CHAPTER 1

STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

1.1 Introduction

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon that is widely used in construction and other
applications because of its high tensile strength. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions
within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that naturally
exist in the iron atom crystal lattices.

The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.1% of its weight. Varying the
amount of alloying elements, their formation in the steel, either as solute elements or as
precipitated phases retards the movements of those dislocations that make iron so ductile
and weak, and thus controls qualities such as the hardiness, ductility, and tensile strength
of the resulting steel. Steel’s strength compared to pure iron is only possible at the
expense of ductility, of which iron has an excess.

1.2 Historical Background

The earliest use of iron, the chief component of steel, was for small tools, in
approximately 4,000 BC. This material is in the form of wrought iron, produced by heating
ore in a charcoal fire. In the latter part of the eighteenth century and in the early nineteenth
century, cast iron and wrought iron were used in various types of bridges. Steel, an alloy of
primarily iron and carbon, with fewer impurities and less carbon than cast iron, was first
introduced in heavy construction in the nineteenth century. With the advent of the
Bessemer converter in 1855, steel began to displace wrought iron and cast iron in
construction.

Although steel had been produced in bloomer furnaces for thousands of years, steel’s
use expanded extensively after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th
century for blister steel and then crucible steel.

1.3 Properties of Steel

Unit Weight:  = 77.01 kN/m3

Modulus of Elasticity: E = 200,000 MPa

Shear Modulus: G = 79,000 MPa

Poisson’s Ratio:  = 0.27 - 0.30

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion:  = 11.7 x 10– 6 /oC

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 Strength:

Fy = yield strength of steel

Fu = tensile strength of steel

Stress (  ) Yield point

( Fy ) Ultimate Tensile
Proportional limit Strength ( Fu )

Elastic limit

Strain (  )

Stress – Strain Diagram

1.4 Structural Steel Shapes

Structural steels are available in a wide variety of shapes. The most common shapes
are shown below with their designation and nomenclature.

The nomenclature of steel shapes follows two standards;

1. For wide flange ( W ), bearing pile ( HP ), standard I beam ( S ), channels ( C ),
and tees ( T ); the letter indicates the shape, the first number indicates the
nominal height, and the second number indicates the weight per unit length ( lb/ft
or kg/m).

2. For angle ( L ), structural tubing ( TS ), plate ( PL ), pipe, and bar; the 3 numbers
indicate the height, width, and thickness.

1. Description: Wide Flange

Designation: W Shape

bf
tf

stem or web
d
tw

flange

d = depth bf = flange width

tf = flange thickness tw = web thickness

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Example: A W 310 x 44.5 refers to a wide flange with an overall depth of
approximately 310 mm and a mass of 44.5 kg/m. The figure
below shows all the cross - section properties.

bf = 166
tf = 11.2

d = 312
tw = 6.6

2. Description: American Standard Beam

Designation: S Shapes

bf
tf

stem or web
d tw

flange

Example: An S 460 x 104 refers to an American Standard beam with an overall

depth of approximately 460 mm and a mass of 104 kg/m. The figure below shows all
the cross - section properties.

bf = 159
tf = 17.6

d = 457 tw = 18.1

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3. Description: Channel
Designation: C Shape
bf
tf

d
tw
stem or web
flange

Example: A C 310 x 45 refers to a channel with an overall depth of

approximately 310 mm and weighs 45 kg/m. The figure below shows all the
cross - section properties.

bf = 80.5
tf = 12.7

d = 305
tw = 13.0

4. Description: Angle
Designation: L Shape

t
w

Example: An L 127 x 89 x 19 refers to an angle with dimensions 127 and 89

with a thickness of 19 mm

127

19
89

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5. Description: Structural Tee or Split Tee
Designation: T Shape

bf
tf

d stem or web

Example: A WT 300 x 119.3 kg/m is obtained by splitting W 600 x 238.6 shape.

It has an overall depth of approximately 300 mm and weighs 119.3 kg/m. The
figure below shows all the cross - section properties.

bf = 324
tf = 28.9

d = 300

6. Pipe, structural tubing, bar, and plate

1.5 Design Concepts

Structural design entails the selection of a cross – section that will resist the
applied loads safely and economically proportion such cross – section. Economy means
the section of the lightest cross – sectional shape with area or moment of inertia fitting the
requirement for the job.

The fundamental requirement of structural design is that the required strength be

lesser than the available strength of the member, that is,

Required strength  Available strength

( applied strength ) ( nominal strength )

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1.5.1 Methods of Design

A. The Allowable Strength Design ( ASD Method )

In ASD, a member is selected such that the cross – sectional properties( area
and moment of inertia ) are large enough to prevent the required strength to exceed the
allowable strength of the member. This allowable strength is obtained by dividing the
nominal or theoretical strength by a safety factor. This can be expressed as

no min al strength
Allowable strength = .
safety factor

If stresses are used instead of forces or moments, the relationship can be

expressed as

Maximum applied stress  allowable stress.

This method of designing is also called elastic design or working stress

design.
For ASD, the relationship between load and strength is expressed as

Rn
Ra =


Where: Ra = required strength or applied strength ( f )

Rn = nominal strength ( Fy or Fu )
 = safety factor
Rn/ = allowable strength ( F )

The following are the two most common values for  in ASD:

 = 5/3 or 1.67 for limit states involving yielding or compression

buckling
 = 2.00 for limit states involving rupture
F = Fy/
B. Plastic Design

Plastic design is based on the criterion that the structure will fail at a load
substantially higher than the working loads and the failure is either due to collapse or
extremely large deformations – which is large enough to put the member into plastic range.
When the entire cross – section becomes plastic at enough locations, “ plastic hinges “ will
form at those locations, creating a collapse mechanism. As the actual load is lesser than
the failure load by a factor of safety known as load factor, members designed this way are
not unsafe, despite being designed based on what happens at failure. Plastic design
procedure is detailed as follows:
1. Multiply the service loads( working loads ) by the load factor to obtain the failure loads.
2. Determine the cross – sectional properties needed to resist failure under theses loads.
3. Select the lightest cross – sectional shape that has these properties.
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C. The Load Resistance Factor Design ( LRFD ) Method

This method is similar to plastic design in a way that failure condition is

considered. Service loads are multiplied by load factors and the theoretical strength of the
member is reduced by multiplying a resistance factor. The criterion in the selection of a
member is

Factored load  Factored strength.

In LRFD, the factored strength is equal to the nominal strength multiplied by the
resistance factor , that is

design strength = Rn,

where  depends on the type of force or the stress.

1.5.2 Types of Problems

There are two types of problems we may encounter in the analysis of steel
structure.
1. Design – given the load, solve for the size. This in the case where we make a
new structure. We have to determine the size and strength of each member of
the structure to make it functional.

2. Investigation – given the size, compute the load. This is in the case when we
make design checking or revisions of existing design is needed.

1.5.3 Criteria for design

Design must satisfy the following criteria:
1. Safety – the most important criterion to be satisfied.
2. Economy – it is important that the design will comply also to minimum cost.
3. Practicability/Aesthetics

1.5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of steel compared to other structural materials

A. Advantages:
1. High tensile strength
2. Speed in erection
3. Reduced weight
4. Prefabrication
5. Architectural expression

B. Disadvantages:
1. High material cost
2. High maintenance cost
3. Needs fireproofing
4. High expansion rate with changing temperature
5. Buckling weakness
6. Cannot be molded in any shape you want