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SSN College of Engineering

( An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University)
Academic Year -2022-23
Department of EEE
Class : III Year /V Sem EEE
Course Instructor-Dr.R.Deepalaxmi, Asso.Prof/EEE, SSNCE
UEE 1505- Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation Systems
Unit-V- Transducers and Data Acquisition Systems
Introduction
In a measurement system all the quantities being measured, could not be
displayed as such. In such situation, the accurate measurement of a quantity is
usually done by converting the related information or signal to another form
which is more conveniently or accurately displayed. This is achieved with the
help of a device which is known as transducer.
• Device which converts energy or information from one form to another.
• Device which provides usable output in response to specific input measurand
(physical or mechanical quantity/property/condition)
The transducer is a device which provides a usable output in response of
corresponding input, which may be physical or mechanical quantity, property or
condition. More precisely, A TRANSDUCER is a device, which transforms
energy from one form to another.
The transducer may be mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical,
thermal nuclear, acoustic, or a combination of among of two or more.
All forms of transducers have some merits and demerits but most of the
shortcomings have been overcome with the introduction of electrical transducers.
The most instrumentation systems having �Non-Electrical� input quantity and
this non-electrical quantity is generally converted into an electrical form by a
transducer.
Transducers
• Device which converts energy or information from one form to another.
• Device which provides usable output in response to specific input measurand
(physical or mechanical quantity/property/condition)
• Transducer may be mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical,
acoustic, thermal, nuclear or a combination of any 2 or more.
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Sensors Vs Transducers
• The main difference between a sensor and a transducer is the output signal.
• A sensor senses the condition, state and value of the process variable which
reflects the output of the instrument
• Both a sensor and a transducer are used to sense a change within the
environment they are surrounded by or an object they are attached to.
• A sensor will give an output in the same format
• A transducer will convert the measurement into an electrical signal.
Characteristics of a sensor
• Sensors are defined as a device which is used to measure a physical quality
• Eg: light, sound, temperature etc. and give the output in an easy to read
format for the user.
• In a mercury thermometer; the mercury simply expands when the
temperature rises to give a reading for the user, there are no electrical
inferences or changes.
• A thermistor also simply responds to the change in resistance due to the
temperature change
Characteristics of a transducer
• A transducer can measure similar qualities to a sensor but will convert the
signal from one physical form to another meaning their input and output
signals are not the same as each other.
• Transducers are sometimes referred to as energy converters.
Different types of transducers;
Input transducers
An input transducer takes a form of energy and converts it into an electrical
signal.
Output transducers
→ An output transducer takes electricity and converts it into another form of
energy
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Eg: light bulb takes electricity and converts it to light, or a motor converting
electricity to motion.
Classification of transducer

Classification of Transducers
The transducers could be classified in several ways. This classification could be
on the basis of their application, method of energy conversion, the nature of
signal output and according to whether they are self generating or the
externally powered units.

The transducers can be broadly classified as:

1) Primary transducers and Secondary transducers.
2) Analog transducers and Digital transducers.
3) Active transducers and Passive transducers.
4) Transducers and Inverse transducers
Primary transducers and secondary transducers
On the basis of method of energy conversion , the transducers are classified
into primary and secondary transducers.
The transducer that directly senses the input signal and converts the physical
property into the electrical signal is called primary transducer or a sensor.
Thermistor is an example of primary transducer. It senses the temperature
directly and causes the changes in its resistance with respect to temperature.
On the other hand, if the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor
and its output, which may be of some other form than the input signal, is given as
input to another transducer for conversion into electrical form, then such a
transducer is called as secondary transducer.
Analog transducers and digital transducers
The output from the transducer may be a continuous function of time or it may
be in discrete function of time. On this basis the transducers may be classified
into two categories.
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A transducer, which converts input signal into output signal in a continuous

function of time is known as Analog transducer. Linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT), thermo-couple are the examples of Analog Transducer.
On the other hand, a transducer, which converts input signal into output signal in
the form of pulses i.e., it gives discrete output is called a digital transducer. The
digital transducers are becoming very popular and useful because the digital
signals can be transmitted over a long distance, with minimum distortion due to
amplitude variation and phase shift.

Active and passive transducers

On the basis of self generating or the externally powered units, the transducers
are classified in to following two categories: active and passive transducers.

A transducer, which develops its output in the form of electrical current or

voltage without any auxiliary source, is called active transducer or the self
generating transducers. The energy required for this is absorbed from the
physical phenomenon which is being measured. This type of transducer draws
energy from the system under measurement. Examples are thermocouples,
piezo-electric transducers, photovoltaic cell etc. Such transducers normally
give very small output and so amplification of the signal becomes essential.
Externally powered transducers are those which derive the power required for
energy conversion from an external power source. An electrical transducer, in
which electrical parameter like resistance, inductance or capacitance changes
with change in the input signal, is called as a passive transducer. They may also
absorb a little power from the process variable being measured. Resistive,
inductive and capacitive transducers viz., potentiometric devices,
differential transformer etc. are known as passive transducers.
Inverse transducers
On the basis of application, the transducers are classified into transducers and
inverse transducers.
A transducer is generally defined as a device which converts a non electrical
quantity into an electrical quantity. An inverse transducer is a device which
converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity.
A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field is an inverse transducer,
because current by it is converted into a force, which causes translational or
rotational displacement. A most useful application of inverse transducers is in
feedback measuring systems.
An actuator is an inverse transducer as it is having an electrical input and a low-
power non-electrical output. A piezo-electric crystal also acts as an inverse
transducer because when a voltage is applied across its surfaces, it changes its
dimensions causing a mechanical displacement.
Advantages of Mechanical Transducer
• Simple
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• Rugged in construction
• Cheaper in cost
• Accurate & Operate without external power supplies.
Disadvantages of Mechanical Transducer
• Poor frequency response.
• Requirement of large forces to overcome mechanical friction
• In compatibility for remote control/indication application.
Features of an electrical transducer
• Sensing device by which a physical/mechanical/ optical quantity to be measured
is transformed directly, with a suitable mechanism into an electrical signal(
I,V,f)
• Production of these signals is based upon electrical effects → Resistive,
Inductive, Capacitive.
• Input versus output relationship takes a definite reproducible function.
• Input/output and output/time behavior is predictable to a known degree of
accuracy, sensitivity & response within the specified environmental conditions.
Advantages of Electrical Transducer
• Reduced friction effect
• Reduced mass- inertia effects
• Requirement of very small power for controlling the electrical & electronic
system.
• Amplification of an electrical signal for any desired level.
• Output can be modified as per requirements.
• Output can be indicated /recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing
medium.
• Signals can be conditioned or mixed for obtaining any combination with outputs
of similar transducers or control signals
Disadvantages of Electrical Transducer
• Low reliability due to ageing and drift of active components.
• Comparative high cost of electrical transducers & associated signal
conditioners.
• Low accuracy/resolution in some cases.
Basic Requirements of Transducer
The following are the basic requirements of a good quality transducer:
a) Ruggedness
b) Linearity
c) No hysteresis
d) Repeatability
e) High output signal quality
f) High reliability and stability
g) Good dynamic response
h) No deformation on removal of input signal
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1. Ruggedness– Capable of withstanding overload , Safety arrangement for

overload protection
2.Linearity– >Input-output characteristics should be symmetrical
3.Repeatability→Should produce same output signal when the same input signal is
applied again & again under fixed environmental conditions.
4.High output signal quality→ Signal to noise ratio should be high
5.High reliability & stability → Should give minimum error
6.Good dynamic response →Should be faithful to input when taken as a function
of time.
7.No hysteresis → Should not give any hysteresis during measurement while input
signal is varied from its low value to higH VALUE & VICE versa.
8. Residual Deformation →No deformation after the removal of long duration load.

Characteristics of Transducers
I. Input characteristics
(a) Type of input
(b) Input range (or) Operating range
(c) Loading effects

(a) Type of Input :

There are several transducers for measuring the various physical quantities. Specific
transducers are designed to measure specific physical quantities. For example, a pressure
transducer measures pressure, a temperature transducer measures temperature. Hence, a
transducer is selected based on the type of input to be measured.

(b) Input Range or Operating Range :

The operating range of a transducer is the range of values of input physical quantity that a
transducer can accept and measure. While selecting a transducer for a certain application the
operating range of that transducer for the respective input is also considered as a selection
factor.

For example, a manometer can measure the pressures in the range of 10 to 106 pascals, an
ionization gauge has an operating range of 10-12 to 10-3 Torr. The lower and upper limits of
the operating range of a transducer can be determined from the transducer error and
transducer capabilities.

(c ) Loading Effect :

When a transducer is employed to measure a certain quantity, the transducer may draw some
of the energy or force or power from the quantity to be measured in order to carry out its
operation (i.e., measurement process). This leads to inaccurate measurement of the quantity.
Such a phenomenon is known as the loading effect. Hence, in order to ensure accurate
measurements, a transducer should be free of the loading effect.
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II. Transfer Characteristics

(a) Transfer Function
(b) Error
(i)Scale error->Zero error, Sensitivity error, Non-conformity, Hysteresis.
(ii) Dynamic error
(iii) Errors due to noise & drift
(iv)Errors due to change of frequency.
(c) Transducer response

(a) Transfer Function :

It is defined as the ratio of output quantity of a transducer to input quantity of that transducer
and is given by,

Where, qo is the output of the transducer and qi is the input of the transducer. The Sensitivity
is given by,

Generally, the sensitivity is not constant and depends on qi. But, in some cases, a linear
relation exists between qo and qi. In those cases, the sensitivity will be constant throughout
the range of the transducer. The inverse of sensitivity is known as the scale factor (i.e.,
dqi/dqo).

Error :

Errors occur when the relation qo = f(qi) is not followed by the transducer. Any variations in
this expected function lead to errors. For a given qi, if qo' is obtained as output instead of qo
then the error is given as, e = qo' - qo
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Scale error,
oZero error
o Sensitivity error
o Hysteresis
o Nonconformity.
• Dynamic error
• Errors due to noise and drift
• Error due to variations in frequency.

( c ) Transducer Response :

The transducer response to the changes in environmental conditions should be given more
attention while selecting a transducer for a particular application, otherwise expected and
accurate results cannot be obtained.

Hence, the performance of a selected transducer should be completely defined by its transfer
function and errors if it is in constant environmental conditions and not subjected to noise and
disturbances such as variations in temperature, pressure, humidity, supply voltage, stray
electromagnetic, and electrostatic fields, etc.

In any case, if the transducer is placed in these environmental disturbances, precautions

should be taken to avoid the changes in transfer function and errors. One of the precautions is
to provide guarding to the transducers.

III Output Characteristics

(a) Type of electrical output
(b) Output impedance
( c) Output range

( a) Type of Electrical Output :

The type of electrical output of a transducer is also an important characteristic of a transducer

because it may be used as an input to other stages of the system. The various electrical
outputs of the transducer could be current, voltage, impedance, etc. A transducer output may
not be applied directly as an input to the next stage.

In order to make a transducer output compatible with the subsequent stages, a signal
conditioning circuit is used which may either convert its output from one form to another (for
example, voltage to current) or change the amplitude of its output. Thus, depending upon the
type of output, an appropriate signal conditioning circuit is selected.

(b) Output Impedance :

When a transducer is connected to the next stage of the system, the next stage is prevented
from loading effect if the output impedance of the transducer is zero. But, practically it is not
possible to obtain completely zero output impedance. The loading effect can be reduced if the
output impedance is very low.
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A transducer acts as a constant voltage source if its output is a voltage signal and if its output
impedance is lower than the input impedance of the next stage. A transducer has the
characteristics of a constant current source if its output is current and if its output impedance
is higher than the input impedance of the next stage. Whereas, if its output impedance
matches the input impedance of the next stage (load impedance) then maximum power
transfer takes place from the transducer to the next stage.

(c ) Output Range :

Most of the transducers have a low-level output signal and so the output range will consist of
low values. These low-level signals may not be able to drive other systems. Apart from it, the
low-level signals may be affected by noise, due to which the lower limit of the useful output
range is shifted to upper values, and hence the useful range is decreased.

The maximum input level is determined from the upper limit of the transducer's output range.
By incorporating an amplifier in the output section inside a transducer, its output level can be
increased as well as the output range can be increased.

Factors influencing the choice of a transducer

1.Operating Principle
2.Sensitivity
3.Operating range
4.Accuracy
5. Cross Sensitivity
6. Environmental compatibility
7. Stability & reliability
8. Errors
9. Transient & frequency response
10. Loading effects
11. Insensitivity to unwanted signals
12.Usage & ruggedness
13. Electrical aspects
14. Static Characteristics.

1. Operating Principle

The selection of transducers may be made based on its different operating principles like
inductive, resistive, capacitive, piezoelectric, optoelectronic etc.

3. Operating Range

A transducer having a wide range of operation is an ideal choice because it does not break
during an operation.

2. Sensitivity
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It is necessary for producing the correct, detectable output.

5. Cross Sensitivity

The measure of a transducer can vary across different planes due to sensitivity. Hence, cross
sensitivity is essential for accurate results.

4. Accuracy

Generally, transducers produce accurate values after calibration. A small gap for variability
from desired value is permissible and is necessary for industrial applications.

6. Environmental Compatibility

A transducer must be able to perform in any environment. It must work well with shocks and
high pressure.

7. Reliability and Stability

Transducers must have great stability for sustained operations. They must also be reliable in
order to avoid failures or errors.

Assessment questions.
1. What is meant by transducer?
2. What is meant by sensor?
3. Differentiate transducer and sensor.
4. Classify transducers based on application.
5. Classify transducers based on method of energy conversion
6. Classify transducers based on self generating or the externally powered units.
7. Classify transducers based on its output
8. Differentiate active and passive transducers
9. Differentiate primary and secondary transducers
10.Differentiate transducers and inverse transducers
11.Differentiate analog and digital transducers
12.What is meant by actuator?
13.Mention the basic requirements of transducer.
14.Write about the basic requirements of transducer.
15.Mention the advantages and disadvantages of mechanical transducer.
16.Mention the advantages and disadvantages of electrical transducer
17.Mention the features of electrical transducer.
18.Explain the characteristics of transducers.
19. Write about the factors influencing the choice of a transducer