Management

Management (or managing) is the administration of organizations,

whether they are a business, a nonprofit organization, or a
government body through business administration, nonprofit
management, or the political science sub-field of public
administration respectively. It is the process of managing the
resources of businesses, governments, and other organizations.

Larger organizations generally have three hierarchical levels of

managers,[1] in a pyramid structure:

Senior management roles

include the board of directors
and a chief executive officer
(CEO) or a president of an
organization. They set the
:
 strategic goals and policy of the
organization and make
decisions on how the overall
organization will operate. Senior
managers are generally
executive-level professionals
who provide direction to middle
management.
Middle management roles
include branch managers,
regional managers, department
managers, and section
managers. They provide
direction to front-line managers
and communicate the strategic
:
 goals and policies of senior
management to them.
Line management roles include
supervisors and the front-line
team leaders, who oversee the
work of regular employees, or
volunteers in some voluntary
organizations, and provide
direction on their work. Line
managers often perform the
managerial functions that are
traditionally considered the
core of management. Despite
the name, they are usually
considered part of the
:
 workforce and not part of the
organization's management
class.
Management is taught across different disciplines at colleges and
universities. Prominent major degree programs in management
include Management, Business Administration and Public
Administration. Social scientists study management as an academic
discipline, investigating areas such as social organization,
organizational adaptation, and organizational leadership.[2] In recent
decades, there has been a movement for evidence-based
management.[3]

Etymology
The English verb manage has its roots in the fifteenth-century
French verb mesnager, which often referred in equestrian language
"to hold in hand the reins of a horse".[4] Also the Italian term
maneggiare (to handle, especially tools or a horse) is possible. In
Spanish, manejar can also mean to rule the horses.[5] These three
terms derive from the two Latin words manus (hand) and agere (to
act).

The French word for housekeeping, ménagerie, derived from

ménager ("to keep house"; compare ménage for "household"), also
encompasses taking care of domestic animals. Ménagerie is the
French translation of Xenophon's famous book Oeconomicus[6]
:
 (Ancient Greek: Οἰκονοµικός) on household matters and husbandry.
The French word mesnagement (or ménagement) influenced the
semantic development of the English word management in the 17th
and 18th centuries.[7]

Definitions
Views on the definition and scope of management include:

Henri Fayol (1841–1925)

stated: "To manage is to
forecast and to plan, to
organize, to command, to co-
ordinate and to control".[8]
Fredmund Malik (1944– )
defines management as "the
transformation of resources into
utility".[9]
Management is included as one
:
 of the factors of production –
along with machines, materials
and money.
Ghislain Deslandes defines
management as "a vulnerable
force, under pressure to achieve
results and endowed with the
triple power of constraint,
imitation, and imagination,
operating on subjective,
interpersonal, institutional and
environmental levels".[10]
Peter Drucker (1909–2005)
saw the basic task of
management as twofold:
:
 marketing and innovation.
Nevertheless, innovation is also
linked to marketing (product
innovation is a central strategic
marketing issue). Drucker
identifies marketing as a key
essence for business success,
but management and
marketing are generally
understood as two different
branches of business
administration knowledge.

Theoretical scope
Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures,
rules and manipulation[11] of the human capital of an enterprise to
contribute to the success of the enterprise.[12] Scholars have
:
 focused on the management of individual,[13] organizational,[14] and
inter-organizational relationships. This implies effective
communication: an enterprise environment (as opposed to a
physical or mechanical mechanism) implies human motivation and
implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome.[15] As
such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine
or automated program), not the herding of animals, and can occur
either in a legal or in an illegal enterprise or environment. From an
individual's perspective, management does not need to be seen
solely from an enterprise point of view, because management is an
essential function in improving one's life and relationships.[16]
Management is therefore everywhere[17] and it has a wider range of
application. Communication and a positive endeavor are two main
aspects of it either through enterprise or through independent
pursuit. Plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools,
goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be
necessary components for there to be management. At first, one
views management functionally, such as measuring quantity,
adjusting plans, and meeting goals, but this applies even in
situations where planning does not take place. From this
perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925)[18] considers management to
consist of five functions:

planning (forecasting)
organizing
commanding
coordinating
:
 controlling
In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933),
allegedly defined management as "the art of getting things done
through people".[19] She described management as a philosophy.[20]

Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The
phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely,[21]
suggesting the difficulty of defining management without circularity,
the shifting nature of definitions and the connection of managerial
practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or of a class.

One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to

"business administration" and thus excludes management in places
outside commerce, for example in charities and in the public sector.
More broadly, every organization must "manage" its work, people,
processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness. Nonetheless,
many people refer to university departments that teach management
as "business schools". Some such institutions (such as the Harvard
Business School) use that name, while others (such as the Yale
School of Management) employ the broader term "management".

English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the

management" as a collective word describing the managers of an
organization, for example of a corporation.[22] Historically this use of
the term often contrasted with the term labor – referring to those
being managed.[23]

Levels
:
 An organization chart for the
United States Coast Guard
shows the hierarchy of
managerial roles in that
organization.

A common management structure of organizations includes three

management levels: low-level, middle-level, and top-level managers.
Low-level managers manage the work of non-managerial individuals
who are directly involved with the production or creation of the
organization's products. Low-level managers are often called
supervisors, but may also be called line managers, office managers,
or even foremen. Middle managers include all levels of management
between the low level and the top level of the organization. These
managers manage the work of low-level managers and may have
titles such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or
division manager. Top managers are responsible for making
organization-wide decisions and establishing the plans and goals
that affect the entire organization. These individuals typically have
titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director,
chief operating officer, chief executive officer, or board chairman.

These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority and

perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number of
managers at every level resembles a pyramid. Each level is explained
:
 below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job
titles.

Top management
The top or senior layer of management is a small group which
consists of the board of directors (including non-executive directors,
executive directors and independent directors), president, vice-
president, CEOs and other members of the C-level executives.
Different organizations have various members in their C-suite, which
may include a chief financial officer, chief technology officer, and so
on. They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the
operations of the entire organization. They set a "tone at the top"
and develop strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions
on the overall direction of the organization. In addition, top-level
managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside
resources. Senior managers are accountable to the shareholders,
the general public, and public bodies that oversee corporations and
similar organizations. Some members of the senior management
may serve as the public face of the organization, and they may make
speeches to introduce new strategies or appear in marketing.

The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-

executives who owe a fiduciary duty to shareholders and are not
closely involved in the day-to-day activities of the organization.
However, this varies depending on the type (e.g., public versus
private), size, and culture of the organization. These directors are
theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and are typically insured
under directors and officers liability insurance. Fortune 500 directors
:
 are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week on board duties, and
median compensation was $212,512 in 2010. The board sets
corporate strategy, makes major decisions such as major
acquisitions,[24] and hires, evaluates, and fires the top-level
manager (chief executive officer or CEO). The CEO typically hires
other positions. However, board involvement in the hiring of other
positions such as the chief financial officer (CFO) has increased.[25]
In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and
private companies found that the top weaknesses of CEOs were
"mentoring skills" and "board engagement", and 10% of companies
never evaluated the CEO.[26] The board may also have certain
employees (e.g., internal auditors) report to them or directly hire
independent contractors; for example, the board (through the audit
committee) typically selects the auditor.

Helpful skills for top management vary by the type of organization

but typically include a broad understanding of competition, world
economies, and politics.[27] In addition, the CEO is responsible for
implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the
broad policies of the organization. Executive management
accomplishes the day-to-day details, including instructions for the
preparation of department budgets, procedures, and schedules;
appointment of middle-level executives such as department
managers; coordination of departments; media and governmental
relations; and shareholder communication.

Middle management
Consist of general managers, branch managers and department
:
 managers. They are accountable to the top management for their
department's function. They devote more time to organizational and
directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing
organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and
the top management's objectives, defining and discussing
information and policies from top management to lower
management, and most importantly, inspiring and providing
guidance to lower-level managers towards better performance.

Middle management is the midway management of a categorized

organization, being secondary to the senior management but above
the deepest levels of operational members. An operational manager
may be well-thought-out by middle management or may be
categorized as a non-management operator, liable to the policy of
the specific organization. The efficiency of the middle level is vital in
any organization since it bridges the gap between top-level and
bottom-level staff.

Their functions include:

Designing and implementing

effective group and inter-group
work and information systems
Defining and monitoring group-
level performance indicators
Diagnosing and resolving
:
 problems within and among
workgroups
Designing and implementing
reward systems that support
cooperative behavior, as well as
making decisions and sharing
ideas with top managers

Line management
Line managers include supervisors, section leaders, forepersons,
and team leaders. They focus on controlling and directing regular
employees. They are usually responsible for assigning employees
tasks, guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities,
ensuring the quality and quantity of production and/or service,
making recommendations and suggestions to employees on their
work, and channeling employee concerns that they cannot resolve
to mid-level managers or other administrators. Low-level or "front-
line" managers also act as role models for their employees. In some
types of work, front-line managers may also do some of the same
tasks that employees do, at least some of the time. For example, in
some restaurants, the front-line managers will also serve customers
during a very busy period of the day. In general, line managers are
:
 considered part of the workforce and not part of the organization's
proper management despite performing traditional management
functions.

Front-line managers typically provide:

Training for new employees

Basic supervision
Motivation
Performance feedback and
guidance
Some front-line managers may also provide career planning for
employees who aim to rise within the organization.

Training and education

Colleges and universities around the world offer bachelor's degrees,
graduate degrees, diplomas, and certificates in management;
generally within their colleges of business, business schools, or
faculty of management but also in other related departments.

Higher education has been characterized as a necessary factor in

the managerial revolution in the 20th century.[28]
:
 Requirement
While some professions require academic credentials in order to
work in the profession (e.g., law, medicine, and engineering, which
require, respectively the Bachelor of Law, Doctor of Medicine, and
Bachelor of Engineering degrees), management and administration
positions do not necessarily require the completion of academic
degrees. Some well-known senior executives in the US who did not
complete a degree include Steve Jobs, Bill Gates and Mark
Zuckerberg. However, many managers and executives have
completed some type of business or management training, such as
a Bachelor of Commerce or a Master of Business Administration
degree. Some major organizations, including companies, non-profit
organizations, and governments, require applicants to managerial or
executive positions to hold at minimum bachelor's degree in a field
related to administration or management, or in the case of business
jobs, a Bachelor of Commerce or a similar degree.

Undergraduate
At the undergraduate level, the most common business programs
are the Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Bachelor of
Commerce (B.Com.). These typically comprise a four-year program
designed to give students an overview of the role of managers in
planning and directing within an organization. Course topics include
accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy,
and other related areas.
:
 Many other undergraduate degrees include the study of
management, such as Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science
degrees with a major in business administration or management and
the Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS) in political
science (PoliSci) with a concentration in public administration or the
Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for
individuals aiming to work as bureaucrats in the government jobs.
Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in
business administration or management, which typically require one
to two years of full-time study.

To manage technological areas, one often needs an undergraduate

degree in a STEM area.

Graduate
At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or
executives may choose to specialize in major subareas of
management or business administration such as entrepreneurship,
human resources, international business, organizational behavior,
organizational theory, strategic management,[29] accounting,
corporate finance, entertainment, global management, healthcare
management, investment management, sustainability and real
estate.

A Master of Business Administration (MBA) is the most popular

professional degree at the master's level and can be obtained from
many universities in the United States. MBA programs provide
further education in management and leadership for graduate
:
 students. Other master's degrees in business and management
include Master of Management (MM) and the Master of Science
(M.Sc.) in business administration or management, which is typically
taken by students aiming to become researchers or professors.

There are also specialized master's degrees in administration for

individuals aiming at careers outside of business, such as the Master
of Public Administration (MPA) degree (also offered as a Master of
Arts or Master of Science in public administration in some
universities), for students aiming to become managers or executives
in the public service and the Master of Health Administration, for
students aiming to become managers or executives in the health
care and hospital sector.

Management doctorates are the most advanced terminal degrees in

the field of business and management. Most individuals obtaining
management doctorates take the programs to obtain the training in
research methods, statistical analysis, and writing academic papers
that they will need to seek careers as researchers, senior
consultants, and/or professors in business administration or
management. There are several types of management doctorates:
the Doctor of Management (DM), the Doctor of Business
Administration (DBA), the Doctor of Public Administration(DPA), the
Ph.D. in business administration, the Ph.D. in management, and the
Ph.D. in political science with a concentration in public
administration. In the 2010s, doctorates in business administration
and management were available with many specializations.

Good practices
:
 While management trends can change fast, the long-term trend in
management has been defined by a market embracing diversity and
a rising service industry. Managers are currently being trained to
encourage greater equality for minorities and women in the
workplace, by offering increased flexibility in working hours, better
retraining, and innovative (and usually industry-specific)
performance markers. Managers destined for the service sector are
being trained to use unique measurement techniques, better worker
support, and more charismatic leadership styles. Human resources
finds itself increasingly working with management in a training
capacity to help collect management data on the success (or failure)
of management actions with employees.[30]

Good practices identified for managers include "walking the shop

floor",[31] and, especially for managers who are new in post,
identifying and achieving some "quick wins" which demonstrate
visible success in establishing appropriate objectives. Leadership
writer John Kotter uses the phrase "Short-Term Wins" to express
the same idea.[32] As in all work, achieving an appropriate work-life
balance for self and others is an important management practice.[33]

Evidence-based management
Evidence-based management is an emerging movement to use the
current, best evidence in management and decision-making. It is
part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices.
Evidence-based management entails managerial decisions and
organizational practices informed by the best available evidence.[34]
As with other evidence-based practice, this is based on the three
principles of published peer-reviewed (often in management or
social science journals) research evidence that bears on whether
and why a particular management practice works; judgment and
:
 experience from contextual management practice, to understand the
organization and interpersonal dynamics in a situation and
determine the risks and benefits of available actions; and the
preferences and values of those affected.[35][36]

History
Some see management as a late-modern (in the sense of late
modernity) conceptualization.[37] On those terms it cannot have a
pre-modern history – only harbingers (such as stewards). Others,
however, detect management-like thought among ancient Sumerian
traders and the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave
owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting and
motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or
recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given
their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of
management systematically. However, innovations such as the
spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the
codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for
management assessment, planning and control.

An organization is more stable if

members have the right to
express their differences and
solve their conflicts within it.
:
 While one person can begin an
organization, "it is lasting when
it is left in the care of many and
when many desire to maintain
it".
A weak manager can follow a
strong one, but not another
weak one, and maintain
authority.
A manager seeking to change
an established organization
"should retain at least a shadow
of the ancient customs".
With the changing workplaces of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th
and 19th centuries, military theory and practice contributed
approaches to managing the newly popular factories.[38]
:
 Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of
mechanized record-keeping and recording before the Industrial
Revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those
times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But
with the growing size and complexity of organizations, a distinction
between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties, or groups of
shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in
planning and control) gradually became more common.

Early writing
The field of management originated in ancient China,[39] including
possibly the first highly centralized bureaucratic state, and the
earliest (by the second century BC) example of an administration
based on merit through testing.[40] Some theorists have cited
ancient military texts as providing lessons for civilian managers. For
example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in his 6th-century BC work The
Art of War recommends (when re-phrased in modern terminology)
being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a
manager's organization and a foe's.[41] The writings of influential
Chinese Legalist philosopher Shen Buhai may be considered to
embody a rare premodern example of abstract theory of
administration.[42][43] American philosopher Herrlee G. Creel and
other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe
by the 12th century.[44][45][46][47] Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's
consul in Guangzhou, argued in his Desultory Notes on the
Government and People of China (1847) that "the long duration of
the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good
government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and
:
 merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by
making the institution meritocratic.[48] Influenced by the ancient
Chinese imperial examination, the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of
1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit
determined through competitive examination, candidates should
have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental
transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than
"preferment, patronage, or purchase".[49][48] This led to
implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic,
meritocratic civil service bureaucracy.[50] Like the British, the
development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese
system. Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral
science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political
system modeled after that of the Chinese.[51] French civil service
examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily
based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened
to the earlier Chinese model.[52]

Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced "mirrors for

princes" books, which aimed to advise new monarchs on how to
govern. Plato described job specialization in 350 BC, and Alfarabi
listed several leadership traits in AD 900.[53] Other examples include
the Indian Arthashastra by Chanakya (written around 300 BC), and
The Prince by Italian author Niccolò Machiavelli (c. 1515).[54]

Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The

Wealth of Nations discussed efficient organization of work through
division of labour.[54] Smith described how changes in processes
could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins. While
individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the
steps involved in the manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled
the production of 48,000 pins per day.[54]
:
 19th century
Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John
Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to
resource allocation, production (economics), and pricing issues.
About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825),
James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809)
developed elements of technical production such as
standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting,
interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of these
aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector
of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the
contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass
production[55] before wage slavery eclipsed chattel slavery.

Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in

the late 19th century.[56] As large corporations began to overshadow
small family businesses the need for personnel management
positions became more necessary.[57] Businesses grew into large
corporations and the need for clerks, bookkeepers, secretaries and
managers expanded. The demand for trained managers led college
and university administrators to consider and move forward with
plans to create the first schools of business on their campuses.

20th century
At the turn of the twentieth century, the need for skilled and trained
:
 managers had become increasingly apparent. The demand occurred
as personnel departments began to expand rapidly. In 1915, less
than one in twenty manufacturing firms had a dedicated personnel
department. By 1929 that number had grown to over one-third.[58]
Formal management education became standardized at colleges
and universities.[59] Colleges and universities capitalized on the
needs of corporations by forming business schools and corporate
placement departments.[60] This shift toward formal business
education marked the creation of a corporate elite in the US.

By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on

what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism
for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R.
Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow
Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Lillian
Gilbreth's Psychology of Management (1914),[61] Frank and Lillian
Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts
(1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college management textbook in
1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became
the first management consultant of the "Japanese management
style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance.

The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around

1920. The Harvard Business School offered the first Master of
Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri
Fayol (1841–1925) and Alexander Church (1866–1936) described
the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In
the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter
Scott (1869–1955) and J. Mooney applied the principles of
psychology to management. Other writers, such as Elton Mayo
(1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), Chester Barnard
(1886–1961), Max Weber (1864–1920), who saw what he called the
"administrator" as bureaucrat,[62] Rensis Likert (1903–1981), and
:
 Chris Argyris (born 1923) approached the phenomenon of
management from a sociological perspective.

Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on

applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in
1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors
until 1956) commissioning a study of the organization. Drucker went
on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.

H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry

introduced statistical techniques into management studies. In the
1940s, Patrick Blackett worked in the development of the applied-
mathematics science of operations research, initially for military
operations. Operations research, sometimes known as
"management science" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific
management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving
decision problems and can apply directly to multiple management
problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations.

Some of the later 20th-century developments include the theory of

constraints (introduced in 1984), management by objectives
(systematized in 1954), re-engineering (the early 1990s), Six Sigma
(1986), management by walking around (1970s), the Viable system
model (1972), and various information-technology-driven theories
such as agile software development (so-named from 2001), as well
as group-management theories such as Cog's Ladder (1972) and
the notion of "thriving on chaos"[63] (1987).

As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during

the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science
of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for
popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In
this context, many management fads may have had more to do with
pop psychology than with scientific theories of management.
:
 Business management includes the following branches:

1. financial management
2. human resource
management
3. Management cybernetics
4. information technology
management (responsible
for management information
systems )
5. marketing management
6. operations management and
production management
7. strategic management
:
 21st century
Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and
to government: such as public administration, public management,
and educational management. Further, management programs
related to civil society organizations have also spawned programs in
nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship.

Many of the assumptions made by management have come under

attack from business-ethics viewpoints, critical management
studies, and anti-corporate activism.

As one consequence, workplace democracy (sometimes referred to

as Workers' self-management) has become both more common and
more advocated, in some places distributing all management
functions among workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the
work. However, these models predate any current political issue and
may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy.

Nature of work
In profitable organizations, management's primary function is the
satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. This typically involves
making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a
reasonable cost (for customers), and providing great employment
opportunities for employees. In case of nonprofit management, one
of the main functions is, keeping the faith of donors. In most models
of management and governance, shareholders vote for the board of
directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some
:
 organizations have experimented with other methods (such as
employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers, but
this is rare.

Topics

Basics
According to Fayol, management operates through five basic
functions: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and
controlling.

Planning: Deciding what needs

to happen in the future and
generating action plans
(deciding in advance).
Organizing (or staffing):
Making sure the human and
nonhuman resources are put
:
 into place.[64]
Commanding (or leading):
Determining what must be
done in a situation and getting
people to do it.
Coordinating: Creating a
structure through which an
organization's goals can be
accomplished.
Controlling: Checking
progress against plans.

Basic roles

Interpersonal: roles that

involve coordination and
:
 interaction with employees.
Figurehead, leader, liaison

Informational: roles that

involve handling, sharing, and
analyzing information.
Nerve centre, disseminator, spokesperson

Decision: roles that require

decision-making.
Entrepreneur, negotiator, allocator, disturbance handler

Skills
Management skills include:

Political: used to build a power

base and to establish
connections.
:
 Interpersonal: used to
communicate, motivate, mentor
and delegate.
Diagnostic: ability to visualize
appropriate responses to a
situation.
Leadership: ability to
communicate a vision and
inspire people to embrace that
vision.
cross-cultural leadership:
the ability to understand
the effects of culture on
leadership style.
:
 Behavioural: perception
towards others, conflict
resolution, time management,
self-improvement, stress
management and resilience,
patience, clear communication.

Implementation of policies
and strategies

All policies and strategies must

be discussed with all
managerial personnel and staff.
Managers must understand
where and how they can
implement their policies and
:
 strategies.
An action plan must be devised
for each department.
Policies and strategies must be
reviewed regularly.
Contingency plans must be
devised in case the
environment changes.
Top-level managers should
carry out regular progress
assessments.
The business requires team
spirit and a good environment.
The missions, objectives,
:
 strengths, and weaknesses of
each department must be
analyzed to determine their
roles in achieving the
business's mission.
The forecasting method
develops a reliable picture of
the business's future
environment.
A planning unit must be created
to ensure that all plans are
consistent and that policies and
strategies are aimed at
achieving the same mission
and objectives.
:
 Policies and strategies
in the planning process

They give mid and lower-level

managers a good idea of the
future plans for each
department in an organization.
A framework is created
whereby plans and decisions
are made.
Mid and lower-level
management may add their
own plans to the business's
strategies.
:
 See also

Business
and
economics
portal

Certificate in Management
Studies
Engineering management
Outline of management
Outline of business
management

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64. Jean-Louis Peaucelle
(2015). Henri Fayol, the
Manager (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=dLg6Cg
:
 AAQBAJ&pg=PA55) .
Routledge. pp. 55–.
ISBN 978-1-317-31939-9.

External links

Online books (https://ftl.toolforg

e.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ma
nagement&library=OLBP) , and
library resources in your library (
https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/f
tl?st=wp&su=Management)
and in other libraries (https://ftl.t
oolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&
su=Management&library=0CH
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 OOSE0) about Management
Media related to Management
at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to
Management at Wikiquote

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