2 BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Contents

• Need of flow measurement

• Different types of flow meters
• Rate meters
• Differential pressure meters (variable head meters)
• Variable area meters
• Target flow meters
• Turbine type meters
• Ultrasonic meters
• Electromagnetic flow meter
• Hot wire/hot film anemometers
• Laser Doppler anemometer
• Vortex shedding meters
• Quantity meters

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Need of flow measurement

• Flow is one of the three basic variables (other two are, temperature and pressure),
which is typically monitored/controlled in an industry.
• Mass flow rate and volumetric flow rate are of general concern for solids and fluids,
respectively.
• Many times, it is necessary to find the total volume rather than flow rate, such as in
metering device (petrol pumps, household water supplies etc.)
• In accordance to this, the flow meters can be classified in two categories:
• Rate meters (secondary meters)
• Quantity meters (Primary meters)

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Typical flowmeters
Orifice plate flow meters

Weir
Rotameter

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Flow rate meters

These can be classified in two categories:

Intrusive type (causes a restriction in the flow path)
• Venturi tube
• Orifice plate meters
• Pitot static tube
• Rotameters
• Turbine type flowmeters etc.

Non – intrusive type (does not cause an obstruction in flow path)

• Electromagnetic flow meter
• Ultrasonic flow meter etc.

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 Basics of fluid mechanics

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

The particles move in a highly ordered This is highly disordered; each particle
manner, retaining the same relative moves randomly in three dimensions and
positions in successive cross-sections. occupies different relative positions in
successive cross-sections.
Please revisit the basics of fluid mechanics from reference book (Principles of Measurement Systems, by J P Bentley)
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Contd…

Volume flow rate, mass flow rate and mean velocity

Volumetric flow rate through the annular element of
radius r with thickness

Hence the total Volumetric flow rate through a circular

pipe of radius R, is

So, mass flow rate can be

given as,
In many cases mean velocity ( ) can be considered (neglecting
the variation of velocity over cross sectional area)
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Variable head meters (differential
pressure meters)
• Variable head meters (Differential pressure meters) are the most common intrusive
type of flow meters.
• The basic principle of working of obstruction type of flow meters is to put a
engineered constriction in the flow passage.
• This constriction will cause a localized change in the velocity profile, and thereby the
pressure profile, of the fluid in pipe.
• Application of Bernoulli's Theorem and continuity equation can give us an indication
of the flow rate trough the pipe.

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 Principle of differential pressure meters
• Constriction will create pressure difference at two
location which can be measured by suitable tappings.
• A differential pressure indicator/transmitter can
convert this pressure difference into a readable output/
electrical signal.

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Principle of differential pressure
meters…

At point 1,

Potential energy =
Kinetic energy =
Pressure energy =

At point 2,

Potential energy =
Kinetic energy =
Pressure energy =

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Principle of differential pressure
meters…
• Let us take some assumptions which will enable
us to calculate theoretical value of fluid velocity
(and hence, volumetric flow rate)

1. Frictionless flow – i.e. no energy loss due to

friction
2. No heat loss or gain due to heat transfer between
fluid and surroundings
3. Conservation of total energy (pressure + kinetic + By assumption 3 and 4, we have,
potential)
4. Incompressible fluid (𝜌 = 𝜌 = 𝜌)
5. Horizontal pipe (𝑧 = 𝑧 = 𝑧) By assumption 5, we have,
6. Conservation of volumetric flow rate (𝑄 = 𝑄 =
𝑄) where, 𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣 and 𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣

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Principle of differential pressure
meters…

Since, A2 < A1 , then by continuity equation, it implies

that, .

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 Principle of differential pressure
meters…

The above expression for calculation of theoretical flow rate is not applicable to practical flowmeters,
due to mainly following two reasons,
1. Frictionless flow is not obeyed in practice. It is approached most closely by well established
turbulent flows. (Reynold number (ReD) > 104) where, ReD = , where, D – pipe diameter,
fluid viscosity.
2. A1 and A2 are cross sectional area of fluids, which is very hard to measure and may change with
flow rate. At cross section 1, fluid area (if it fills the pipe), A1 = , and at cross section 2, for
a venturi tube, A2 = . However, for an orifice plate meter, this minimum area will occur
at vena contracta, at A2 = 0.6 . where, D and d are diameters of pipe and meter, respectively.
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Principle of differential pressure
meters…
For these reasons, the equation for theoretical flow rate is changed as,

Where,
The value of C depends upon:
C = discharge coefficient
E = velocity of approach factor = • Type of flowmeter (venture or orifice type)
• Reynold’s number (ReD)
= flowmeter-pipe diameter ratio (d/D) • Diameter ratio ( )
= flowmeter cross sectional area =

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Differential pressure flow meters…

Pressure gauge whose scale is

calibrated in square root fashion
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General characteristics of differential
pressure flow meters
• No moving parts, reliable, robust and well accepted.
• There is always a permanent pressure loss due to frictional effects.
• These devices are non-linear ( ). This limits the useful range of operation of
a meter between 25% to 100% of maximum flow.
• Preferable to be used with clean fluids. Venturies can be used with dilute slurries.

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Differential pressure flowmeters:
Different tappings

Venturi tube

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Orifice plate types…

Concentric orifice plates Eccentric orifice plates Segmental orifice plates

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Variable area flow meters

• In variable head meters (differential

pressure meters), the area of
constriction is fixed and pressure
difference is generated corresponding
to flow rate.
• However, in variable area meters, the
area is varied such that a constant
pressure difference is maintained
across the restriction.
• A commonly used, variable area meter
is “ROTAMETER”.

Rotameters installed at Intelligent control lab (BITS, Pilani)

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Rotameters: Principle…

• The flow enters at the bottom of a

vertically placed tapered tube and causes
the float (bob) to move upwards.
• The float has a higher density than the
fluid.
• The float will rise to a point where drag
force (upward) and buoyant force
(upward) balances with the weight of
float (downward).
• The position of the float can be taken as
an indication of the flow rate.

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 Rotameters: Principle…

The float position will become constant, if,

Where,
= float area, = volume of float
= density of fluid, = density of float,
= pressure difference across float

Then,
Flow rate can be approximated as,

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Target flow meter/ Drag force flow meters

Strain gauges

Force experienced by the body immersed in flowing fluid,

Drag force flow meters

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Turbine type flowmeter

• A turbine type flow meter consists of a multi blade rotor suspended in fluid stream.
• The angular velocity of the blades will be proportional to the fluid velocity.

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Turbine type flow meter: Principle…

Where, angular velocity

Q = volumetric flow rate
Also,

From velocity triangle,

So,

Where, no. of blades

t = average thickness
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Turbine type flow meter

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Pitot static tube

• It is a variable head device for the measurement of fluid velocity.

• Differential pressure based measurement of fluid velocity.
• Typical application is in the measurement of aircraft speed, speedboat
speeds, submarines speeds etc. (but not limited to these, can be used for
fluid velocity measurement of flue gases, steam flow rates etc. in industries)

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Pitot static tube: Principle

• At the impact hole part of the tube, fluid is

brought to rest; this part has therefore no kinetic
energy, only pressure energy.
• At the static holes the fluid is moving and
therefore has both kinetic and pressure energy.
• This creates a pressure difference PI − PS which
depends on velocity v.

If ZI and ZS are equal.

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Advantages and disadvantages…

• No appreciable pressure loss in the flow system

• Can be easily inserted through a small hole into the pipe or duct
• Very useful for checking mean velocities of the fluid flow

• Not suitable for measurement of low fluid velocities (below 5m/s) due to small
pressure differences
• Sensitive to misalignment of the probe
• Not suitable for highly turbulent flows
• Any contamination may cause erroneous readings.

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Electromagnetic flow meter

• The principle of electromagnetic flow meter is

based on electromagnetic induction.
• This states that if a conductor of length l is
moving with velocity v, perpendicular to a
magnetic field of flux density B, then the
voltage E induced across the ends of the
conductor is given by, .
• Thus if a conducting fluid is moving with
average velocity , through a cylindrical
metering tube, perpendicular to an applied
magnetic field B, then the voltage appearing
across the measurement electrodes is, 𝟒𝑩
If, Then,
/ 𝝅𝑫
where, D is the separation of electrodes
(diameter of metering tube)
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Electromagnetic flow meter…

• If the magnetic field coils are energized by normal direct current then several problem occur:
polarization (i.e. formation of a layer of gas around the measuring electrodes), thermoelectric
effects, electrochemical effects etc.
• These effects can be overcome by energizing coils using alternating currents or pulsed
excitations.

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Electromagnetic flow meter

A few conditions must be met for electromagnetic flow meter to successfully infer volumetric
flow rate from induced voltage:
• The liquid must be a reasonably good conductor of electricity (Note: It is okay if the
conducting fluid contains some non-conducting solids; the conductive fluid surrounding the
non-conducting solid matter still provides electrical continuity between the electrodes
necessary for induction)
• The pipe must be completely filled with liquid to ensure contact with both probes as well as
to ensure flow across the entire cross-section of the pipe.
• The flow tube must be properly grounded to avoid errors caused by stray electric currents in
the liquid.

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Electromagnetic flow meter…

Poor installation of an electromagnetic flow meter electromagnetic flow meter installed in a large
pipe (waste water treatment plant)
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Problem 1

A pitot tube is used to measure the mean velocity of high pressure gas in a 0.15 m diameter pipe. At
maximum flow rate the mean pitot differential pressure is 250 Pa. Use the data given below to:
(a) Calculate the mean velocity of the gas at maximum flow rate
(b) Estimate the maximum mass flow rate
(c) Estimate the Reynold’s number at maximum flow rate
(d) Explain why an orifice plate would be suitable for this fluid flow measurement
(e) Given that a differential pressure transmitter is of range 0 to 3 × 10 Pa is available, estimate the
required diameter of the orifice plate hole. (Assume, C = 0.6, expansibility factor (𝜖 = 1.0), and
velocity of approach factor = 1.0

Given, Density of gas = 5 kg m-3

Viscosity of gas = 5 × 10 Pa-s

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Solution hint…

Use,

Reynold’s number,

For pitot tube,

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act
 Flow measurement

BITS Pilani
Note to students

These slides should only be considered as supporting material. To have a

thorough understanding of the course, these must be accompanied by
textbook, reference materials and lecture notes.

2 BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

 Hot-wire/Hot-film anemometer…

The heat balance equation is,

- Eq.1

Where, is the convective heat transfer coefficient between sensor and fluid.
At steady state equilibrium condition,
- Eq. 2
Defining , to be small deviations from equilibrium values,

- Eqs. 3

Where, is the rate of change of U w.r.t. v at .

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 Hot-wire anemometer…

From Eq. 1 and 3,

Neglecting all terms from product of two small deviations,

- Eq. 4

Subtracting Eq. 2 from Eq. 4,

Thus,

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Hot-wire/hot film anemometer

Final transfer function relating resistance change with

deviation in current and fluid velocity,

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Hot wire anemometer: Constant-
temperature mode

Block diagram

Schematic diagram
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Hot wire anemometer: Constant-
temperature mode…
Convective heat transfer from a narrow cylinder in a non compressible fluid, can be given as,

The above relation has constants which depends upon sensor geometry (dimensions), and fluid
properties. Hence, an anemometer calibrated for one fluid may not work for others, and may require
recalibration.
For a metallic temperature sensor, , thus,

Then,

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Problem

• A tungsten filament has a resistance of 18 Ω at 0 °C, a surface area of 10−4 m2 and a

temperature coefficient of resistance of 4.8 × 10−3 °C−1. The heat transfer coefficient between
the filament and air at 20 °C is given by U = 4.2 + 7.0 Wm−2 °C−1, where v m/s is the
velocity of the air relative to the filament. The filament is incorporated into the constant
temperature anemometer system, which maintains the filament resistance at 40 Ω. Plot a
graph of system output voltage versus air velocity in the range 0 to 10 m/s.

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act
 Flow measurement

BITS Pilani
Note to students

These slides should only be considered as supporting material. To have a

thorough understanding of the course, these must be accompanied by
textbook, reference materials and lecture notes.

2 BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Topics to be discussed in this session

• Ultrasonic flowmeters
• Coriolis flow meter
• Positive displacement meters
• Weirs

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Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter

• This flowmeter is completely external to the

pipe; it is thus suitable for the ‘difficult’
flowmetering problems, (i.e. corrosive fluids,
slurries) and as a ‘clip-on’ flowmeter.
• The transmitting crystal sends an ultrasonic
wave of frequency f and velocity c into the
fluid, at an angle θ relative to the direction of
flow.
• Bubbles, solid particles or eddies in the flow
stream can be regarded as ‘observers’,
moving with velocity v relative to the fixed
transmitter.

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 Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter…

The apparent wavelength received by the crystal

from moving source (reflection from bubble, solid
particles):

or

Then,

The velocity of sound waves relative to the

observer is c + v cos θ, so that the apparent
frequency f ′ seen by the observer is given by: Then, neglecting higher order terms of v/c,

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Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter

Signal processing blocks in Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter

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Ultrasonic transit time flowmeter

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True mass flowmeters

What is the need?

• If a flowmeter is producing output which is based on the principle of volumetric flow
rate (or velocity of fluid), then any change in density (or mass) will still give same
results, if velocity of the fluid remains constant (or volumetric flow rate remains
constant).
• This should be avoided in many cases such as measurement of steam flow rate in a
boiler to maintain level in the boiler, and,
• Chemical reactors, where mass flow rates are preferred (mol/min), rather than
volumetric flow rate, because the reaction will take place on the basis of no. of
molecules and not the volume of contents.
• Coriolis flow meters are most common mass flow meters as of date.

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Coriolis flow meters

• This is based on the principle of Coriolis force.

• Say, there is a tube having a fluid moving through it, and a rotatory motion is introduced in
the tube, then a Coriolis force develops on the tube in such a way as to oppose the direction
of rotation.
• In other words, the fluid “fights” against this rotation because it “wants” to keep traveling in
a straight line. For any given rotational velocity, the amount of “fight” will be directly
proportional to the fluid inertia. In other words, the magnitude of the Coriolis force will be in
direct proportion to the fluid’s mass flow rate.

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 Coriolis mass flowmeters…
• A common Coriolis flowmeter design uses a U- • If the fluid is stagnant (no flow), then the
shaped tube that redirects the fluid flow back to the tube will vibrate back and forth with the
center of rotation. applied force.
• The curved end of the flexible U-tube is forced to • If the fluid is in motion, then it
shake back and forth by an electromagnetic force experiences a Coriolis force and tends to
coil, while the tube ends anchor to a stationary twist the U-tube.
manifold: • This results in a twisted oscillation
(vibration) of the U – tube.
• As mass flow rate through the tube
increases, so does the degree of twisting.
• By monitoring the severity of this
twisting motion, we may infer the mass
flow rate of the fluid passing through the
tube.

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Coriolis mass flow meter…

• By placing suitable position

measurement transducers, we
can measure the amount of
phase shift in the position of two
ends of U – tube.
• Higher the phase shift, higher
will be the mass flow rate.
• This arrangement also gives an
indication of density, because
the frequency of oscillations are
related with the density of fluid.
• Higher the density, lower will be
frequency of oscillations and
vice-versa.

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Practical Coriolis flow meter…

• Have two identical U-tubes for the measurement

of relative motion.

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Coriolis Flow meter (Links to videos)…

Links to videos related to Coriolis flow meter:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XIIViaNITIw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=31jYXlnu-hU

https://youtu.be/PvXgaDoZr1E

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Contd…

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Coriolis mass flowmeter…

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 Positive displacement meters

• A positive displacement flowmeter is a

cyclic mechanism built to pass a fixed
volume of fluid through with every
cycle.
• Every cycle of the meter’s mechanism
displaces a precisely defined (“positive”)
quantity of fluid, so that a count of the
number of mechanism cycles yields a
precise quantity for the total fluid
volume passed through the flowmeter.
• Many positive displacement flowmeters
are rotary in nature, meaning each shaft
revolution represents a certain volume of
fluid has passed through the meter.
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Positive displacement meters: Nutating
disc meter

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Positive displacement meters: Lobed
impeller meter

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Weirs

• Used for the measurement of flow rate in open channels.

• If an obstruction is placed within a channel, any liquid flowing through the channel must rise on
the upstream side of the obstruction.
• By measuring this liquid level rise, it is possible to infer the rate of liquid flow past the
obstruction.

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Weirs…

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Weirs…

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 Ultrasonic measurement systems

BITS Pilani
Note to students

These slides should only be considered as supporting material. To have a

thorough understanding of the topic, these must be accompanied by
textbook, reference materials and lecture notes.

2 BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3, UGC Act

Topics to be discussed in this module

• Ultrasonic measurement system: Introduction

• Basic ultrasonic transmission link
• Piezoelectric ultrasonic transmitter and receivers
• Two port network model
• Crystal oscillator and resonator
• Principles of ultrasonic transmission
• Acoustic impedance and power
• Attenuation of plane wave in a medium
• Some ultrasonic measurement systems
• Problems

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Ultrasonic measurement system:
Introduction
• Ultrasound refers to sound waves at frequencies higher than about 18 kHz and are typically
inaudible to ear.
• It has various advantages such as,
• Higher frequency waves have shorter wavelengths which ensures reduced diffraction and
bending around an obstacle, so it becomes easier to direct or focus the ultrasound beam.
• These waves can easily pass through the metal walls of pipes and vessels. This means
that the entire measurement system can be mounted completely external to the fluid, i.e.
non-invasive.
• Ultrasound can be launched into and propagated through biological tissues and hence are
suitable for the use of medical applications.

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Basic ultrasound transmission link

Basic ultrasound transmission link

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Piezoelectric ultrasonic transmitter and
receivers
• The reversible effect (direct and reverse) of piezoelectric crystals makes it useful for use in
ultrasonic transmitters and receivers.
• The concept of effort and flow variable can be employed to model the transmitter and
receivers in an ultrasonic measurement system.
• For example: Force – Effort variable ⇒ Velocity (𝑥)ሶ – Flow Variable
Voltage – Effort variable ⇒ Current (𝑞)ሶ – Flow Variable
• This concept can help in modeling an element to be modelled as a two – port network.
• For example – A force sensor can be modeled as a two – port network, in which there would
be a mechanical input port and an electrical output port.

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Piezoelectric ultrasonic transmitter and
receivers…
• In a piezoelectric transmitter, we will have an electric input port and a mechanical output port.
• Similarly, for a piezoelectric receiver, we will have a mechanical input port and an electrical
output port.

Inverse effect Direct effect

𝑥 = 𝑑𝑉 𝑞 = 𝑑𝐹

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Piezoelectric ultrasonic transmitter and
receivers…
Inverse effect Direct effect
𝑥 = 𝑑𝑉 𝑞 = 𝑑𝐹

Relation between flow variables for a piezoelectric crystal,

𝑑𝑞
𝑖= = 𝑑𝑘 𝑥ሶ ∵ 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡

Similarly, relation between effort variables for a piezoelectric crystal,

𝐹
𝐹 = 𝑑𝑘𝑉 ∵ = 𝑑𝑉
𝑘

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Piezoelectric ultrasonic transmitter and
receivers…

Where, m – Mass
𝜆 – damping
Electrical impedance Mechanical impedance k – Stiffness

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Piezoelectric transmitter: Connected to a
signal generator and medium…

𝐼𝑁
Here, 𝜁 and 𝜔𝑛 are damping ratio and mechanical natural frequency of crystal. 𝐼𝑓, 𝑍𝐺 ≈ 0, 𝑍𝑀 ≈0
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Piezoelectric receiver: Connected to a
medium and external load…

𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝐼𝑓, 𝑍𝐿 ≈ 𝑅𝐿 , 𝑍𝑀 ≈0

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Crystal oscillator and resonators
• Rather than energizing the crystal with an external signal
generator, the crystal is usually incorporated into a closed-loop
system which oscillates at the mechanical natural frequency 𝜔𝑛 .
• The total current i drawn by the crystal is the sum of the
capacitance current iC together with the current im required to
drive the mechanical mass/spring/damper system.
Δ𝑉ത 𝑠 Δ𝑉ത 𝑠 Δ𝑥ሶ ҧ 𝑠 Δ𝐹ത 𝑠
Piezoelectric crystal 𝑍𝐸 𝑠 = =
Δ𝑖𝑚 𝑠 Δ𝐹ത 𝑠 Δ𝑖𝑚 𝑠 Δ𝑥ሶ ҧ 𝑠
Δ𝑉ത 𝑠 1 1 𝑘
⇒ 𝑍𝐸 𝑠 = = 𝑚𝑠 + 𝜆 +
Δ𝑖𝑚 𝑠 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑠

1 𝑚 𝜆 2𝑘
⇒ 𝑍𝐸 𝑠 = 𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐿1 = 2 , 𝑅1 = 2 , 𝐶1 = 𝑑
𝐶1 𝑠 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘
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Crystal oscillator and resonators…

The overall electrical impedance transfer function is given by,

1 1 1 1
= + = 𝐶𝑠 +
𝐻 𝑠 1/(𝐶𝑠) 𝑍𝐸 𝑠 𝑅1 + 𝐿1 𝑠 + 1/(𝐶1 𝑠)
For sinusoidal signals,
1 1
= 𝑗𝜔𝐶 +
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 1
Piezoelectric crystal 𝑅1 + 𝑗[𝜔𝐿1 − ]
𝜔𝐶1

𝜔𝑅1 𝐶1 − 𝑗 1 − 𝜔2 𝐿1 𝐶1
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =
𝜔 𝐶 + 𝐶1 − 𝜔 2 𝐿1 𝐶𝐶1 + 𝑗𝜔 2 𝐶𝐶1 𝑅1

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 Crystal oscillator and resonators…

𝜔𝑅1 𝐶1 − 𝑗 1 − 𝜔2 𝐿1 𝐶1
𝐻 𝑗𝜔 =
𝜔 𝐶 + 𝐶1 − 𝜔 2 𝐿1 𝐶𝐶1 + 𝑗𝜔 2 𝐶𝐶1 𝑅1

First natural frequency, where amplitude is almost minimum,

𝑘 1
𝜔𝑛 = = Series resonant frequency
𝑚 𝐿1 𝐶1
Second important frequency, where amplitude is almost maximum,

𝐶 + 𝐶1
𝜔1 = Parallel resonant frequency
𝐿1 𝐶1 𝐶

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 Crystal oscillator and resonators…

Thus to maintain oscillations at 𝜔𝑛 , we require,

1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔𝑛 = arg 𝐺 𝑗𝜔𝑛 = −180° − arg 𝐻 𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝐻 𝑗𝜔𝑛

Schematic diagram of crystal oscillator

(ACTUAL CIRCUIT WILL BE DIFFERENT!!!)
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Problem

Given crystal data,

• Find equivalent electrical circuit of piezoelectric crystal.

• Find series and parallel resonant frequency for the given crystal.

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Modes of vibration

Used for generation of

longitudinal waves

Used for generation of

transverse waves

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Acoustic impedance and power

• The concept of effort and flow variable can also be applied to the field of acoustics.
• In this case, the flow variable will be,
𝜕𝑑
𝑢= , 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜕𝑡
• And, effort variable will be,
𝑃 − 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
• Specific acoustic impedance can be defined as,
𝑃
𝑍𝐴 = (𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗𝑋𝐴 )
𝑢
• For plane progressive waves, the value of ZA is a real value, say RA which is equal to,
𝑅𝐴 = 𝜌𝑐
Where,
𝜌 is density of medium and c is the velocity of sound in that medium.
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Acoustic impedance and power

For plane progressive waves, the value of ZA is a real value, say RA which is equal to,
𝑅𝐴 = 𝜌𝑐
Where, 𝜌 is density of medium and c is the velocity of sound in that medium.

Also, the power or intensity at any point in an acoustic field is the product of through
and across variable, i.e.,
𝑃2
𝑊 = 𝑃𝑢 = = 𝑢2 𝑅𝐴
𝑅𝐴
W – rate of flow of acoustic energy through unit area (watts per metre2)

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Attenuation of plane wave in a medium

• In practice, the wave attenuates (amplitude of particle displacement, ‘d’, and pressure
variation, ‘P’) as it passes through the medium.
• These variables decreases exponentially with distance y travelled by the wave.
For particles displacement amplitudes,
𝑑መ 𝑦 = 𝑑መ 0 exp(−𝛼𝑑 𝑦)
Where, 𝑑መ 0 is the amplitude at the beginning of medium, 𝑑መ 𝑦 is the amplitude at position y
and 𝛼𝑑 in metre-1, is the displacement attenuation constant.

For acoustic inntensity,

𝑊 𝑦 = 𝑊 0 exp(−𝛼𝑊 𝑦)
Where, W 0 is the intensity at the beginning of medium, 𝑊 𝑦 is the intensity at position y
and 𝛼𝑊 in metre-1, is the power attenuation constant.
The power loss may occur due to viscous friction effects in liquids; in solids, scattering at grain
boundaries and absorption in crystal lattice defects are the main causes of loss.
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Reflection and refraction at a boundary
between two mediums

𝛼𝑅 = Reflection coefficient
𝛼 𝑇 = Transmission coefficient

2 4𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝛼𝑅 = 𝛼𝑇 = 2
𝑅2 + 𝑅1 2 𝑅2 + 𝑅1

For normal or near normal angles

i.e. 𝜃𝐼 ≈ 𝜃𝑅 ≈ 𝜃𝑇 ≈ 0°

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Reflection and refraction at a boundary
between two mediums…
Values of 𝜶𝑹 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜶𝑻 for some common materials

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Reflection and refraction at a boundary
between two mediums
This concept of transmission and reflection can help us to design different measurement
system using ultrasound link.

There will be two boundaries,

Quartz Quartz

Steel
In this case the transmission efficiency is only 44%.
Indicative representation

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Reflection and refraction at a boundary
between two mediums
• The 𝛼 𝑇 values for quartz/air and steel/air are very small. This means that it is very difficult to
launch a sound wave from a piezoelectric transmitter into a gas, either directly or via a steel
pipe.
• A solution to this problem can be placing a suitable matching layer between transmitter and
gas.
• If R1, R, and R2 are the characteristic impedance of transmitter, matching layer and gas
respectively, then,
4𝑅1 𝑅 4𝑅𝑅2
𝛼 𝑇,𝑀 = 2 𝛼𝑀,𝐺 = 2
𝑅1 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅2

The overall transmission coefficient can then be written as, For maximum overall
transmission coefficient,
16𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2
𝛼 𝑇,𝐺 = 𝛼 𝑇,𝑀 × 𝛼𝑀,𝐺 = 𝑅= 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1 + 𝑅 2 𝑅 + 𝑅2 2

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 Ultrasonic measurement systems: Pulse
reflection OR pulse echo systems
Excitation of Transmitter/
crystal Receiver
𝑻𝑾

Round trip
time (𝑻𝑻 )

Amplification; Filtering;
Shaping etc.

Display

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Ultrasonic measurement systems: Pulse
reflection OR pulse echo systems
Conditions:
1
1. 𝑇𝑊 ≫
𝑓
This ensures that there are many
cycles, i.e. sufficient energy in
each pulse.
2. 𝑇𝑇 ≫ 𝑇𝑊
To avoid interference between
outgoing and reflected pulse.

3. 𝑇𝑅 ≫ 𝑇𝑇
To ensure that all reflections, for one
outgoing pulse, are attenuated before
Idealised outgoing and reflected pulse waveforms second pulse enters the material.
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Doppler effect

• When a source (or transmitter) and observer (or receiver) of sound waves are in relative
motion, then the frequency of the received signal differs from the frequency of the
transmitted signal by an amount that depends on relative motion of source and observer.
This shift in apparent frequency is called as, “Doppler Effect”.

• If observer moves towards source, then,

′
𝑣 𝑓 𝑐+𝑣
𝑓 =𝑓+ =𝑓+ 𝑣=𝑓
𝜆 𝑐 𝑐

• If observer moves away from source, then,

′
𝑣 𝑓 𝑐−𝑣
𝑓 =𝑓− =𝑓− 𝑣=𝑓
𝜆 𝑐 𝑐

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Doppler effect

• Fixed source moving observer,

𝑓 ′ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟

=
𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

• Fixed observer moving source,

𝜆′ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟

=
𝜆 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

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Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter

• This flowmeter is completely external to the

pipe; it is thus suitable for the ‘difficult’
flowmetering problems discussed , i.e. corrosive
fluids, slurries) and as a ‘clip-on’ flowmeter.
• The transmitting crystal sends an ultrasonic wave
of frequency f and velocity c into the fluid, at an
angle θ relative to the direction of flow.
• Bubbles, solid particles or eddies in the flow
stream can be regarded as ‘observers’, moving
with velocity v relative to the fixed transmitter.

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 Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter…

The apparent wavelength received by the crystal

from moving source (reflection from bubble, solid
particles):

or

Then,

The velocity of sound waves relative to the

observer is c + v cos θ, so that the apparent
frequency f ′ seen by the observer is given by: Then, neglecting higher order terms of v/c,

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Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter

Signal processing blocks in Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter

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Ultrasonic transit time flowmeter

The differential transit time Δ𝑇 can

be given by,
Δ𝑇 = 𝑇𝐵𝐴 − 𝑇𝐴𝐵
𝐷 1 1
Δ𝑇 = −
sin 𝜃 𝑐 − 𝑣 cos 𝜃 𝑐 + 𝑣 cos 𝜃
2𝐷 cot 𝜃 𝑣
Δ𝑇 = 2
𝑣
𝑐 2 (1 − 2 cos 2 𝜃)
𝑐
𝑣
2𝐷 cot 𝜃 𝑣 If is very small
Δ𝑇 = 𝑐
𝑐2 (typically 10-2)
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Cross-correlation flow meter

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Ultrasonic Cross-correlation flow meter

• The meter is completely external to the

pipe and is especially suitable for two-
phase flow measurements.
• The ultrasonic wave reaching the
receiver is reduced in amplitude and
changed in phase relative to the received
wave with no particles present.
• The number of particles in either link
varies randomly with time, causing the
received ultrasonic waves to be
randomly modulated, in both amplitude
and phase.

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Problem 1

• An open steel vessel contains liquid metal to a depth of about 0.75 m. It is proposed to
measure the depth of liquid using ultrasonic pulse reflection techniques. A quartz crystal
attached to the base of the vessel is to act alternatively as a transmitter and receiver. Using
the data given below, (a) calculate the round trip time (TT) and (b) fraction of received power
to transmitted power. (c) Choose suitable values for pulse width and repetition times.

Characteristic impedance of steel = 4.7 × 107 kg m-2 s-1

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Problem 2

• An ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter is to be used to measure the volume flow rate of a slurry in
a steel pipe of diameter 0.2 m. Two piezoelectric crystals, each having a natural frequency of
1 MHz, are positioned, a few millimetres apart, on the outside of the pipe to form an
ultrasonic transmission link. The transmitting crystal directs an ultrasonic beam into the pipe
so that the beam is moving in an opposite direction to the flowstream. The angle between the
ultrasonic beam and the direction of flow is 60°. On average 10% of the ultrasonic power
reaching each solid particle is scattered back in the direction of the receiving crystal. Assume
that the slurry has the same density and sound velocity as water and a power attenuation
coefficient of 1.0 m−1.
(a) Find the difference between the frequencies of the transmitted and received beams when the
flow rate is 1.13 × 103 m3 h−1.
(b) Estimate the ultrasonic power incident on the receiving crystal for each watt of ultrasonic
power leaving the transmitting crystal. State any assumptions made in your calculation.
Given, Rquartz = 1.5 × 107

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Data associated with Problem 2

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