Dr.

Kishore Varma

Points to ponder - 271

1. Heteroecious nature of rust fungi – Anton de Bary
2. Anton de Bary reported the role of enzymes and toxins in tissue disintegration
caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
3. Coffee rust epidemic – Marshall ward
4. Bordeaux mixture – Millardet
5. Pythiaceous and allied fungi – Monograph by E.J. Butler
6. Fungi and disease in plants – Text book by E.J. Butler
7. Indian Phytopathological society – Started by B.B. Mundkur
8. Fungi and plant diseases – text book written by B.B. Mundkur
9. Physiological races of rust fungi or variability in rust fungi – Stakman
10. Established Phytophthora parasitica from castor – J.F. Dastur
11. Life cycle of cereal rusts in India – K.C. Mehta
12. Concept of vivotoxins or fusaric acid produced by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.
vasinfectum – established by Sadasivan
13. Non-infectious plant diseases due to abiotic causes such as adverse soil and
environmental conditions are termed disorders
14. The ability of the pathogen to cause disease is called Pathogenicity
15. The chain of events that lead to development of disease in the host is known
as Pathogenesis
16. The pathogen or its parts or products seen on a host plant is called a sign
17. The external or internal reactions or alterations of a plant as a result of a
disease is called a symptom
18. The parasites which attack living tissues in the same way as biotrophs but will
continue to grow and reproduce after the tissue is dead called as facultative
saprophytes
19. A parasite that it kills the host tissues in advance of penetration and then lives
saprophytically on it is known as a necrotroph. Ex: Sclerotium rolfsii
20. The part of the pathogen which on contact with susceptible host plant causes
infection is known as inoculum
 Dr. Kishore Varma

21. The energy of growth of a parasite available for infection of a host at the surface
of the host organ to be infected is called Inoculum potential
22. The period of time (or time lapse) between penetration of a host by a pathogen
and the first appearance of symptoms on the host is called incubation period
23. The action of set of environments, prior to penetration and infection, which
makes the plant vulnerable to attack by the pathogen, is known as
predisposition
24. Excessive sensitivity of plant tissues to certain pathogens is called
hypersensitivity
25. A disease usually occurs widely but periodically in a destructive form is
referred as epidemic
26. A disease that occurs in a moderate to severe form and is confined to a
particular country or district is called endemic disease Ex: Onion smut, Black wart
of potato
27. A disease that occurs at very irregular intervals and locations and in relatively
fewer instances is called sporadic disease Ex: Udbatta disease of rice
28. The first link in infection chain is survival
29. Primary infection initiates the disease and the secondary infection spreads
the disease
30. Wild hosts of same families that facilitates growth and multiplication of
pathogen during off-season are known as collateral hosts
31. Wild hosts of other families that are important for the completion of life cycle of
heteroecious rust fungi are called alternate hosts
32. Those organisms which survive indefinitely in the soil as saprophytes in the
absence of the host plant are called soil inhabitants Ex: Species of Pythium,
Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium
33. The parasites that survive in the soil in close association with host roots are
called root inhabitants Ex: Species of Fusarium, Verticillium Phymatotrichum
34. Those organisms which colonize the dead substrates in the root region and
continue to live like that for a longer period which are more tolerant to soil
antagonism are known as rhizosphere colonizers Ex: Cladosporium fulvum
 Dr. Kishore Varma

35. Among plant pathogens, dormant or resistant structures for survival are
produced only by fungi and nematodes. (No resting structures in plant pathogenic
bacteria or viruses)
36. Dormant structures in fungi
a. Oospores - Pythium, Phytophthora, Albugo and all downy mildew
genera
b. Cleistothecium - All powdery mildew genera
c. Zygospores - Rhizopus, Choanephora
d. Perithecium - Claviceps
e. Pseudothecium - Venturia
f. Ascostroma - Elsinoe, Mycosphaerella, Cochliobolus
g. Conidia - Taphrina, Pyricularia, Helminthosporium, Alternaria,
Cercospora, Botrytis, Verticillium, etc.
h. Sclerotia - Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Sclerotinia
i. Rhizomorphs - Armillariella mellea
j. Pycnidium - Phoma, Phomopsis, Septoria, Macrophmina, Diplodia, etc.
k. Acervuli - Colletotrichum, Gloeosporium, Pestalotia, Pestalotiopsis
l. Chlamydospores - Sphacelotheca, Tolyposporium, Ustilago (Smut fungi)
m. Teliospores - Puccinia, Uromyces, Hemileia (Rust fungi)
37. Externally seed borne systemic disease Ex: Grain smut of sorghum
(Sphacelotheca sorghi)
38. Internally seed borne disease Ex: Loose smut of wheat (Ustilago nuda tritici)
39. Bacterium carried by the beetle – Xanthomonas stewartii
40. Tobacco ringspot is associated with the nematode Xiphinema Americana
41. Fungal transmitted viruses
S.No. Fungal vector Disease
1 Olpidium brassicae Tobacco necrosis, Lettuce big vein
2 Polymyxa graminis Wheat soil borne mosaic, Barley yellow dwarf
mosaic
3 Spongospora Potato mop top
subterranea
4 Synchytrium Potato virus X
endobioticum
 Dr. Kishore Varma

42. The second link in infection chain is the dispersal or dissemination of plant
pathogens
43. Autonomous or direct or active dispersal of plant pathogens takes place
through soil, seed and planting material during normal agronomic operations. Ex:
Armillariella mellea, Ophiobolous graminis
44. Passive dispersal of plant pathogens happens through animate (Insects, fungi,
Nematodes, human beings) and inanimate (wind and water) agents
45. Citrus canker bacterium, Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri is transmitted
through a leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella)
46. Leaf curl viruses are transmitted by the whitefly, Bamesia tabaci
47. Rice tungro virus is transmitted by the leaf hoppers, Nephotettix virescens &
N. nigropictus
48. Mycoplasmal diseases are mostly transmitted by leaf hoppers. Ex: Sesamum
phyllody (Orosious albicinctus) and little leaf of brinjal (Hishimonas phycitis)
49. The bacterium which causes yellow ear rot of wheat (Corynebacterium tritici
or Clavibacter tritici) is disseminated by ear cockle nematode, Anguina tritici. If
these two diseases appear together, a complex disease called tundu of wheat
occurs.
50. Nematode transmitted polyhedral viruses (NEPO) are transmitted by the
nematode species of Xiphenema and Longidorus Ex: Tobacco ringspot virus,
Tomato ringspot virus
51. Nematode transmitted tubular (NETU) viruses are transmitted by the nematode
species of Trichodorus and Paratrichodorous. Ex; Pea early browning virus,
Tobacco rattle virus
52. Grape fan leaf virus is transmitted by the nematode, Xiphenema americana
53. The phanerogamic parasite that transmit the viruses by acting as a bridge
between the diseased and healthy plants is Cuscuta or Dodder
54. Gaumann coined the term anemochory for wind dispersal and hydrochory
for water dispersal of plant pathogens
55. Spores adopted for short distance dissemination - sporangia of downy mildew
fungi, conidia of powdery mildew fungi and basidiospores of rust fungi
 Dr. Kishore Varma

56. Spores adapted to long distance dispersal - uredospores of rust fungi,

Chlamydospores of smut fungi and conidia of Alternaria, Helminthosporium and
Pyricularia
57. If the uredospores reach an altitude of 5000 feet, their distance dispersal in a
30 mile per hour wind could be about 1100 miles, without loosing viability.
58. Cysts of the nematode Heterodera major, which causes molya disease of
wheat and barley, are carried by dust storms from Rajasthan to Haryana
59. Rain splash dispersal is the most efficient method of dispersal for bacterial
plant pathogens
60. The fungi, Colletotrichum falcatum (red rot of sugaecane), Fusarium,
Ganoderma, Macrophomina, Pythium, Phytophthora, Sclerotium, etc., are
transmitted through rain or irrigation water
61. Infection process is the third link in the infection chain after survival and
dispersal of inoculum
62. Inoculum potential is a function of inoculum density and their capacity. It is
defined as the energy of growth of a parasite available for infection of a host at the
surface of the host organ to be infected
63. Active invaders: Fungi and nematodes are the only group of plant pathogens
that employ force for direct penetration of the host
64: Passive invaders: Phyto-pathogenic bacteria and viruses
65. In Armillariella mellea, the fungus hyphae form the rhizomorphs
(aggregation of hyphae into rope like strands) and only these can cause infection.
66. In Rhizoctonia solani, the fungus on coming in contact with root surface, first
forms infection cushions and appressoria and from these multiple infections takes
place by means of infection pegs.
67. Portals of entry:
Stomata: Puccinia graminis tritici, Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum,
Phytophthora infestans, Albugo candida and uredospores of Puccinia graminis
tritici
Lenticels: Streptomyces scabies, Sclerotinia fructicola
 Dr. Kishore Varma

Hydathodes: Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris), Xanthomonas oryzae pv.

oryzae
Seedlings: Sphacelotheca sorghi, Sclerospora graminicola, Tilletia caries
Root hairs: Fusarium sp., Plasmodiophora brassicae, Phymatotrichum
omnivorum
Buds: Uromyces pisi, Taphrina cerasi
Flowers: Ustilago nuda tritici, Tolyposporium ehrenbergi, Neovossia horrida,
Claviceps purpurea
Leaves: Basidiospores of white pine blister rust fungus (Cronartium ribicola)
Nectaries: Fire blight of apple (Erwinia amylovora)
Stalk ends: Penicillium italicum, Theilaviopsis paradoxa
Direct penetration or through Cuticle: Cercospora beticola, Alternaria solani,
Cercospora personata
68. Mode of parasitism:
Ectoparasites: Most powdery mildew fungi (Erysiphe, Podosphaera,
Microsphaera, Uncinula, Sphaerothea)
Endoparasites: Leveillula
Sub-cuticular growth: Diplocarpon rosae
Vascular tissues: Wilt causing fungi like Fusarium and Verticillium
Endobiotic: Synchytrium endobioticum, Plasmodiophora brassicae
Systemic growth: Sphacelotheca sorghi, Sclerospora graminicola
69. Wax layer cannot be digested by the plant pathogens; however, most of the
fungi and parasitic higher plants penetrate wax layers by means of mechanical
force alone.
70. Pectic substances are polysaccharides consisting mostly of d-galactouronic
acid units with α-1,4-glycosidic bonds.
71. Pectic substances are of three types, namely, pectic acid (non methylated
units), pectinic acid (<75% methylated galacturonan units) and pectin (>75%
methylated units).
72. Pectin methyl esterases breaks ester bonds and removes methyl groups
from pectin leading to the formation of pectic acid and methanol
 Dr. Kishore Varma

73. Polygalacturonases breaks the linkage between two galacturonan units

74. Cellulose is a polysaccharide, made of chains of β-D-glucopyranose units
75. Lignin is an amorphous, three-dimensional polymer made up of basic structural
unit, phenylpropanoid.
76. List of Enzyme producing plant pathogens
a. Wax: None of the pathogens produce wax degrading enzymes
b. Cutinases - Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Sphaerotheca pannosa, Venturia
inaequalis, Helminthosporium victoriae
c. Pectinases - Soft rot bacterium, Erwinia caratovora subsp. caratovora and other
fungi like Botrytis cinerea, Sclerotium rolfsii
d. Cellulases - Basidiomycetes fungi
e. Hemicellulases - Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Sclerotinia fructigena
f. Ligninases - Xylaria, Chaetomium, Alternaria, Cephalosporium

Toxins & Hormones

a. Host specific toxin: victorin (Helminthosporium victoriae)
b. Phytotoxin: Alternaric acid – Alternaria solani
c. Vivotoxin (Dimond and Waggoner): Fusaric acid – Wilt causing Fusarium sp.;
Lycomarasmin – Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici
d. Pathotoxin produced by bacteria: Amylovorin: Erwinia amylovora; Tabtoxin or
wild fire toxin: Pseudomonas tabaci; Phaseolotoxin: Pseudomonas syringae pv.
phaseolicola
e. IAA producing bacterium: Pseudomonas solanacearum
f. Gibberellic acid is produced by Gibberella fujikuroi
g. Excess of ethylene causes Epinasty
h. Abscissic acid induces dormancy in seed
77. The citrus variety, szinkum, is resistant to citrus canker disease due to the
presence of a cuticular ridge projecting over the stomata
78. The wheat variety (Cultivar, Hope) is resistant to Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici
as stomata open late in the day and germinating uredospores dessicate befor
stomata open.
 Dr. Kishore Varma

79. Cork layers are produced in Potato tubers infected by Rhizoctonia; Prunus
domestica leaves attacked by Coccomyces pruniphorae
80. A gap formed between infected and healthy cells of a leaf surrounding the locus
of infection due to the disintegration of the middle lamella of parenchymatous
tissue is known as abscission layer
81. Tyloses are the overgrowths of the protoplast of adjacent living
parenchymatous cells, which protrude into xylem vessels through pits Ex: Wilt
causing fungi suchas Fusarium and Verticillium
82. Red scales of red onion contain the phenolic compounds, protocatechuic
acid and catechol, which diffuse out to the surface and inhibit the conidial
germination of onion smudge fungus, Colletotrichum circinans
83. Saponins Ex: Tomatine in tomato and Avenacin in oats
84. Muller and Borger (1940) first used the term phytoalexins for fungistatic
compounds produced by plants in response to injury (mechanical or chemical) or
infection. Phytoalexins are produced only in incompatible host-pathogen
interactions.

85. Phytoalexins
S.No. Phtoalexin Host Pathogen
1 Pisatin Pea Monilinia fructicola
2 Phaseolin French bean Sclerotinia fructigena
3 Rishitin Potato Phytophthora infestans
4 Gossypol Cotton Verticillium alboatrum
5 Cicerin Bengalgram Ascochyta rabiei
6 Ipomeamarone Sweet potato Ceratocystis fimbriata
7 Capsidiol Pepper Colletotrichum capsici
86. The extreme degree of susceptibility in which rapid death of cells occurs in the
vicinity of the invading pathogen is known as hypersensitivity. The term
hypersensitivity was first used by Stakman (1915) in wheat infected by rust fungus,
Puccinia graminis. HR occurs only in incompatible host-pathogen combinations.
HR is initiated by the recognition of specific pathogen-produced signal molecules,
known as elicitors
 Dr. Kishore Varma

87. Antibodies, encoded by animal genes, but produced in and by the plant, are
called plantibodies
88. Epiphytology or Epidemiology of plant diseases is essentially a study of the
rate of multiplication of a pathogen and spread of the disease caused by it in a
plant population.
89. Reducing, inactivating, eliminating or destroying inoculum at the source, either
from a region or from an individual plant in which it is already established is called
eradication
90. Preventing the inoculum from entering or establishing in the field or area
where it does not exist is known as exclusion
91. In India, plant quarantine rules and regulations were issued under Destructive
Insects and Pests Act (DIPA) in 1914
92. Diseases under domestic quarantine in India: Banana bract mosaic, Bunchy
top of banana and wart of potato
93. A legal restriction on the movement of agricultural commodities for the purpose
of exclusion, prevention or delaying the spread of the plant pests and diseases in
uninfected areas is known as plant quarantine
94. Diseases introduced into India from other countries
a. Late blight of potato & Downy mildew of grapes – Introduced into India from
Europe
b. Coffee rust & Bunchy top of banana - Introduced into India from Srilanka
c. Bacterial leaf blight of rice - Introduced into India from Phillippines
95. Removal of diseased plants or their affected organs from field, which prevent
the dissemination of plant pathogens rouging
96. In USA, 3 million trees were cut down and burnt to eradicate citrus canker
bacterium
97. Barbery eradication programme was undertaken in France and USA to reduce
the severity of black stem rust of wheat
98. Eradication of Thalictrum species in USA was undertaken to manage leaf rust
of wheat caused by Puccinia recondita
 Dr. Kishore Varma

99. Application of lime (2500 Kg/ha) reduces the club root of cabbage by increasing
soil pH to 8.5
100. Application of Sulphur (900 Kg/ha) to soil brings the soil pH to 5.2 and reduces
the incidence of common scab of potato (Streptomyces scabies).
101. Optimum spacing of 8’X8’ instead of 7’X7’ reduces sigatoka disease of
banana
102. Hydro/thermal soil heating of moist soil with polyethylene sheets as soil mulch
during summer months for 4-6 weeks is known as soil solarization
103. Sugarcane setts are treated with hot water at 520C for 30 minutes for
controlling sett borne diseases of sugarcane like whip smut, grassy shoot and red
rot of sugarcane
104. Reduction of inoculum density or disease producing activity of a pathogen or
a parasite in its active or dormant state by one or more organisms (except human
beings) is known as biological control
105. Extracellular, low molecular weight (500-1000 daltons) iron transport agents
produced by species of Pseudomonas are designated as Siderophores
106. Some strains of Pseudomonas fluorescens produce a range of compounds,
viz., 2,4-diacetyl phloroglucinol (DAPG), phenazines, pyocyanin, which have broad
spectrum activity against many plant pathogenic bacteria and fungi
107. Organic compounds of low molecular weight produced by microbes which at
low concentrations are deleterious to the growth or metabolic activities of other
micro-organisms are called antibiotics
108. Bacteriocins produced by Agrobacterium radiobacter are known as
Agrocins which are inhibitory to Agrobacterium tumefaciens, the crown gall
bacterium
109. Direct parasitism or lysis and death of the pathogen by another micro-
organism when the pathogen is in parasitic phase is known as hyperparasitism
110. Give an example of the following
a. Biocontrol agent for powdery mildew fungi – Ampelomyces quisqualis
b. Biocontrol agent for rust fungi - Darluca filum, Verticillium lecanii
c. Bacterial bioagents for root knot nematode - Pasteuria penetrans
 Dr. Kishore Varma

d. Fungal bioagents for root knot nematode - Paecilomyces lilacinus

e. Fungal bioagents for soil borne fungi – Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma
viride
f. Bacterial bioagents for fungi & bacteria – Pseudomonas fluorescens
g. Plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria – Pseudomonas & Bacillus
109. Formulations of biocontrol agents:
Trichoderma viride - Ecofit, Bioderma
Gliocladium virens - GlioGard
T. harzianum - F-Stop
T. polysporum - BINAB-T
Pseudomonas fluorescens - Dagger-G
Bacillus subtilis - Kodiak
Agrobacterium radiobacter - Gallex or Galltrol
110. Fungicide: Any agent (chemical) that kills the fungus
111. Fungistat: Some chemicals which do not kill fungi, but simply inhibit the
fungus growth temporarily.
112. Antisporulant: The chemical which inhibits spore production without
affecting vegetative growth of the fungus.
113. Protectants are the chemicals which are effective only when used before
infection
114. Eradicants are those chemicals which eradicate the dormant or active
pathogen from the host Ex: Lime sulphur, Dodine
115. Therapeutants are the agents that inhibit the development of a disease
syndrome in a plant when applied after infection by a pathogen

116. Fungicides and antibiotics:

Copper fungicides
➢ Preparatory copper fungicides: Bordeaux mixture, Bordeaux paste,
cheshunt compound, Burgundy mixture, Chaubattia paste
 Dr. Kishore Varma

➢ Copper sulphate based copper compounds: Bordeaux mixture, Bordeaux

paste, Cheshunt compound
➢ Cheshunt compound: Copper sulphate + Ammonium carbonate (2:11).
Suggested for soil application only.
➢ In Burgundy mixture lime is substituted by sodium carbonate.
➢ Chaubattia paste: Copper carbonate based preparatory copper fungicide
➢ Proprietory copper fungicides: Copper oxy chloride (Blitox, Blue copper,
Fytolan, Cuprimar), Cuprous oxide (Fungimar, Perenox), Copper hydroxide
(Kocide)
Sulphur fungicides
➢ Preparatory sulphur fungicide: lime sulphur is an example for eradicant
fungicide as it eliminates dormant mycelium. (Dodine is a miscellaneous
fungicide with eradicant action to control apple scab)
➢ Proprietory sulphur fungicides: Sulphur dust (Kolo dust, Mico-999) and
Wettable sulphur (Thiovit, Sulfex).
➢ Proprietory organic sulphur fungicides / Dithiocarbamates: In 1934, Tisdale
and Williams reported the fungitoxic activity of dithiocarbamates.
➢ Metallic dithiocarbamates (Ziram [Zn], Ferbam [Fe]), Thiuram disulphides
(Thiram) and Bisditiocarbamates (Nabam, Zineb, Maneb, Mancozeb, Vapam)
➢ Dithane M22 (Maneb), Dithane M45 or Indofil M45 (Mancozeb), Dithane Z78
or Indofil Z78 or Lonacol (Zineb), Dithane A 40 or Dithane D14 (Nabam)
➢ Vapam: Organic sulphur fungicide with fumigant or nematicidal or herbicidal
action.
Heterocyclic nitrogenous compounds:
➢ Captan (ESSO fungicide or Orthocide), Folpet (Phaltan), Captafol (Difolaton,
Sanspor)

Miscellaneous fungicides:
➢ Dinocap (Karathane), Chlorothalonil (Kavach, Bravo), Dodine (Cyprex)
Phosphonates
➢ Ambimobile compounds: Fosetyl-Al (Aliette)
 Dr. Kishore Varma

Acyl alanines
➢ Metalaxyl (Apron SD – Seed treatment; Ridomil 25 WP – Soil application;
Ridomil MZ 72 or Subdue – Spray for ornamentals) has specific activity
against Oomycetes and gives excellent control of downy mildews.
Benzimidazoles
➢ Carbendazim, Benomyl, Thiabendazole are ineffective against lower fungi or
phycomycetes or Oomycetes.
➢ Benzimidazoles (Benomyl and Thiabendazole) can be used for fruit dips or in
wax treatments for the management of post harvest rots of fruits and
vegetables.
Oxathiins
➢ The first systemic compound to be discovered are oxathiins or carboximides
(Von Schmeling and Marshal Kulka, 1966). Carboxin (Vitavax) is highly specific
for smuts and Oxy-carboxin (Plantavax) is specific for rusts.
Morpholines
➢ Tridemorph (Calixin)
Organophosphates
➢ Kitazin and Edifenphos are the fungicides with insecticidal activity and are
highly specific against rice diseases
Pyrimidines
➢ Fenarimol, Ethirimol and Diametharimol are specific against Powdery
mildews.
Triazoles
➢ Triazole fungicide specific for rice blast – Tricyclazole (Beam)
➢ Triazoles: Hexaconazole (Contaf), Propiconazole (Tilt)
Strobilurins
➢ Azoxystrobin (Amistar), Kresoxim methyl (Ergon)
Antifungal antibiotics
➢ Aureofungin, Cycloheximide (Actidione, Actispray), Griseofulvin, Blasticidin,
Validamycin (Sheathmar – highly specific to sheath blight of rice) and
Kasugamycin (Specific for rice blast).
 Dr. Kishore Varma

Antibacterial antibiotics
➢ Streptomycin, Streptocycline, Tetracyclines & Agrimycin-100.
➢ Tetracyclines (Achromycin), Oxy-tetracycline (Terramycin),
Chlorotetracyclines (Aureomycin) are highly specific for mollicutes
(Mycoplasma, Spiroplasma and Phytoplasmas).
Antibiotic producing organisms
➢ Streptoverticillium cinnamomeum var. terricola (Aureofungin), Streptomyces
griseus (Cycloheximide and streptomycin), Penicillium griseofulvum
(Griceofulvin an antibiotic produced by a fungus).
117. Resistance can be horizontal (uniform) when it is evenly spread against all
races (strains) of a pathogen, or vertical (differential) when it is affected against
some races of the pathogen but not against others.