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Finite Element Method
Finite Element Method
Physics and Solution Methods

Sinan Müftü
Professor, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Northeastern University, Boston, United States
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom

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by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
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and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
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ISBN: 978-0-12-821127-4
For Information on all Academic Press publications visit our
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Publisher: Matthew Deans

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Cover Designer: Victoria Pearson Esser
Typeset by Aptara, New Delhi, India
This book is dedicated to my family

Lynne, Serra, and Emre

Yunus, Gülgün, and Ali
Contents

Preface xv
Acknowledgment xix

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Modeling and simulation 1
1.1.1 Boundary and initial value problems 1
1.1.2 Boundary value problems 3
1.2 Solution methods 5

2. Mathematical modeling of physical systems 9

2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Governing equations of structural mechanics 9
2.2.1 External forces, internal forces, and stress 9
2.2.2 Stress transformations 12
2.2.3 Deformation and strain 17
2.2.4 Strain compatibility conditions 21
2.2.5 Generalized Hooke’s law 22
2.2.6 Two-dimensional problems 27
2.2.7 Balance laws 30
2.2.8 Boundary conditions 32
2.2.9 Total potential energy of conservative systems 36
2.3 Mechanics of a flexible beam 41
2.3.1 Equation of motion of a beam 43
2.3.2 Kinematics of the Euler–Bernoulli beam 45
2.3.3 Stresses in an Euler-Bernoulli beam 46
2.3.4 Kinematics of the Timoshenko beam 47
2.3.5 Stresses in a Timoshenko Beam 48
2.3.6 Governing equations of the Euler–Bernoulli beam
theory 48
2.3.7 Governing equations of the Timoshenko beam theory 49
2.4 Heat transfer 50
2.4.1 Conduction heat transfer 50
2.4.2 Convection heat transfer 51
2.4.3 Radiation heat transfer 51
2.4.4 Heat transfer equation in a one-dimensional solid 53
2.4.5 Heat transfer in a three-dimensional solid 56

vii
viii Contents

2.5 Problems 58
References 59

3. Integral formulations and variational methods 61

3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Mathematical background 63
3.2.1 Divergence theorem 63
3.2.2 Green-Gauss theorem 63
3.2.3 Integration by parts 64
3.2.4 Fundamental lemma of calculus of variations 64
3.2.5 Adjoint and self-adjoint operators 64
3.3 Calculus of variations 65
3.3.1 Variation of a functional 66
3.3.2 Functional derivative 67
3.3.3 Properties of functionals 68
3.3.4 Properties of the variational derivative 69
3.3.5 Euler–Lagrange equations and boundary conditions 69
3.4 Weighted residual integral and the weak form of the
boundary value problems 74
3.4.1 Weighted residual integral 74
3.4.2 Boundary conditions 75
3.4.3 The weak form 76
3.4.4 Relationship between the weak form and functionals 77
3.5 Method of weighted residuals 85
3.5.1 Rayleigh–Ritz method 86
3.5.2 Galerkin method 87
3.5.3 Polynomials as basis functions for Rayleigh–Ritz
and Galerkin methods 87
3.6 Problems 104
References 109

4. Finite element formulation of one-dimensional

boundary value problems 111
4.1 Introduction 111
4.1.1 Boundary value problem 111
4.1.2 Spatial discretization 112
4.2 A second order, nonconstant coefficient ordinary
differential equation over an element 113
4.2.1 Deflection of a one-dimensional bar 113
4.2.2 Heat transfer in a one-dimensional domain 114
4.3 One-dimensional interpolation for finite element method
and shape functions 114
4.3.1 C0 continuous, linear shape functions 115
4.3.2 C0 continuous, quadratic shape functions 117
 Contents ix

4.3.3 General form of C0 shape functions 118

4.3.4 One-dimensional, Lagrange interpolation functions 119
4.4 Equilibrium equations in finite element form 120
4.4.1 Element stiffness matrix for constant problem
parameters 123
4.4.2 Element stiffness matrix for linearly varying problem
parameters a, p, and q 124
4.5 Recovering specific physics from the general finite
element form 124
4.6 Element assembly 125
4.7 Boundary conditions 128
4.7.1 Natural boundary conditions 128
4.7.2 Essential boundary conditions 129
4.8 Computer implementation 130
4.8.1 Main-code 130
4.8.2 Element connectivity table 130
4.8.3 Element assembly 130
4.8.4 Boundary conditions 131
4.9 Example problem 131
4.10 Problems 133

5. Finite element analysis of planar bars and trusses 139

5.1 Introduction 139
5.2 Element equilibrium equation for a planar bar 141
5.2.1 Problem definition 141
5.2.2 Weak form of the boundary value problem 141
5.2.3 Total potential energy of the system 142
5.2.4 Finite element form of the equilibrium equations
of an elastic bar 143
5.3 Finite element equations for torsion of a bar 147
5.4 Coordinate transformations 148
5.4.1 Transformation of unit vectors between orthogonal
coordinate systems 148
5.4.2 Transformation of equilibrium equations for the
one-dimensional bar element 149
5.5 Assembly of elements 151
5.6 Boundary conditions 155
5.6.1 A formal definition 156
5.6.2 Direct assembly of the active degrees of freedom 158
5.6.3 Numerical implementation of the boundary
conditions 158
5.7 Effects of initial stress or initial strain 165
5.7.1 Thermal stresses 165
5.7.2 Initial stresses 166
5.8 Postprocessing: Computation of stresses and reaction forces 166
5.8.1 Computation of stresses in members 166
x Contents

5.8.2 Reaction forces 167

5.9 Error and convergence in finite element analysis 172
Problems 177
Reference 185

6. Euler–Bernoulli beam element 187

6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 C1 -Continuous interpolation function 187
6.3 Element equilibrium equation 189
6.3.1 Problem definition 189
6.3.2 Weak form of the boundary value problem 189
6.3.3 Total potential energy of a beam element 191
6.3.4 Finite element form of the equilibrium equations
of an Euler–Bernoulli beam 192
6.4 General beam element with membrane and bending
capabilities 195
6.5 Coordinate transformations 196
6.5.1 Vector transformation between orthogonal
coordinate systems in a two-dimensional plane 196
6.5.2 Transformation of equilibrium equations for the
Euler-Bernoulli beam element with axial deformation 197
6.6 Assembly, boundary conditions, and reaction forces 198
6.7 Postprocessing and computation of stresses in members 198
Problems 206
Reference 209

7. Isoparametric elements for two-dimensional

elastic solids 211
7.1 Introduction 211
7.2 Solution domain and its boundary 213
7.2.1 Outward unit normal and tangent vectors along
the boundary 213
7.3 Equations of equilibrium for two-dimensional elastic solids 215
7.4 General finite element form of equilibrium equations for
a two-dimensional element 216
7.4.1 Variational form of the equation of equilibrium 217
7.4.2 Finite element form of the equation of equilibrium 218
7.5 Interpolation across a two-dimensional domain 221
7.5.1 Two-dimensional polynomials 221
7.5.2 Two-dimensional shape functions 223
7.6 Mapping between general quadrilateral and rectangular
domains 229
7.6.1 Jacobian matrix and Jacobian determinant 230
7.6.2 Differential area in curvilinear coordinates 233
7.7 Mapped isoparametric elements 239
7.7.1 Strain–displacement operator matrix, [B] 238
 Contents xi

7.7.2 Finite element form of the element equilibrium

equations for a Q4-element 240
7.8 Numerical integration using Gauss quadrature 245
7.8.1 Coordinate transformation 245
7.8.2 Derivation of second-order Gauss quadrature 246
7.8.3 Integration of two-dimensional functions by Gauss
quadrature 248
7.9 Numerical evaluation of the element equilibrium equations 250
7.10 Global equilibrium equations and boundary conditions 252
7.10.1 Assembly of global equilibrium equation 252
7.10.2 General treatment of the boundary conditions 253
7.10.3 Numerical implementation of the boundary
conditions 254
7.11 Postprocessing of the solution 254
References 255

8. Rectangular and triangular elements for two-dimensional

elastic solids 257
8.1 Introduction 257
8.1.1 Total potential energy of an element for a
two-dimensional elasticity problem 259
8.1.2 High-level derivation of the element equilibrium
equations 260
8.2 Two-dimensional interpolation functions 262
8.2.1 Interpolation and shape functions in plane
quadrilateral elements 262
8.2.2 Interpolation and shape functions in plane
triangular elements 263
8.3 Bilinear rectangular element (Q4) 264
8.3.1 Element stiffness matrix 264
8.3.2 Consistent nodal force vector 267
8.4 Constant strain triangle (CST) element 273
8.5 Element defects 275
8.5.1 Constant strain triangle element 275
8.5.2 Bilinear rectangle (Q4) 277
8.6 Higher order elements 277
8.6.1 Quadratic triangle (linear strain triangle) 277
8.6.2 Q8 quadratic rectangle 278
8.6.3 Q9 quadratic rectangle 279
8.6.4 Q6 quadratic rectangle 280
8.7 Assembly, boundary conditions, solution, and postprocessing 282
References 290

9. Finite element analysis of one-dimensional heat

transfer problems 291
9.1 Introduction 291
9.2 One-dimensional heat transfer 291
xii Contents

9.2.1 Boundary conditions for one-dimensional heat

transfer 292
9.3 Finite element formulation of the one-dimensional,
steady state, heat transfer problem 293
9.3.1 Element equilibrium equations for a generic
one-dimensional element 294
9.3.2 Finite element form with linear interpolation 299
9.4 Element equilibrium equations: general ordinary
differential equation 300
9.5 Element assembly 302
9.6 Boundary conditions 305
9.6.1 Natural boundary conditions 305
9.6.2 Essential boundary conditions 306
9.7 Computer implementation 307
Problems 309

10. Heat transfer problems in two-dimensions 313

10.1 Introduction 313
10.2 Solution domain and its boundary 313
10.3 The heat equation and its boundary conditions 315
10.3.1 Boundary conditions for heat transfer in
two-dimensional domain 315
10.4 The weak form of heat transfer equation in two dimensions 316
10.5 The finite element form of the two-dimensional heat transfer
problem 318
10.5.1 Finite element form with linear, quadrilateral
(Q4) element 320
10.6 Natural boundary conditions 323
10.6.1 Internal edges 324
10.6.2 External edges subjected to prescribed heat flux 324
10.6.3 External edges subjected to convection 326
10.6.4 External edges subjected to radiation 327
10.7 Summary of finite element form of the heat equation and
natural boundary conditions 328
10.8 Numerical integration of element equilibrium equations 329
10.9 Element assembly 331
10.10 Imposing the essential boundary conditions 332
10.10.1 Symbolic representation of essential boundary
conditions 333
10.10.2 Numerical implementation of essential boundary
conditions 333
Problems 340
Reference 341

11. Transient thermal analysis 343

11.1 Introduction 343
11.2 Transient heat transfer equation 344
 Contents xiii

11.2.1 Boundary/initial value problem 344

11.2.2 Element equilibrium equation of one-dimensional,
transient heat transfer 345
11.2.3 Global equilibrium equation of one-dimensional,
transient heat transfer 348
11.2.4 Global boundary conditions 348
11.3 Finite difference approximations to derivatives 348
11.3.1 Temporal discretization of a continuous function 348
11.3.2 Taylor series expansion 349
11.3.3 Approximations to the first derivative of a function 349
11.4 Direct time integration of the heat transfer equation 351
11.4.1 Forward difference or Euler method 351
11.4.2 Backward difference method 352
11.4.3 Central difference or Crank–Nicholson method 353
11.4.4 Generalized trapezoidal method 353
11.5 Solution algorithm 355
11.5.1 Explicit and implicit time integration methods 356
11.6 Convergence, stability, and accuracy of time integration
methods 358
11.6.1 Modal expansion of the semidiscrete first-order
equation 359
11.6.2 Stability of the semidiscretized first-order equation 360
11.6.3 Modal expansion of the generalized trapezoidal
algorithm 361
11.6.4 Stability of the generalized trapezoidal algorithm 361
11.6.5 Fourier–von Neumann stability analysis of the
generalized trapezoidal method 362
11.6.6 Consistency and rate of convergence 366
References 376

12. Transient analysis of solids and structures 377

12.1 Introduction 377
12.2 Vibration of single degree of freedom systems 378
12.2.1 Free vibrations: complementary solution 379
12.2.2 Response to harmonic excitations: particular
solution 382
12.2.3 Combined response: complimentary and
particular solutions 384
12.2.4 Transient vibration 385
12.3 Initial/boundary value problems for deformable solids 386
12.3.1 Two-dimensional deformable solid 386
12.3.2 One-dimensional bar 387
12.3.3 Euler–Bernoulli beam 387
12.4 Vibration response of an Euler–Bernoulli beam 388
12.4.1 Eigenvalue problem 389
12.4.2 Free vibration problem 391
12.5 Semidiscrete equations of motion 394
xiv Contents

12.5.1 Two-dimensional deformable element 394

12.5.2 One-dimensional elastic bar element 396
12.5.3 Euler–Bernoulli beam element 398
12.6 Mass matrix 400
12.6.1 Consistent mass matrices 400
12.6.2 Lumped mass matrix 402
12.7 Damping matrix 403
12.8 Global equation of motion 405
12.9 Analytical analysis of vibration of semidiscrete systems 405
12.9.1 Eigenvalue problem for the semidiscrete equation
of motion 406
12.9.2 Orthogonality of the eigenvectors 414
12.9.3 Response to initial excitations by modal analysis 415
12.10 Direct time integration of the equation of motion of a solid 421
12.10.1 Central finite difference approximations:
explicit time integration 423
12.10.2 Linear and average acceleration methods:
implicit time integration 424
12.10.3 Newmark’s method for direct time integration 426
12.10.4 α-Method for direct time integration 428
12.10.5 Initial conditions 430
12.10.6 Solution algorithm 430
12.11 Convergence, stability, and accuracy of time integration
methods 431
12.11.1 Stability of the explicit method 431
12.11.2 Stability and consistency of the Newmark and
α-methods 435
Problems 440
References 444

Appendix A MATLAB 445

Appendix B Guidelines for writing a finite element code in MATLAB 459
Appendix C Finite element analysis with ANSYS 475
Appendix D ANSYS tutorial: beam and bar elements 483
Appendix E ANSYS tutorial: two-dimensional linear elastic analysis 499
Appendix F ANSYS tutorial: thermomechanical deformation 503
Index 515
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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[Contents]
FORS CLAVIGERA.
 LETTER LIV.

Before going on with my own story to-day, I must fasten down a main
principle about doing good work, not yet enough made clear.

It has been a prevalent notion in the minds of well-disposed persons,

that if they acted according to their own conscience, they must,
therefore, be doing right.

But they assume, in feeling or asserting this, either that there is no

Law of God, or that it cannot be known; but only felt, or conjectured.

“I must do what I think right.” How often is this sentence uttered and
acted on—bravely—nobly—innocently; but always—because of its
egotism—erringly. You must not do what you think right, but,
whether you or anybody think, or don’t think it, what is right.

“I must act according to the dictates of my conscience.”

By no means, my conscientious friend, unless you are quite sure that

yours is not the conscience of an ass. [156]

“I am doing my best—what can man do more?”

You might be doing much less, and yet much better:—perhaps you
are doing your best in producing, or doing, an eternally bad thing.

All these three sayings, and the convictions they express, are wise
only in the mouths and minds of wise men; they are deadly, and all
the deadlier because bearing an image and superscription of virtue,
in the mouths and minds of fools.

“But there is every gradation, surely, between wisdom and folly?”

No. The fool, whatever his wit, is the man who doesn’t know his
master—who has said in his heart—there is no God—no Law.

The wise man knows his master. Less or more wise, he perceives
lower or higher masters; but always some creature larger than
himself—some law holier than his own. A law to be sought—learned,
loved—obeyed; but in order to its discovery, the obedience must be
begun first, to the best one knows. Obey something; and you will
have a chance some day of finding out what is best to obey. But if
you begin by obeying nothing, you will end by obeying Beelzebub
and all his seven invited friends.

Which being premised, I venture to continue the history of my own

early submissions to external Force.

The Bible readings, described in my last letter, took [157]place always

in the front parlour of the house, which, when I was about five years
old, my father found himself able to buy the lease of, at Herne Hill.
The piece of road between the Fox tavern and the Herne Hill station,
remains, in all essential points of character, unchanged to this day:
certain Gothic splendours, lately indulged in by our wealthier
neighbours, being the only serious innovations; and these are so
graciously concealed by the fine trees of their grounds, that the
passing viator remains unappalled by them; and I can still walk up
and down the piece of road aforesaid, imagining myself seven years
old.

Our house was the fourth part of a group which stand accurately on
the top or dome of the hill, where the ground is for a small space
level, as the snows are (I understand) on the dome of Mont Blanc;
presently falling, however, in what may be, in the London clay
formation, considered a precipitous slope, to our valley of Chamouni
(or of Dulwich) on the east; and with a softer descent into Cold
Arbour, (nautically aspirated into Harbour)-lane on the west: on the
south, no less beautifully declining to the dale of the Effra, (doubtless
shortened from Effrena, signifying the “Unbridled” river; recently, I
regret to say, bricked over for the convenience of Mr. Biffin, the
chemist, and others); while on the north, prolonged indeed with slight
depression some half mile or so, and receiving, in the parish of
Lambeth, the chivalric title of ‘Champion Hill,’ it plunges down at last
to efface [158]itself in the plains of Peckham, and the rustic solitudes
of Goose Green.

The group, of which our house was the quarter, consisted of two
precisely similar partner-couples of houses,—gardens and all to
match; still the two highest blocks of buildings seen from Norwood
on the crest of the ridge; which, even within the time I remember,
rose with no stinted beauty of wood and lawn above the Dulwich
fields.

The house itself, three-storied, with garrets above, commanded, in

those comparatively smokeless days, a very notable view from its
upper windows, of the Norwood hills on one side, and the winter
sunrise over them; and of the valley of the Thames, with Windsor in
the distance, on the other, and the summer sunset over these. It had
front and back garden in sufficient proportion to its size; the front,
richly set with old evergreens, and well grown lilac and laburnum; the
back, seventy yards long by twenty wide, renowned over all the hill
for its pears and apples, which had been chosen with extreme care
by our predecessor, (shame on me to forget the name of a man to
whom I owe so much!)—and possessing also a strong old mulberry
tree, a tall white-heart cherry tree, a black Kentish one, and an
almost unbroken hedge, all round, of alternate gooseberry and
currant bush; decked, in due season, (for the ground was wholly
beneficent,) with magical splendour of abundant fruit: fresh green,
soft [159]amber, and rough-bristled crimson bending the spinous
branches; clustered pearl and pendant ruby joyfully discoverable
under the large leaves that looked like vine.

The differences of primal importance which I observed between the

nature of this garden, and that of Eden, as I had imagined it, were,
that, in this one, all the fruit was forbidden; and there were no
companionable beasts: in other respects the little domain answered
every purpose of Paradise to me; and the climate, in that cycle of our
years, allowed me to pass most of my life in it. My mother never
gave me more to learn than she knew I could easily get learnt, if I set
myself honestly to work, by twelve o’clock. She never allowed
anything to disturb me when my task was set; if it was not said rightly
by twelve o’clock, I was kept in till I knew it, and in general, even
when Latin Grammar came to supplement the Psalms, I was my own
master for at least an hour before dinner at half-past one, and for the
rest of the afternoon. My mother, herself finding her chief personal
pleasure in her flowers, was often planting or pruning beside me,—at
least if I chose to stay beside her. I never thought of doing anything
behind her back which I would not have done before her face; and
her presence was therefore no restraint to me; but, also, no
particular pleasure; for, from having always been left so much alone,
I had generally my own little affairs to see after; and on the
[160]whole, by the time I was seven years old, was already getting too
independent, mentally, even of my father and mother; and having
nobody else to be dependent upon, began to lead a very small,
perky, contented, conceited, Cock-Robinson-Crusoe sort of life, in
the central point which it appeared to me, (as it must naturally
appear to geometrical animals) that I occupied in the universe.

This was partly the fault of my father’s modesty; and partly of his
pride. He had so much more confidence in my mother’s judgment as
to such matters than in his own, that he never ventured even to help,
much less to cross her, in the conduct of my education; on the other
hand, in the fixed purpose of making an ecclesiastical gentleman of
me, with the superfinest of manners, and access to the highest
circles of fleshly and spiritual society, the visits to Croydon, where I
entirely loved my aunt, and young baker-cousins, became rarer and
more rare: the society of our neighbours on the hill could not be had
without breaking up our regular and sweetly selfish manner of living;
and on the whole, I had nothing animate to care for, in a childish
way, but myself, some nests of ants, which the gardener would never
leave undisturbed for me, and a sociable bird or two; though I never
had the sense or perseverance to make one really tame. But that
was partly because, if ever I managed to bring one to be the least
trustful of me, the cats got it. [161]

Under these favourable circumstances, what powers of imagination I

possessed, either fastened themselves on inanimate things—the
sky, the leaves, and pebbles, observable within the walls of Eden, or
caught at any opportunity of flight into regions of romance,
compatible with the objective realities of existence in the nineteenth
century, within a mile and a quarter of Camberwell Green.

Herein my father, happily, though with no definite intention other than

of pleasing me, when he found he could do so without infringing any
of my mother’s rules, became my guide. I was particularly fond of
watching him shave; and was always allowed to come into his room
in the morning (under the one in which I am now writing), to be the
motionless witness of that operation. Over his dressing-table hung
one of his own water-colour drawings, made under the teaching of
the elder Nasmyth. (I believe, at the High School of Edinburgh.) It
was done in the early manner of tinting, which, just about the time
when my father was at the High School, Dr. Munro was teaching
Turner; namely, in grey under-tints of Prussian blue and British ink,
washed with warm colour afterwards on the lights. It represented
Conway Castle, with its Frith, and, in the foreground, a cottage, a
fisherman, and a boat at the water’s edge.

When my father had finished shaving, he always told me a story

about this picture. The custom began without any initial purpose of
his, in consequence of my [162]troublesome curiosity whether the
fisherman lived in the cottage, and where he was going to in the
boat. It being settled, for peace’ sake, that he did live in the cottage,
and was going in the boat to fish near the castle, the plot of the
drama afterwards gradually thickened; and became, I believe,
involved with that of the tragedy of “Douglas,” and of the “Castle
Spectre,” in both of which pieces my father had performed in private
theatricals, before my mother, and a select Edinburgh audience,
when he was a boy of sixteen, and she, at grave twenty, a model
housekeeper, and very scornful and religiously suspicious of
theatricals. But she was never weary of telling me, in later years,
how beautiful my father looked in his Highland dress, with the high
black feathers.

I remember nothing of the story he used to tell me, now; but I have
the picture still, and hope to leave it finally in the Oxford schools,
where, if I can complete my series of illustrative work for general
reference, it will be of some little use as an example of an old-
fashioned method of water-colour drawing not without its
advantages; and, at the same time, of the dangers incidental in it to
young students, of making their castles too yellow, and their
fishermen too blue.

In the afternoons, when my father returned (always punctually) from

his business, he dined, at half-past four, in the front parlour, my
mother sitting beside him to hear the events of the day, and give
counsel and [163]encouragement with respect to the same;—chiefly
the last, for my father was apt to be vexed if orders for sherry fell the
least short of their due standard, even for a day or two. I was never
present at this time, however, and only avouch what I relate by
hearsay and probable conjecture; for between four and six it would
have been a grave misdemeanour in me if I so much as approached
the parlour door. After that, in summer time, we were all in the
garden as long as the day lasted; tea under the white-heart cherry
tree; or in winter and rough weather, at six o’clock in the drawing-
room,—I having my cup of milk, and slice of bread-and-butter, in a
little recess, with a table in front of it, wholly sacred to me; and in
which I remained in the evenings as an Idol in a niche, while my
mother knitted, and my father read to her,—and to me, so far as I
chose to listen.

The series of the Waverley novels, then drawing towards its close,
was still the chief source of delight in all households caring for
literature; and I can no more recollect the time when I did not know
them than when I did not know the Bible; but I have still a vivid
remembrance of my father’s intense expression of sorrow mixed with
scorn, as he threw down ‘Count Robert of Paris,’ after reading three
or four pages; and knew that the life of Scott was ended: the scorn
being a very complex and bitter feeling in him,—partly, indeed, of the
book itself, but chiefly of the wretches who were [164]tormenting and
selling the wrecked intellect, and not a little, deep down, of the subtle
dishonesty which had essentially caused the ruin. My father never
could forgive Scott his concealment of the Ballantyne partnership.

I permit myself, without check, to enlarge on these trivial

circumstances of my early days, partly because I know that there are
one or two people in the world who will like to hear of them; but
chiefly because I can better assure the general reader of some
results of education on after life, by one example in which I know all
my facts, than by many, in which every here and there a link might
be wanting.
And it is perhaps already time to mark what advantage and mischief,
by the chances of life up to seven years old, had been irrevocably
determined for me.

I will first count my blessings (as a not unwise friend once

recommended me to do, continually; whereas I have a bad trick of
always numbering the thorns in my fingers, and not the bones in
them).

And for best and truest beginning of all blessings, I had been taught
the perfect meaning of Peace, in thought, act, and word.

I never had heard my father’s or mother’s voice once raised in any

question with each other; nor seen an angry, or even slightly hurt or
offended, glance in the eyes of either. I had never heard a servant
scolded, nor even suddenly, passionately, or in any severe manner,
[165]blamed. I had never seen a moment’s trouble or disorder in any
household matter; nor anything whatever either done in a hurry, or
undone in due time. I had no conception of such a feeling as anxiety;
my father’s occasional vexation in the afternoons, when he had only
got an order for twelve butts after expecting one for fifteen, as I have
just stated, was never manifested to me; and itself related only to the
question whether his name would be a step higher or lower in the
year’s list of sherry exporters; for he never spent more than half his
income, and therefore found himself little incommoded by occasional
variations in the total of it. I had never done any wrong that I knew of
—beyond occasionally delaying the commitment to heart of some
improving sentence, that I might watch a wasp on the window pane,
or a bird in the cherry tree; and I had never seen any grief.

Next to this quite priceless gift of Peace, I had received the perfect
understanding of the natures of Obedience and Faith. I obeyed word,
or lifted finger, of father or mother, simply as a ship her helm; not
only without idea of resistance, but receiving the direction as a part
of my own life and force, a helpful law, as necessary to me in every
moral action as the law of gravity in leaping. And my practice in Faith
was soon complete: nothing was ever promised me that was not
given; nothing ever threatened me that was not inflicted, and nothing
ever told me that was not true. [166]

Peace, obedience, faith; these three for chief good; next to these,
the habit of fixed attention with both eyes and mind—on which I will
not farther enlarge at this moment, this being the main practical
faculty of my life, causing Mazzini to say of me, in conversation
authentically reported, a year or two before his death, that I had “the
most analytic mind in Europe.” An opinion in which, so far as I am
acquainted with Europe, I am myself entirely disposed to concur.

Lastly, an extreme perfection in palate and all other bodily senses,

given by the utter prohibition of cake, wine, comfits, or, except in
carefullest restriction, fruit; and by fine preparation of what food was
given me. Such I esteem the main blessings of my childhood;—next,
let me count the equally dominant calamities.

First, that I had nothing to love.

My parents were—in a sort—visible powers of nature to me, no more

loved than the sun and the moon: only I should have been annoyed
and puzzled if either of them had gone out; (how much, now, when
both are darkened!)—still less did I love God; not that I had any
quarrel with Him, or fear of Him; but simply found what people told
me was His service, disagreeable; and what people told me was His
book, not entertaining. I had no companions to quarrel with, neither;
nobody to assist, and nobody to thank. Not a servant was ever
allowed to do anything for me, but what it was their duty to do; and
why [167]should I have been grateful to the cook for cooking, or the
gardener for gardening,—when the one dared not give me a baked
potato without asking leave, and the other would not let my ants’
nests alone, because they made the walks untidy? The evil
consequence of all this was not, however, what might perhaps have
been expected, that I grew up selfish or unaffectionate; but that,
when affection did come, it came with violence utterly rampant and
unmanageable, at least by me, who never before had anything to
manage.

For (second of chief calamities) I had nothing to endure. Danger or

pain of any kind I knew not: my strength was never exercised, my
patience never tried, and my courage never fortified. Not that I was
ever afraid of anything,—either ghosts, thunder, or beasts; and one
of the nearest approaches to insubordination which I was ever
tempted into as a child, was in passionate effort to get leave to play
with the lion’s cubs in Wombwell’s menagerie.

Thirdly. I was taught no precision nor etiquette of manners; it was

enough if, in the little society we saw, I remained unobtrusive, and
replied to a question without shyness: but the shyness came later,
and increased as I grew conscious of the rudeness arising from the
want of social discipline, and found it impossible to acquire, in
advanced life, dexterity in any bodily exercise, skill in any pleasing
accomplishment, or ease and tact in ordinary behaviour. [168]

Lastly, and chief of evils. My judgment of right and wrong, and

powers of independent action, 1 were left entirely undeveloped;
because the bridle and blinkers were never taken off me. Children
should have their times of being off duty, like soldiers; and when
once the obedience, if required, is certain, the little creature should
be very early put for periods of practice in complete command of
itself; set on the barebacked horse of its own will, and left to break it
by its own strength. But the ceaseless authority exercised over my
youth left me, when cast out at last into the world, unable for some
time to do more than drift with its elements. My present courses of
life are indeed not altogether of that compliant nature; but are,
perhaps, more unaccommodating than they need be, in the
insolence of reaction; and the result upon me, of the elements and
the courses together, is, in sum, that at my present age of fifty-six,
while I have indeed the sincerest admiration for the characters of
Phocion, Cincinnatus, and Caractacus, and am minded, so far as I
may, to follow the example of those worthy personages, my own
private little fancy, in which, for never having indulged me, I am
always quarrelling with my Fortune, is still, as it always was, to find
Prince Ahmed’s arrow, and marry the Fairy Paribanou.

My present verdict, therefore, on the general tenour of my education

at that time, must be, that it was at [169]once too formal and too
luxurious; leaving my character, at the most important moment for its
construction, cramped indeed, but not disciplined; and only by
protection innocent, instead of by practice virtuous. My mother saw
this herself, and but too clearly, in later years; and whenever I did
anything wrong, stupid, or hard-hearted,—(and I have done many
things that were all three),—always said, ‘It is because you were too
much indulged.’

So strongly do I feel this, as I sip my coffee this morning, (May 24th,)

after being made profoundly miserable last night, because I did not
think it likely I should be accepted if I made an offer to any one of
three beautiful young ladies who were crushing and rending my
heart into a mere shamrock leaf, the whole afternoon; nor had any
power to do, what I should have liked better still, send Giafar (without
Zobeide’s knowing anything about it) to superintend the immediate
transport to my palace of all three;—that I am afraid, if it were left to
me at present to institute, without help from kinder counsellors, the
education of the younger children on St. George’s estate, the
methods of the old woman who lived in a shoe would be the first that
occurred to me as likely to conduce most directly to their future worth
and felicity.

And I chanced, as Fors would have it, to fall, but last week, as I was
arranging some books bought two years ago, and forgotten ever
since,—on an instance of the use [170]of extreme severity in
education, which cannot but commend itself to the acceptance of
every well informed English gentlewoman. For all well informed
English gentlewomen and gentle-maidens, have faithful respect for
the memory of Lady Jane Grey.

But I never myself, until the minute when I opened that book, could
at all understand Lady Jane Grey. I have seen a great deal, thank
Heaven, of good, and prudent, and clever girls; but not among the
very best and wisest of them did I ever find the slightest inclination to
stop indoors to read Plato, when all their people were in the Park. On
the contrary, if any approach to such disposition manifested itself, I
found it was always, either because the scholastic young person
thought that somebody might possibly call, suppose—myself, the
Roger Ascham of her time,—or suppose somebody else who would
prevent her, that day, from reading “piu avanti,” or because the
author who engaged her attention, so far from being Plato himself,
was, in many essential particulars, anti-Platonic. And the more I
thought of Lady Jane Grey, the more she puzzled me.

Wherefore, opening, among my unexamined books, Roger

Ascham’s Scholemaster, printed by John Daye, dwelling over
Aldersgate, An. 1571, just at the page where he gives the original
account of the thing as it happened, I stopped in my unpacking to
decipher the black letter of it with attention; which, by your leave,
good reader, you shall also take the trouble to do yourself, from this,
[171]as far as I can manage to give it you, accurate facsimile of the
old page. And trust me that I have a reason for practising you in
these old letters, though I have no time to tell it you just now.

“And one example, whether love or feare doth worke more

in a childe for vertue and learning, I will gladly report: which
may bee heard with some pleasure, t̄ followed with more
profite. Before I went into Germanie I came to Brodegate in
Leicestershire, to take my leave of that noble Lady Jane
Grey, to whom I was exceeding much beholding. Her
parentes, the Duke and the Dutchesse, with all the
householde, Gentlemen and Gentleweemen, were hunting
in the Parke: I found her in her chamber, reading Phædon
Platonis in Greeke, t̄ that with as much delite, as some
gentleman would read a mery tale in Bocase. After
salutation, and duetie done, with some other talk, I asked
her, why shee would leese such pastime in the Parke?
Smiling shee answered mee: I wisse, all their sport in the
Parke, is but a shadow to that pleasure yͪ I finde in Plato:
Alas, good folke, they never felt what true pleasure ment.”

Thus far, except in the trouble of reading black letters, I have given
you nothing new, or even freshly old. All this we have heard of the
young lady a hundred times over. But next to this, comes something
which I fancy will be unexpected by most of my readers. For the
fashion of all literary students, catering for the public, has hitherto
been to pick out of their author whatever bits they thought likely to be
acceptable to Demos, and to keep everything of suspicious taste out
of his [172]dish of hashed hare. Nay, ‘he pares his apple that will
cleanly eat,’ says honest George Herbert. I am not wholly sure,
however, even of that; if the apple itself be clean off the bough, and
the teeth of little Eve and Adam, what teeth should be, it is quite
questionable whether the good old fashion of alternate bite be not
the method of finest enjoyment of flavour. But the modern
frugivorous public will soon have a steam-machine in Covent
Garden, to pick the straw out of their strawberries.

In accordance with which popular principle of natural selection, the

historians of Lady Jane’s life, finding this first opening of the scene at
Brodegate so entirely charming and graceful, and virtuous, and
moral, and ducal, and large-landed-estate-ish—without there being
the slightest suggestion in it of any principle, to which any body could
possibly object,—pounce upon it as a flawless gem; and clearing
from it all the objectionable matrix, with delicate skill, set it forth—
changed about from one to another of the finest cases of velvet
eloquence to be got up for money—in the corner shop—London and
Ryder’s, of the Bond Street of Vanity Fair.

But I, as an old mineralogist, like to see my gems in the rock; and

always bring away the biggest piece I can break with the heaviest
hammer I can carry. Accordingly, I venture to beg of you also, good
reader, to decipher farther this piece of kindly Ascham’s following
narration: [173]

“And how came you, Madame, quoth I, to this deepe

knowledge of pleasure, t̄ what did cheefly allure you unto it,
seing not many women, but very fewe have attayned
thereunto. I will tell you, quoth shee, and tell you a troth,
which perchance ye will marvel at. One of the greatest
benefites that ever God gave me, is, that hee sent me so
sharpe and severe parentes, and so gentle a
schoolemaster. For whē I am in presence either of father or
mother, whether I speake, keepe silence, sit, stand, or go,
eate, drinke, be mery, or sad, bee swoing, playing, dancing,
or doing anything els, I must doe it, as it were, in such
weight, measure, t̄ number, even so perfectly, as God made
 the world, or ells I am so sharply taunted, so cruelly
threatned, yea, presently sometimes, with pinches, nippes,
and bobbes, and other wayes which I will not name for the
honor I beare thē, so without measure misordered, that I
thinke my selfe in hell, till time come that I must goe to M.
Elmer who teacheth mee so gently, so pleasantly, with such
faire alluremētes to learning that I thinke all the time
nothing, whiles I am with him. And when I am called frō him,
I fall on weeping, because, whatsoever I doe els but
learning, is full of greefe, trouble, feare, and whole misliking
unto mee. And thus my booke hath been so much my
pleasure, t̄ bringeth daily to me more pleasure t̄ more, yͭ in
respect of it, all other pleasures, in very deede, bee but
trifles t̄ troubles unto mee.

Lady Jane ceases, Ascham speaks: I remm̄ ber this talke

gladly, bothe because it is so worthy of memory t̄ because
also it was the last talke that ever I had, and the last time,
that ever I saw that noble t̄ worthy Lady.”

Now, for the clear understanding of this passage,—I adjure you,

gentle reader, (if you are such, and [174]therefore capable of
receiving adjuration)—in the name of St. George and all saints,—of
Edward III. and all knights,—of Alice of Salisbury and all stainless
wives, and of Jeanne of France and all stainless maids, that you put
at once out of your mind, under penalty of sharpest Honte Ban, all
such thought as would first suggest itself to the modern novel writer,
and novel reader, concerning this matter,—namely, that the young
girl is in love with her tutor. She loves him rightly, as all good and
noble boys and girls necessarily love good masters,—and no
otherwise;—is grateful to him rightly, and no otherwise;—happy with
him and her book—rightly, and no otherwise.
And that her father and mother, with whatever leaven of human
selfishness, or impetuous disgrace in the manner and violence of
their dealing with her, did, nevertheless, compel their child to do all
things that she did,—rightly, and no otherwise, was, verily, though at
that age she knew it but in part,—the literally crowning and guiding
Mercy of her life,—the plaited thorn upon the brow, and rooted thorn
around the feet, which are the tribute of Earth to the Princesses of
Heaven. [175]

[Contents]

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

The minds of many of the friends of Mr. Septimus Hansard appear to

have been greatly exercised by my insertion of, and comments on,
the newspaper paragraph respecting that gentleman’s ministrations
to the poor of London.

I thought it unnecessary to take notice of the first communication

which I received on the subject, from a fashionable lady, informing
me, with much indignation, that Mr. Hansard had caught his fever in
the West-End, not in the East; and had been sick in the best society.
The following letter is of more importance, and its writer having
accepted what he calls “my kind offer” to print it, I have no
alternative, though he mistook, or rather misplaced, the real
kindness of my private note, which lay in its recommendation to
him, 2 not to accept the offer it made.

“135, Waterlow Buildings, Wilmott Street,

“Bethnal Green, E., May 14, 1875.
“Sir,—In your 49th Letter you say that we clergy are not priests, and
cannot sacrifice. You also say that we are wholly responsible for, and
the efficient causes of, horrible outrages on women. In your 51st
Letter you speak of my friend and chief, Mr. Hansard, as being
courageous, impulsive, and generous, but complacent, and living a
life “all aglow in vain”; and you compare him, in Bethnal Green, to a
moth in candle-grease.

“I know that I, as a priest, am responsible for much wrongdoing;

[176]but I must claim you, and all who have failed to be perfect
stewards of their material and spiritual property, as responsible with
me and the rest of the clergy for the ignorance and crime of our
fellow-countrymen.

“But I would ask you whether Mr. Hansard’s life, even as you know it,
(and you don’t know half the St. George-like work he has done and
is doing,) is not a proof that we priests can and do sacrifice;—that we
can offer ourselves, our souls and bodies?

“Of course I agree with you and Mr. Lyttel that the preaching of
‘Christ’s life instead of our lives’ is false and damnatory; but I am
sorry that, instead of backing those who teach the true and salutary
Gospel, you condemn us all alike, wholesale. I think you will find that
you will want even our help to get the true Gospel taught.

“Allow me also to protest pretty strongly against my friends and

neighbours here being compared to candle-grease. I fancy that on
consideration, you would like to withdraw that parable; perhaps,
even, you would like to make some kind of reparation, by helping us,
candle-grease-like Bethnal-greeners, to be better and happier.

“I am one of those clergymen spoken of in Letter 49, and ‘honestly

believe myself impelled to say and do’ many things by the Holy
Ghost; and for that very reason I am bound to remember that you
and other men are inspired also by the same Holy Ghost; and
therefore to look out for and take any help which you and others
choose to give me.

“It is because I have already received so much help from you that I
write this letter.

“I am, yours faithfully,

“Stewart D. Headlam,
“Curate of St. Matthew’s, Bethnal Green.
“To John Ruskin, Esq., LL.D.”

[177]

I at first intended to make no comments on this letter, but, as I re-

read, find it so modestly fast in its temper, and so perilously loose in
its divinity, as to make it my duty, while I congratulate the well-
meaning—and, I doubt not, well-doing—writer, on his agreement
with Mr. Lyttel that the preaching of “Christ’s life, instead of our lives,”
is false and damnatory; also to observe to him that the sacrifice of
our own bodies, instead of Christ’s body, is an equally heretical, and
I can assure him, no less dangerous, reformation of the Doctrine of
the Mass. I beg him also to believe that I meant no disrespect to his
friends and neighbours in comparing them to candle-grease. He is
unaccustomed to my simple English, and would surely not have
been offended if I had said, instead, “oil for the light”? If our
chandlers, now-a-days, never give us any so honest tallow as might
fittingly be made the symbol of a Christian congregation, is that my
fault?

I feel, however, that I do indeed owe some apology to Mr. Hansard

himself, to his many good and well-won friends, and especially to my
correspondent, Mr. Lyttel, for reprinting the following article from a
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